U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

6 MMT H2 per year could be used for power-to-liquid one option for providing flexible, reliable, and fuels as described above. For industrial applications, dispatchable power through combustion and co- the low end of the range assumes that ammonia is firing as well as long-duration energy storage, the only market sector that adopts clean hydrogen. including in the form of renewable natural gas, The high end assumes ammonia, steelmaking, and ammonia, and other fuels. The emissions benefit of methanol production adopt clean hydrogen to a these energy carriers varies, however, depending on degree consistent with the ranges described above, how these carriers are produced, distributed, and and that clean hydrogen is additionally used for utilized. Even if hydrogen itself is not the storage petroleum refining at the same rate that steam medium for energy, renewable natural gas, and other methane reforming (SMR) is used for this sector chemical storage media, such as ammonia or today (~6 MMT/year, as shown in Figure 6. Additional synthetic fuels, would require clean hydrogen. demand for ammonia, methanol, or other chemical Electrolyzers can also dynamically respond to hydrogen carriers for potential export of hydrogen fluctuations in renewable power, thereby providing are not included in these values. grid services in addition to energy storage. Large buildouts of wind, solar, nuclear, and other zero- emission power are needed to develop a clean grid. Still, hydrogen and other technologies can provide U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 22 flexible integration of clean generation with a highly IRA Clean Hydrogen PTC electrified, resilient, and equitable power system. The The clean hydrogen PTC, included in the IRA, offers a range of potential demands for hydrogen energy range of credit values based on the carbon intensity storage and electric generation on the grid draws of the production pathway, with up to $3/kg for from several studies that modeled a clean grid with hydrogen with well-to-gate emissions less than 0.45 varying levels of electrification and demand side kg CO2e/kg H2, conditional on meeting the prevailing flexibility.66 wage and apprenticeship requirements. Figure 14: The range of clean hydrogen use will depend on Breakeven timing for hydrogen with the clean various challenges to market adoption. These near- hydrogen production tax credit vs. conventional term challenges include securing long-term offtake, alternative (Repurposed from DOE’s report, Pathways lack of cost-effective midstream infrastructure, and to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen3) shows pressure to scale the hydrogen workforce. For example breakeven points for best-in-class projects. electrolysis, the required spike in domestic The PTC can pull forward breakeven times for clean electrolyzer production also presents a hurdle. For hydrogen versus traditional, fossil alternatives for reformation with CCS, development of regional CO2 certain end uses, particularly industrial applications networks and storage is a major challenge. By such as ammonia and steel.1 This analysis shows that lowering these barriers, including an emphasis on states with additional incentives such as a low carbon addressing energy and environmental justice, clean fuel standard (LCFS) can enable fuel cell trucks to be hydrogen can be deployed safely and rapidly to lower competitive before 2025. These initial estimates will emissions in hard-to-decarbonize sectors. continue to be refined as agencies receive industry input as projects get underway. Figure 14: Breakeven timing for hydrogen with the clean hydrogen production tax credit vs. conventional alternative (Repurposed from DOE’s report, Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen3) 1 This analysis from the Liftoff report is for new build DRI. Industry feedback suggests breakeven may be even earlier in some cases. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 23 Challenges to Achieving the Benefits of Clean Hydrogen Clean hydrogen technology costs have already been Cost to end user 22% substantially reduced and many production pathways are commercial. However, components and Need for sufficient infrastructure 19% integrated systems (e.g., PEM electrolyzers ~100 MW) Public awareness/ are still in the early stages of scale-up and 17% understanding commercial deployment. To accelerate the domestic Need for technology clean hydrogen economy, some important challenges advancements 11% remain. These remaining challenges include lack of Lack of incentives ubiquitous hydrogen distribution infrastructure, lack for companies 8% of manufacturing at scale, cost, durability, reliability, Competing and availability challenges in the supply base across technologies 6% the entire value chain.67 At present, producers also Safety concerns 6% struggle to find offtakers with sufficient hydrogen demand sited within an affordable distance to Lack of suitable end uses 5% hydrogen production who are willing to sign long- Lack of gov. support term contracts. Stakeholders on the production, 5% for R&D demand, and financing sides highlight hesitancy to commit resources due to lack of price transparency Figure 15: Stakeholder identification of potential and risks in clean hydrogen supply. Regulatory drivers barriers preventing widespread public acceptance at the state and federal level could help provide these and market adoption of hydrogen in the United long-term demand signals. Catalyzing long-term States in September 2021. This stakeholder input was offtake would ensure that clean hydrogen production gathered prior to the passage of IRA which contains projects break ground while tax credits are active, substantial government incentives for clean hydrogen allowing for production cost-downs in the 2020s and production. early 2030s. See DOE’s Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen report for further detail.3 The levelized cost of hydrogen must be reduced Stakeholder input continuously identifies the cost of significantly. For example, based on analysis in 2020, clean hydrogen as a key challenge for achieving the cost of clean hydrogen using proton exchange (or economic scale. At DOE's Hydrogen Shot Summit in polymer electrolyte) membrane (PEM) electrolysis can September 2021, attended by more than 3,000 be over $5/kg when using renewable electricity.69 stakeholders from 34 countries, multiple challenges Furthermore, the cost of electrolysis depends heavily were identified to the question posed regarding on the cost of electricity used. Hydrogen from low- “what is preventing widespread public acceptance volume PEM electrolysis requires an 80 percent and market adoption of hydrogen in the United reduction in cost to achieve the Hydrogen Shot goals States?”68 As shown in Figure 15, cost was the most and to be competitive.5 While advanced and high- widely selected barrier, but the lack of infrastructure temperature electrolyzers are progressing, challenges and the need for public awareness and acceptance to market adoption include the cost, durability, and were also identified as major challenges. Incentives in scale of manufacturing capacity. Additionally, high- the BIL and IRA are expected to drive meaningful temperature electrolysis requires integration and progress down the cost curve within the decade. optimization with thermal sources such as nuclear plants to increase the efficiencies for hydrogen production and electricity generation. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 24 In addition to hydrogen production costs, challenges mass compared to gasoline,73 the volumetric energy in hydrogen transport—such as pipelines, tube density of gaseous hydrogen is very low, making it trailers, liquefaction, siting, permitting, and materials difficult to store, particularly in compact containers or compatibility—need to be addressed. For instance, tanks. The weight and volume of hydrogen storage operational data from California show that the systems need to be reduced, as well as cost, with delivered cost of hydrogen to fueling stations, targets varying depending on the application. While including compressing and dispensing, for fueling safety has been demonstrated in thousands of vehicles can be more than $13/kg70 − more than commercial systems and through rigorous testing, three times higher than the cost required to be continual effort will enable safety and apply best competitive.71,72 Additionally, permitting practices. requirements can vary widely throughout the country While compressed hydrogen is typically stored at and can introduce challenges; but permitting remains ambient temperatures, reducing the temperature to important as the vehicle for important equities, e.g., cold or cryogenic temperatures can significantly protection of communities with environmental justice increase the density of hydrogen. In liquid form, concerns and public health. Streamlined permitting hydrogen is stored at extremely low cryogenic processes nonetheless can facilitate large-scale temperatures in highly insulated double-walled tanks. deployments throughout the country. Industry Such tanks are commercially available and used today estimates that multiple methods of hydrogen for industrial-scale storage and transport. However, distribution and storage can become affordable by the need for insulation as well as the boil-off and 2030 if state-of-the-art distribution and storage venting (releasing built-up pressure to enable safety), technologies are commercialized at scale. As part of a present added cost and challenges to system larger $8 billion Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs performance. Material, component, and system-level program funded through the BIL, Hubs will help to RDD&D can further innovations that address these address these challenges by creating networks of challenges. Additional analysis on using hydrogen hydrogen producers, consumers, and shared local carriers, such as ammonia or liquid organic hydrogen connective infrastructure. carriers (LOHCs), can refine understanding of the All federally funded projects, such as the Regional cost, life cycle emissions, and toxicity of the carriers. Clean Hydrogen Hubs, will also be subject to review Figure 16 shows the cost status at low volume and in accordance with the National Environmental Policy the modeled cost of hydrogen technologies used in Act (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321, et seq.). NEPA requires the transportation sector, assuming high volume federal agencies to integrate environmental values manufacturing compared to the ultimate cost targets into their decision-making processes by considering shown in green. These targets have been developed the potential environmental and societal impacts of through analyses characterizing the total cost of their proposed actions. The Regional Clean Hydrogen ownership (TCO) of hydrogen-based systems, such as Hubs represent the largest federally funded heavy-duty fuel cell trucks, relative to those using deployments of clean hydrogen technologies in the incumbent fuels, such as diesel. Additional TCO United States. As awarded hubs progress through analysis is currently underway to inform hydrogen NEPA review, DOE will assimilate lessons learned that cost and performance targets for other applications can expedite the review process for future across industry and transportation. Across deployments. applications, costs need to fall significantly compared Storing hydrogen efficiently and safely is also a to their current level to become competitive from a considerable challenge. Although hydrogen has sustainable, market-driven perspective. nearly three times the energy content per unit of U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 25 Figure 16: The status of production, delivery and dispensing, and onboard storage costs relative to the cost projection for high-volumes and the ultimate cost target for market competitiveness. 74 In addition to the technology and cost challenges refine the understanding of the strategic and described above, from an overarching energy targeted role clean hydrogen can play in economy- systems perspective, the optimal use of hydrogen still wide decarbonization. A detailed regional approach, needs to be determined for the most suitable informed by the availability of resources and end- applications where lower cost or more efficient uses, and bolstered by the funding available for alternatives do not exist. A comprehensive Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, will inform how best assessment of the interplay between hydrogen the hydrogen ecosystem can evolve to enable demands and electrification, evolutions of the energy maximum benefit. All these challenges will need to be grid (including in supply of clean firm power, grid addressed in the most efficient, effective, and reliability, and rates of effective CCS), biofuels, and comprehensive manner through the strategies sectors that use hydrogen as a feedstock or fuel can outlined in Sections B and C. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 26 B: Strategies to Enable the Benefits of Clean Hydrogen The foundation of this roadmap is based on decarbonization tool and for maximum benefits for prioritizing three key strategies to ensure that clean the United States, summarized in Figure 17. hydrogen is developed and adopted as an effective Figure 17: The national strategies for clean hydrogen and the Department of Energy’s Hydrogen Program mission and context. First, the use of clean hydrogen will be focused efficient decarbonization technologies, such as strategically to provide maximum benefits, electrification, clean hydrogen adoption will focus on particularly in sectors that are hard-to-decarbonize. end-uses that lack alternatives and are in industries Rather than competing with alternative low-cost and that can build momentum to enable scale, increase U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 27 benefits, and drive down cost. Second, the United create holistic ecosystems that provide local benefits. States can dramatically lower the delivered cost For instance, by leveraging the Regional Clean of clean hydrogen by developing sustainable and Hydrogen Hubs program as established in the BIL, supply-resilient pathways, including electrolysis, DOE will focus on catalyzing regional infrastructure thermal conversion with CCS, and advanced or hybrid networks, bolstering the uptake of long-term production pathways. Harnessing the innovation and hydrogen offtakers, and unlocking private capital. entrepreneurial spirit of Americans and world-class To implement these strategies, Federal Government National Laboratories, industry, and academic agencies will coordinate an efficient “whole of facilities, in addition to ramping up deployments, can government” approach to accelerate progress toward help drive down costs rapidly and achieve scale a resilient, sustainable, and equitable hydrogen within a decade. Regional factors and availability of economy. Agencies will focus on foundational resources such as waste, water, and other resources enablers when executing these strategies, including will also be strategically considered in the build-out advancing diversity, equity, and inclusion; of clean hydrogen production. promoting energy and environmental justice; Third, scale can be achieved strategically by focusing addressing safety and developing the necessary on regional networks, ramping up hydrogen codes and standards; creating high-quality jobs production and end-use in close proximity to and training standards; and stimulating private drive down transport and infrastructure costs and investment to enable market liftoff. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 28 Strategy 1: Target Strategic, High-Impact Uses of Clean Hydrogen While hydrogen’s versatility enables it to be used in energy into the grid. Co-firing with hydrogen at numerous applications, government agencies will existing and new power plants can help cut emissions focus on use of clean hydrogen for decarbonizing from the power sector. segments such as in industry and heavy-duty In transportation, hydrogen has a strong value transportation that are difficult to electrify as well as proposition in the trucking sector, particularly for early markets where agencies such as the fleets with heavy-duty vehicles, long-distance (>500 Departments of Defense and those procuring mile) routes, or multi-shift operations that require stationary power or commercial vehicle fleets can rapid refueling. Hydrogen is also an essential provide opportunities for early hydrogen offtake. feedstock for producing liquid fuels that will be Processes that use fossil fuels as a chemical feedstock necessary for large-scale energy applications, such as or in the generation of high-temperature heat or aviation, rail, and marine fuels. In the near-term, clean long-duration, dispatchable power will require clean hydrogen can displace conventional hydrogen in fuels, such as hydrogen, to decarbonize. For instance, petroleum refining for conventional transportation. In ammonia and methanol manufacturing account for the mid- to long-term, hydrogen can be used to the majority of global GHG emissions from chemicals, produce biofuels from biomass (to increase the yield and both sectors rely on natural gas as a feedstock.75 of fuel produced from a given feedstock and These processes can be decarbonized by over 90 pathway, and to refine the fuel’s properties) and percent if they use clean hydrogen.76,77 Steelmaking power-to-liquid fuels that can displace petroleum, accounts for about 7 percent of global greenhouse particularly in offroad markets, discussed further gas emissions,78 and relies on coke and natural gas to below. reduce iron ore. Transitioning to clean hydrogen as a The following sections summarize the role clean reductant can reduce emissions by 40-70 percent.79 hydrogen can have in each of the applications Over half of emissions from industry today are due to described above and provides examples of what the direct combustion of fossil fuels to produce heat Federal Government agencies are funding to address and power for industrial processes.80 While lower these sectors. Ongoing and future analyses will grades of heat generation are typically feasible to characterize the role of hydrogen in other sectors and electrify, about 30 percent of heat used in industry is continue to inform strategic priorities. at temperatures above 300°C and would likely require clean fuels to decarbonize.81 Furnaces that burn pure Clean hydrogen in industrial hydrogen or blends of hydrogen with natural gas are applications key options in these applications. Globally, industry is the largest end-use sector in terms of energy consumption, accounting for 38 As the power grid is decarbonized, long-duration percent of total energy demand.82 Approximately 6 energy storage technologies will become essential to percent of total energy demand is used to produce enable growth in using clean electricity across hydrogen, which is used primarily in producing sectors. The use of hydrogen in fuel cells or low-NOx ammonia and other chemicals.82 The International turbines is a leading option to enable multi-day storage and, dispatchable power generation to the Energy Agency (IEA) reports that global industrial grid. In scenarios with high electrification rates, more demand for hydrogen was 51 MMT in 2020 out of 90 clean hydrogen and other clean fuels may be needed MMT used in all sectors.82 to provide reliable, firm, dispatchable power generation when integrating variable renewable U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 29 Hydrogen in chemicals Hydrogen in steelmaking Hydrogen is already used as an essential feedstock in Steel is one of society’s most important engineering the production of ammonia and methanol. In and construction materials. Today, it is typically made conventional ammonia and methanol plants in the using basic oxygen furnaces (BOFs) or electric arc United States, natural gas reforming is used to furnaces (EAFs), depending on whether it is primary produce syngas that is then converted into ammonia (from iron ore) or secondary (from recycled scrap). (in combination with nitrogen from compressed air) Following the BOF pathway, iron ore is reduced with or methanol immediately downstream. Production coke in a blast furnace and refined with oxygen. In pathways for both chemicals can be decarbonized by the EAF pathway, electricity is used to refine a mixture replacing the use of natural gas reforming with clean of recycled steel and iron. While the iron ore BOF hydrogen production supply, such as the use of CCS process is more common globally,85 in the United along with mitigation of fugitive methane emissions States, roughly 70 percent of steelmaking uses the or the use of electrolysis. Near-term, these sectors EAF process in which steel is recycled.86 may be the first to transition to clean hydrogen, Using clean hydrogen as a reductant in iron ore swapping high carbon intensity hydrogen for lower refining, instead of coke or natural gas, can reduce carbon intensity production pathways. In some cases, the life cycle emissions for making primary steel by this shift will occur at existing industrial clusters with collocated production/offtake, reducing reliance on 40-70 percent.87 Other approaches to decarbonizing midstream infrastructure as it scales. this sector include near term methods such as improvements to the efficiency of blast furnace as Future use of clean hydrogen in these chemicals will well as longer term innovation such as direct depend largely on the markets for each, and drivers electrolytic processes.81 to decarbonize. Today, 88 percent of ammonia consumption in the United States is for fertilizer The future market for green iron ore-based steel production; the remaining 12 percent is used to production will depend on economic growth that produce plastics, explosives, synthetic fibers, resins, creates new demand for steel consumption, as well as and other chemicals.83 Future applications for incentives for decarbonization and domestic ammonia may also include its use as a fuel for production to displace imports. In recent years, offroad vehicles or in power generation, although imports have accounted for about 25-30 percent of these concepts are still in the early stages of U.S. steel consumption.88 The Biden-Harris development. The primary use of methanol today is Administration is advancing carbon-based trade as a building block for other chemicals, such as policies to reward American manufacturers of clean formaldehyde, acetic acid, and plastics. Growth in the steel. Working with the European Union, the methanol market depends on the overall growth of Administration is taking steps to align global trade chemicals production, rates of plastics recycling, and with climate goals, which will keep out dirty products the development of new end-uses of methanol, such and result in more jobs and lower prices for as its use as a fuel or as a hydrogen carrier. Americans.89 Activities in this sector include several analyses DOE has two active projects to jumpstart the use of funded by DOE to assess the cost and life cycle hydrogen for steel manufacturing that will help emissions to produce hydrogen carriers, including optimize direct reduction using hydrogen and will methanol, ammonia, and methylcyclohexane. DOE’s enable the development of a 1 ton per week Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy (ARPA-E) operation, with the potential for 5,000 tonnes per day is also funding innovative, game-changing of steel production.90,91 Several workshops organized approaches for ammonia production and a modular, by DOE’s Advanced Manufacturing Office and scalable system for hydrogen to ammonia.84 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office (HFTO) have helped identify key challenges and opportunities which will be addressed as part of the U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 30 national hydrogen strategy.92,93 Use of hydrogen at the cost of infrastructure conversion, streamlined steel production facilities will require reliable, approaches to permitting and regulatory approval, consistent supply since most operate throughout the and R&D to inform standards associated with end year with little downtime. uses (e.g., low-NOx turbines). Clean hydrogen and use of high The use of renewable natural gas is another approach concentrations of hydrogen blends for to decarbonizing the heat and power sector and has the advantage of being fully compatible with existing industrial heat infrastructure. One of the pioneering projects funded Process heating is the largest driver of energy by DOE in this area demonstrated the integration of consumption within the U.S. manufacturing sector an electrolyzer with a bioreactor to produce and relies primarily on the combustion of fossil renewable natural gas from hydrogen and carbon fuels.81,94 Options to decarbonize this sector include dioxide.96 This novel bioreactor design is now being electrification, particularly at lower grades of heat commercialized by industry through deployments in (<300°C); CCS; use of low-carbon sources of heat, California and the Northeast. Additional longer-term such as solar thermal or nuclear power; and use of concepts for renewable natural gas production blends of hydrogen in natural gas or pure hydrogen, include the catalysis of hydrogen and carbon dioxide particularly for applications requiring high to produce synthetic methane. Decarbonization via temperatures. Sectors that currently consume heat at this approach will also require management and >300°C include refining, chemicals, cement, mitigation of fugitive methane emissions throughout steelmaking, and glass manufacturing. the delivery infrastructure. Life cycle analyses of Due to the low cost of fossil fuel combustion, the renewable natural gas relative to the use of hydrogen heat and power sectors have a lower willingness to blends to decarbonize the heat and power sectors are pay for hydrogen than chemical processes and are currently underway within DOE’s HyBlend initiative. expected to adopt clean hydrogen at scale when it is Future work, which will be done in collaboration widely available at low cost or when strong policy across agencies and states, will enable the drivers for decarbonization emerge. The use of development of injection standards for blending hydrogen in this sector will require the advancement hydrogen into natural gas pipelines used in high- of low-NOx hydrogen combustion technologies, as temperature heat applications—including the upper well as an improved understanding of the impacts of blend limits for hydrogen. Other work includes hydrogen on infrastructure and turbine materials. assessing opportunities to repurpose natural gas DOE’s HyBlend initiative was launched in 2020 to infrastructure for hydrogen, identifying conditions address knowledge gaps in the use of high under which deployment of new infrastructure would concentrations of hydrogen blends for industrial heat, be necessary to enable the use of high bringing together DOE National Labs and industry.95 concentrations of blends and advancing the use of HyBlend currently includes several projects with clean hydrogen in combined heat and power national laboratories and over 30 industry partners applications. Priorities for HyBlend include reducing focused on materials compatibility, cost and the risk for all communities – especially vulnerable emissions analysis of blending, underground storage and disadvantaged communities – and spearheading of hydrogen blends, hydrogen appliances, and low- policies, such as “dig once” strategies, as the Nation NOx hydrogen turbines. Ongoing and future R&D installs transmission, CCS, CO2 pipelines and other under the HyBlend initiative will be coordinated with infrastructure. Additional work is also needed to related efforts worldwide (e.g., through data sharing, establish or modify standards for both distribution round robin testing, and information exchange). and end use of blends. These standards will inform Projects funded under HyBlend in the future may aspects of design, safety, and emissions. address additional barriers to using hydrogen blends in high-temperature heat, including an assessment of U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 31 Clean hydrogen in transportation Million Mile Fuel Cell Truck Consortium (M2FCT) in In 2019, the transportation sector accounted for 33 2020 to enable the fuel cell durability, cost, and percent of greenhouse gas emissions in the United performance required for the long-haul heavy-duty States and 51 percent of transportation emissions is truck market.102 Hydrogen and fuel cell truck projects due to light-duty vehicles.97 While industry has are also included under DOE’s Super Truck program focused primarily on battery electrification for light- to demonstrate medium- and heavy-duty hydrogen duty vehicles, hydrogen and fuel cells offer significant fuel cell trucks under real-world operating conditions opportunities for applications requiring long driving within the next five years.103 Other projects ranges, fast fueling, and large or heavy payloads.98 In supporting this strategy include developing the January 2023, DOE, Department of Transportation required infrastructure, fueling components, (DOT), EPA, and Department of Housing and Urban hydrogen storage and dispensing technologies, and a Development jointly released the U.S. National project that will demonstrate 15 parcel delivery trucks Blueprint for Transportation Decarbonization, which operating in disadvantaged communities.104,105 identified a strategic role of clean hydrogen in freight Transit agencies with large bus fleets or coach buses applications.99 Previous DOE analysis has identified with long driving ranges can also benefit by using market segments of the trucking sector where hydrogen and fuel cells. The Federal Transit hydrogen has a stronger value proposition, and Administration in partnership with DOE has been ongoing work is ascertaining the role for hydrogen in evaluating fuel cell buses and continues to collect offroad vehicles, such as mining equipment, ferries, real-world deployment data to guide future and rail. This analysis will help inform future research advances.106 By focusing the strategy on fleets, activities in this space. freight, and corridors where clusters of dedicated infrastructure can be developed, the United States Hydrogen for medium and heavy-duty will reduce the risk of stranded assets and ensure the trucks and buses and replacement fuel utilization of the developing hydrogen fueling production infrastructure. Medium- and heavy-duty (MDHD) vehicles are used The largest consumer of hydrogen today is the across the country for numerous applications from refinery industry. It is used for reduction of sulfur product delivery to vehicle towing to waste content as well as for cracking of crude into lighter collection, and account for about 20 percent of petroleum fractions. Decarbonizing hydrogen supply emissions from the transportation sector.97 DOE and for refineries provides a near term clean hydrogen other Federal agencies are working with industry and demand able to reduce transportation emissions national laboratories through the 21st Century Truck from the production of petroleum-based fuels used Partnership (21CTP) to reduce emissions from trucks in conventional vehicles. In the longer term, refinery and buses through safe and cost-effective technologies, workforce, and assets can provide approaches.100 Members of 21CTP meet regularly to hydrogen demand to produce bio-derived fuels such share information that can inform pre-competitive as biodiesel, methanol, and ethanol. Such fuels can R&D activities. Batteries and fuel cells are both focus help the decarbonization of conventional fuel areas of 21CTP and can each play complementary vehicles and reduce the extent of stranded assets. roles in decarbonizing the trucking sector. Fuel cells are particularly viable for applications such as heavy- Hydrogen for maritime applications and duty trucks that require fast fill times comparable to ports diesel today, or long driving ranges above 500 In addition to vehicles, opportunities for hydrogen miles.101 and hydrogen carriers are also emerging in the maritime industry, ranging from inland and harbor DOT and DOE launched a Joint Office in 2021 which vessels to recreational and pier-side applications. includes activities relevant to infrastructure for New emissions regulations by the International hydrogen vehicles. In addition, DOE launched the Maritime Organization (IMO) limit the sulfur content U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 32 in fuel oil used on ships (or “bunker fuel”) from 3.5 Hydrogen for aviation and sustainable percent to 0.5 percent, starting in 2020.107 These aviation fuel production limits are further reduced to 0.1 percent for ships Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, aviation accounted operating in Emissions Control Areas, including for about 11 percent of United States transportation certain coastal regions of the United States and the emissions; without increased action, its share will European Union.108 Given increasingly stringent continue to grow as more people and goods are requirements, hydrogen and hydrogen carriers, such transported by air.114 The deployment of SAFs, such as ammonia and methanol, may offer an attractive as biofuels and power-to-liquid fuels that can be alternative to bunker fuel. Furthermore, the use of used instead of conventional jet fuel, is essential to hydrogen in various marine vessels and at ports for decarbonizing this sector.115 In 2021, DOE, DOT, and drayage trucks, shore power (electricity for ships USDA launched a government-wide SAF Grand while docked), and cargo equipment all offer the Challenge to reduce the cost, enhance the potential to reduce carbon dioxide and other sustainability, and expand the production and use of emissions and to develop infrastructure in targeted SAFs that achieve a 50 percent reduction in lifecycle regions to scale up use.109 In 2019, DOE held an GHGs or greater, compared to conventional fuel.116 H2@Ports workshop in collaboration with the U.S. The Grand Challenge further set goals to supply 3 Department of Transportation Maritime billion gallons of SAFs per year by 2030 and 35 billion Administration (U.S. DOT-MARAD) and the European gallons by 2050 to meet 100 percent of aviation fuel Commission Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint demand by 2050.116 These national goals form the Undertaking to identify opportunities and challenges basis for hydrogen demand in this sector. to the use of hydrogen at ports.110 Many different biofuel and power-to-liquid fuel The Maritime Administration (MARAD) in pathways are being explored to meet the SAF Grand collaboration with DOE, has been developing and Challenge goal. The pathways that have been demonstrating hydrogen and fuel cell technologies approved to date for use by aviation require for maritime applications over the past decade, hydrogen as a feedstock117 and could additionally including the world’s first pier-side hydrogen fuel cell co-produce sustainable fuels for use elsewhere in the for auxiliary power in lieu of diesel generators.111 In transport sector. The Net Zero Tech team, a collaboration with state agencies and industry, the collaboration between DOE and industry through the United States is deploying the first hydrogen fuel cell U.S. Driving Research and Innovation for Vehicle passenger ferry in the Western hemisphere.112 DOE efficiency and Energy sustainability (U.S. DRIVE) launched a new project to demonstrate a MW-scale partnership, is conducting cost and emissions analysis electrolyzer on a floating barge to fuel a passenger of future pathways, to identify fuels with the greatest ferry, in addition to using a fuel cell to charge a potential. battery electric vessel.113 Such first-of-a-kind In addition, direct use of hydrogen is being demonstrations are integral to Strategy One – “Target demonstrated for aircraft in specific market segments Strategic, High-Impact Uses of Hydrogen” – to de-risk such as short-duration flights and uncrewed aerial technologies for additional private sector investment vehicles (UAVs). While hydrogen storage density is a and market adoption. Other activities include challenge, hydrogen fuel cells offer the benefit of addressing safety and developing the relevant codes, both zero carbon and zero criteria pollutant standards, and ensuring global harmonization, in emissions from the exhaust. DOD is demonstrating conjunction with other organizations, including IMO, direct hydrogen fuel cells for UAVs.118 MARAD, and international collaborators. There are also several industry projects on hydrogen fuel cells and engines for aircraft. For example, ZeroAvia and Otto have announced a partnership to develop a 19-seat aircraft that can travel 1,000 U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 33 nautical miles, potentially targeting niche market streams by providing hydrogen as a feedstock or fuel needs in private flights.119 Airbus announced three for other sectors. design concepts for direct hydrogen use, including Hydrogen for backup power and stationary fuel cell and hydrogen combustion systems.120 The power U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), U.S. Air Backup power and stationary power from fuel cells Force (USAF), and DOE convened industry can replace diesel generators to provide resilience to stakeholders at the H2@Airports workshop in critical facilities that require 24/7 power, such as November 2020, which identified key challenges and hospitals and data centers. Systems that need steady, potential opportunities to address them.121 reliable power in remote locations, such as microgrids Hydrogen in rail and telecom towers, are also promising The rail system in the United States spans over opportunities. Although backup power utilization is 140,000 route-miles, delivers critical goods, moves low, moving from diesel to clean hydrogen can still passengers across the country, and supports over provide a meaningful step on the path to net zero. 167,000 jobs.122 Although rail accounts for only about Fuel cells operating on hydrogen have zero emissions 2 percent of transportation-sector emissions,123 this and are quieter and more reliable than diesel mode is hard to decarbonize due to conventional generators and offer benefits for health and air low-cost legacy systems and the low diesel costs. quality—particularly for disadvantaged communities However, liquid fuels (including biofuels), as well as who are often in non-attainment zones. batteries and hydrogen, can all play complementary Examples of Federal agency-funded projects with roles in completely decarbonizing this sector. The state and private sector funds supporting this sector cost competitiveness of each powertrain will vary by include the world’s first trigeneration system at a region and by each system’s demand profile. wastewater treatment plant to co-produce power, Several early demonstrations of hydrogen and fuel heat, and hydrogen through a high-temperature fuel cells have already been commissioned in both cell;129 first of a kind demonstration of hydrogen fuel passenger and freight rail around the world and will cells for data center applications; projects to lower inform future RDD&D. Hydrogen-powered trains fuel cell cost and improve durability;130 reversible fuel have been in service in Germany since 2018 and have cell RDD&D;131 and hundreds of fuel cell completed trials in Austria, the Netherlands, Sweden, deployments for backup power applications.132 and France.124 In the U.S., California’s San Bernardino Energy Storage and Electricity Generation Transportation system is developing a hydrogen fuel Energy storage on the grid can have several different cell passenger train expected to be in service in early roles, including time shifting, firm capacity 2024.125 generation, avoiding transmission line buildout, and DOE in collaboration with the DOT’s Federal Railroad ancillary services.133 Today, grid energy storage is Administration (FRA) held an H2@Rail workshop in dominated by pumped hydropower deployments 2019 to identify opportunities for hydrogen and fuel capable of discharging power for 12 hours or less.134 cells for rail applications.126 Ongoing analysis efforts Lithium-ion batteries are the fastest growing mode of will inform performance and cost targets for specific energy storage, commonly for shorter durations of 4 locomotive market segments in this sector and hours or less.132 progress toward targets will be monitored and validated by DOE and FRA.127, 128 Power sector applications Hydrogen can offer versatility as a medium for long- duration energy storage, electric power generation, and grid services and can offer additional revenue U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 34 technologies that are not geographically constrained. To support this sector, DOE has established unique national laboratory test facilities to demonstrate and test the performance of electrolyzers integrated with various power and thermal sources.136 These facilities allow industry to de-risk systems integration and validate new technologies before deployment. DOE is also funding RDD&D on low-NOx turbines and has funded numerous analysis projects and tools to quantify the economic benefits of hydrogen energy storage under specific grid conditions in collaboration with industry.137 RD&D efforts on NOx Figure 18: Hydrogen energy storage systems involve mitigation and materials compatibility may also the use of electrolyzers to produce hydrogen from inform retrofitting of existing natural gas turbines excess power on the grid, bulk storage, followed by and natural gas pipeline compressor stations to power generation using fuel cells or turbines. operate on blends. The United States currently has gigawatts of combustion turbines in operation that As the grid transforms to 100 percent clean power, may be capable of operating on blends with longer-duration energy storage technologies that can modifications to key components, such as the fuel discharge for multiple days at a time will be needed. supply system and burners. Additionally, DOE has As shown in Figure 18, hydrogen energy storage funded five projects to date demonstrating the systems at scale could involve the use of electrolyzers integration of electrolyzers with nuclear power plants to produce hydrogen using excess power on the grid, to create another revenue stream for these clean firm storage of the hydrogen in bulk (e.g., underground), generators that also support grid stability.138, 139 and then use hydrogen to generate power at times of Engagement through the Nuclear Regulatory high demand.133 In the near- to mid-term, co-firing Commission is underway to address challenges of hydrogen in natural gas turbines for power including siting and permitting. generation could facilitate a transition to 100 percent hydrogen-fired turbines that will be needed to fully In 2022, DOE’s Loan Programs Office (LPO) closed on decarbonize the electricity system. Several industry an approximately $500 million loan guarantee to the stakeholders, such as NextEra, Florida Power & Light, Advanced Clean Energy Storage Project, which would and Intermountain Power have recently announced be a first-of-its-kind clean hydrogen production and plans to co-fire hydrogen with natural gas in storage facility capable of providing long-term hundreds of megawatts of turbines, including seasonal energy storage.140 The facility in Delta, Utah dispatchable co-firing applications.135 Optimized co- will combine a 220 MW alkaline electrolyzer with salt siting of renewables, nuclear plants, high- cavern storage for grid-scale energy conversion and temperature heat sources, and the storage storage using hydrogen as the energy carrier. infrastructure for hydrogen and carbon dioxide can Advanced Clean Energy Storage is expected to help reduce environmental, economic, and benefit Utah by creating up to 400 construction and community impact compared to completely 25 operations jobs and could help catalyze long-term independent build-out of such systems. job opportunities and transition the state to a new, clean energy economy for the future. Several Large-scale deployments of hydrogen energy storage disadvantaged communities surround Delta, Utah, will require reductions in the cost of electrolyzers and and could benefit from the project. fuel cells, the development of low-NOx combustion technologies for use in hydrogen turbines, and the development of new low-cost bulk hydrogen storage U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 35 Hydrogen Applications Across Carbon Intensity of Agencies In addition to commercial markets such as industrial Hydrogen Production and chemical manufacturing, government agencies Hydrogen production pathways vary in carbon can catalyze private sector uptake through early intensity, depending on their energy source, demonstrations and bundled demand for subsequent efficiency, and design, as shown in Figure 18. In fossil offtake. For example, hydrogen is uniquely capable of pathways, for instance, the amount of CCS, the providing for both energy and water resiliency needs energy efficiency of the systems, and the amount of to federal facilities during emergency situations. fugitive emissions, all determine the carbon footprint Demonstrations at military bases and other critical of hydrogen production. In electrolysis, the carbon loads for backup power and microgrids can use intensity of electricity, whether it is from dedicated hydrogen fuel cells ranging from kW to MW and renewables, nuclear, or bulk grid electricity, is the create hydrogen demand. By unlocking the primary variable that influences lifecycle emissions. purchasing power of the U.S. Government, we can As directed in the BIL, DOE is required, in consultation catalyze market liftoff leveraging the more than with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), to 150,000 medium and heavy duty vehicles141 and develop an initial standard for the carbon intensity of 8,600 buildings142 across the government. clean hydrogen as a point of reference for select programs under the BIL. The standard was released DOD has historically been an early adopter in as a draft to obtain input from industry and other technology spaces including GPS technology enabled stakeholders and finalized in 2023.19 The BIL requires by DOD and now ubiquitous. DOE and DOD worked DOE to set a clean hydrogen production standard together over a decade ago to demonstrate first of its that: kind fuel cell material handlers in Defense Logistics Agency warehouses, and today hydrogen fuel cell • Supports clean hydrogen production from material handling has grown into a vibrant market, specified low carbon energy sources (e.g., with over 60,000 hydrogen forklifts in operation including but not limited to fossil fuels with CCS; primarily in the private sector. Other nascent hydrogen-carrier fuels (including ethanol and applications such as UAVs, UUVs, and off-grid methanol); renewable energy resources, including dispatchable power can be demonstrated by DOD biomass; nuclear energy); and other USG agencies to further mature the • Defines the term “clean hydrogen” to mean technology. The learnings from these activities and hydrogen produced with a carbon intensity equal improvements in performance and efficiency can to or less than 2 kilograms of carbon dioxide- inform additional technology developments to help equivalent produced at the site of production per de-risk future dual use commercial investment. Clean kilogram of hydrogen produced; and dispatchable power, such as mobile fuel cell chargers, • Considers “technological and economic feasibility.” is particularly important for fielding electric vehicles The initial standard was set at 4 kilograms of carbon in areas without grid access. Off-grid clean dioxide-equivalent per kilogram of hydrogen (kg dispatchable power could also to applied to grid CO2e/kg H2) on a well-to-gate life cycle basis, challenged areas in the near term and during disaster consistent with the vast majority of responses from relief. stakeholders who commented on the draft Clean Hydrogen Production Standard.143 DOE is also required to update the standard within five years of setting the initial standard.144 An important component of future clean hydrogen demonstrations or deployments supporting the BIL U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 36 will be stakeholder engagement and analyses to DOE is also currently funding R&D and analysis to determine actual life cycle emissions along the entire address key uncertainties in estimates of the value chain. Government-funded public tools are decarbonization potential of hydrogen. A range of available, such as DOE’s Greenhouse Gases, estimates of the well-to-gate emissions of several Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in hydrogen production technologies is provided in Transportation (GREET) model,145 are used to Figure 18 below. DOE recently released several characterize the decarbonization potential of solicitations to improve the performance of sensing deployments consistently, including well-to-gate technologies that can measure hydrogen losses and emissions of hydrogen production, as well as is collaborating with the National Oceanic and emissions of hydrogen distribution and end-use. For Atmospheric Administration to characterize the example, well-to-gate emissions of SMR with CCS can global hydrogen cycle (including interactions of have a range of carbon intensities depending on the hydrogen with the climate and with soil). Upon degree of fugitive emissions, capture rate, and carbon completion of R&D that ascertains loss rates and intensity of the electricity grid. Well-to-gate climate impacts with higher fidelity, DOE will emissions of electrolysis are near zero when the incorporate both into life cycle analyses and the electricity supply is 100 percent carbon pollution-free GREET tool. DOE is additionally funding RD&D to – as is the Administration’s goal by 2035 – but can be improve detection, quantification, and mitigation of more than double those of SMR when using the fugitive methane emissions, which are known to vary current average U.S. grid mix.146,147 considerably by region and can substantially impact the life-cycle emissions of hydrogen production from As global trade develops for hydrogen, consistent the oil and natural gas supply chain. It is important to international methods for lifecycle analysis will also note that the landscape for methane emissions be required. This was one of the highest priority monitoring and mitigation is changing rapidly. For actions voted on by over 20 countries under the example, the EPA is in the process of developing International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells enhanced data reporting requirements for petroleum in the Economy (IPHE), a global government and natural gas systems under its Greenhouse Gas partnership launched in 2003 to accelerate progress Reporting Program and is in the process of finalizing in hydrogen and fuel cell technologies.148 The U.S. is requirements under New Source Performance currently a Vice Chair of IPHE, after completing a Standards and Emission Guidelines for the oil and gas term as Chair, and is also a lead member of the IPHE sector that will result in mitigation of methane Hydrogen Production Analysis (H2PA),149 a task force emissions. With these changes, it is expected that the under IPHE developing mutually agreed-upon quality of data to verify methane emissions will methods of lifecycle analysis for hydrogen improve and methane emissions rates will change production. Analysis guidance developed to date has over time. In addition, PHMSA has proposed focused on specific hydrogen production pathways of requirements for hydrogen pipeline leak detection interest across over 20 countries in the near term. and repair as part of its Leak Detection and Repair Ongoing work is expanding this guidance to include Rule, which states that unless otherwise specified in additional pathways and to account for the emissions the proposed amendments, the proposals in the associated with hydrogen distribution. While notice of proposed rulemaking apply the same guidance developed by IPHE is not binding, it can requirements to hydrogen gas pipelines (and other inform accounting frameworks implemented by gas pipelines) as to natural gas pipelines. Such member countries to ensure consistency. As such, the actions can stimulate the development and U.S. will engage in global collaboration and deployment of advanced leak detection technologies, coordination to accelerate progress and foster and bolster methane and hydrogen leak reporting transparency and rigor in the analyses of emissions and repair.150 across the value chain of hydrogen, including potential indirect impacts, from multiple pathways. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 37 Figure 18: Well-to-gate carbon intensity of hydrogen from SMR with CCS and electrolysis pathways relative to current U.S. production, and emissions intensities that can access the clean hydrogen production tax credit. (Reproduced from Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen.3 Assumptions regarding modeled technologies are described further in Liftoff report and include modeled assumptions; real-world lifecycle emissions may vary beyond the ranges shown here.) U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 38 Strategy 2: Reduce the Cost of Clean Hydrogen While there are various challenges across the entire continuously track and adjust its portfolio based on hydrogen value chain from production through end- performance-driven metrics; and catalyze technology use, Strategy 2 prioritizes reducing the cost of clean innovation and deployment at scale. hydrogen. There are many ways to produce hydrogen In response to President Biden’s April 2021 Climate at various technology readiness levels and a wide Summit request to DOE to accelerate progress range of associated carbon emissions and other towards tackling the climate crisis, DOE established environmental impacts. Agencies will prioritize and the Energy Earthshot initiative, creating bold, accelerate its actions to focus on the most critical ambitious goals to galvanize the domestic and global barriers for cost reduction; foster partnerships across industry.151 industry, academia, and national laboratories; Hydrogen Shot is one of DOE’s flagship initiatives to Figure 19, the Hydrogen Shot can enable a wide drive down the cost of clean hydrogen, in concert range of use cases and impacts and builds on the with accelerating deployment and scale, such as current progress across the spectrum of production through Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, loan pathways. guarantees, and other mechanisms. As shown in U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 39 Figure 19: The Hydrogen Shot targets build on progress for a variety of pathways, enabling a range of use cases and impacts. Continuing to advance RDD&D efforts, and reducing Hydrogen Production Through Water costs and associated lifecycle emissions, remain important for all hydrogen production pathways. A Splitting Electrolysis uses electricity and an electrolyte or mix of hydrogen production from water electrolysis, membrane to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. hydrogen production from fossil fuels with carbon Most electrolysis uses one of three technologies: capture and storage, and hydrogen production from alkaline, PEM, and solid oxide electrolyzer cells biomass and waste feedstocks will likely be used in (SOECs). The alkaline process is the most established, the United States through at least 2050. Today, having been used for over a century. PEM thermal conversion pathways are the dominant electrolyzers can operate effectively at a range of approach to hydrogen supply worldwide, and loads with sub-second response times, which makes typically have a low cost but high emissions. them particularly compatible with variable energy Electrolyzers using clean energy and advanced sources, such as sun and wind power. SOECs use a pathways (i.e., technologies at lab scale, such as ceramic electrolyte at high temperatures and are the photoelectrochemical and thermochemical water least commercialized of the three technologies. With splitting) can achieve near zero emissions but are higher electrical efficiency than PEM and alkaline currently much higher in cost. systems, SOECs are likely to be more cost-effective in scenarios where high-temperature heat is available, such as from nuclear power plants and concentrated solar power. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 40 The cost of clean electricity accounts for over half of not include impacts of incentives, such as the IRA 45V the cost of hydrogen production from electrolysis.152, Credit. for Production of Clean Hydrogen. 153 RDD&D can all drive costs toward the Hydrogen The 2020 baseline cost of $5/kg is the levelized cost Shot target by lowering the cost of clean electricity of hydrogen calculated using DOE’s H2A model using (renewables, nuclear power), boosting the efficiency a conservative $1,500/kW for PEM electrolyzer capital of electrolysis, reducing electrolyzer and balance-of- cost (at low volume manufacturing), a $50/MWh plant capital costs and enabling dynamic integration electricity price, and a capacity or utilization factor of of electrolyzers with the grid and with renewable and 90 percent.154 In comparison, using today’s $29/MWh nuclear generators to access low-cost variable power. for solar and 35 percent capacity factor, based on the The long-term extensions included in IRA of the

2020 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) production tax credit and investment tax credit for Annual Technology Baseline, results in a levelized clean electricity technologies will also serve to drive hydrogen cost of about $7.50/kg, as shown by the down clean electricity costs. green arrow. As shown, the levelized cost of hydrogen production is highly sensitive to the cost of Figure 20 shows one scenario for reducing the cost of electricity. Access to low-cost energy with a high- clean hydrogen from electrolysis, which requires capacity factor (e.g., through integration with existing dramatically lowering capital costs, lowering energy clean baseload assets such as hydroelectric and costs, increasing efficiencies, and improving durability nuclear power plants) can facilitate much lower and reliability to reduce maintenance costs. levelized costs. In addition, through the end of the decade, declines in electrolyzer capex will account for Figure 20 does not include the impacts of incentives a significant portion of cost reductions on the enabled by IRA. levelized cost of clean hydrogen. It is important to note that the cost estimates in The example shown of what would be needed to achieve $2/kg – required by the BIL by 2026 – is based on $30/MWh energy costs and $300/kW capital costs, and the $1/kg Hydrogen Shot goal would require $20/MWh and $150/kW, respectively. These cost targets do not include the clean hydrogen production tax credit. In all these cases, a 90 percent electrolyzer capacity factor is assumed, requiring the use of clean firm electricity, such as nuclear or geothermal energy, or for variable renewables to be complemented by storage. This scenario illustrates that capital costs would need to be reduced by 80 percent and the operating and maintenance costs would need to be reduced by 90 percent. It should be emphasized that these are just scenarios that could achieve these cost targets. Still, other combinations of cost, efficiency, electricity prices, utilization factors, and durability, including the use of thermal sources Figure 20: Achieving $1/kg using electrolyzers for high-temperature electrolyzers, could enable requires lower electricity cost, significantly lower meeting the Hydrogen Shot goal. In 2020, DOE capital costs, improvement in efficiency and launched a new consortium bringing together durability, and higher utilization. Costs depicted to national labs, industry, and academia - H2NEW (Hydrogen from Next-generation Electrolyzers of U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 41 Water) – on electrolyzer technologies to complement electrolyzers to enable access to variable clean HydroGEN, a consortium that investigates all water energy at low cost. Innovative system designs may splitting technologies, including direct also improve electrolyzer economics, such as by photoelectrochemical and thermochemical monetizing co-generated oxygen or accessing waste methods.155 H2NEW will accelerate progress in heat. electrolyzer technologies and help reduce costs. As shown in Figure 21, these cost reductions will require high-volume manufacturing, innovations in electrolyzer stacks and balance of plant (BOP) components, and electrolyzer integration in next- generation systems. Improving electrolyzer efficiency can also help reduce the levelized cost of hydrogen since the cost of electricity is a large fraction of hydrogen cost. While analyses on various system configurations are ongoing, the figure shows just one example of the magnitude of cost reductions in each category. These values will be updated as the industry advances. Policies such as the 45V Credit for Production of Clean Hydrogen within the Inflation Reduction Act will also drive down capital costs over the coming decade. Figure 22: There are many drivers for electrolyzer stack and balance-of-plant capital cost reductions. Hydrogen Production from Fossil Fuels with Carbon Capture and Storage The BIL requires DOE to account for and support opportunities for hydrogen production from diverse energy, including fossil fuels with CCS. Opportunities include regions of the U.S. with abundant natural gas, reservoirs for CO2 storage, or existing natural gas supply infrastructure. As shown in Figure 23 below, Figure 21: Reducing electrolyzer capital costs will the current network of natural gas infrastructure and require reaching economies of scale and innovating SMR plants are both largely concentrated in the Gulf the electrolyzer stack and balance-of-plant Coast region, given the availability of natural gas and components. hydrogen demand for the petrochemical sector. There is no single overarching cost driver for capital Hydrogen is currently an essential feedstock within cost reduction. As shown in Figure 22, multiple refining, used primarily to crack heavy crude oil and components encompassing electrolysis stacks and desulfurize product streams. Displacing hydrogen used at current petroleum refineries with clean balance-of-plant systems must be addressed.156 hydrogen can reduce the life cycle emissions of the As demand rises for energy storage and clean power, refining process by ~12 percent, depending on the stakeholders must continue exploring innovative hydrogen supply source.157 mechanisms of on-grid and off-grid integration of U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 42 Figure 23: Hydrogen production units and pipelines for hydrogen and natural gas in the United States. Capturing and storing SMR’s carbon dioxide before it Autothermal reforming (ATR) with carbon capture is is emitted into the atmosphere can reduce the life another approach to producing hydrogen from cycle carbon intensity of hydrogen production by natural gas that is expected to cost less than over 50 percent, depending on CCS rates and conventional SMR with CCS, especially at commercial upstream emissions, including fugitive releases scales and in regions with low-cost electricity. This during natural gas excavation, transmission, and approach entails integrating an air separation unit use.158, 159 High carbon capture rates (e.g., over 95 with the reforming process to improve thermal percent) and very low upstream methane emissions efficiency and enable higher capture rates and lower- will be critical. Adding CCS to existing facilities with cost CCS. A third type of natural gas-based SMR units presents one pathway to faster production, methane pyrolysis, uses high heat to split decarbonization of chemical and refining uses of methane into hydrogen and solid carbon – this can hydrogen at large scale. Many SMR units are be an attractive option since the solid carbon can currently located near or are integrated with refining provide a value-added co-product for applications facilities and take advantage of local low-cost and such as industrial rubber and tire manufacturing and plentiful natural gas. The Gulf Coast, where many for specialty products such as inks, catalysts, plastics, existing SMR units are located, also contains some and coatings. existing CO2 pipeline infrastructure. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 43 Recent DOE investments are supporting RDD&D and can also be utilized in industrial processes rather than providing loans for scale-up and deployment of stored underground. Emerging utilization pathways pyrolysis pathways.160, 161, 162 The cost of hydrogen include construction of building materials and from methane pyrolysis pathways are highly production of chemicals. DOE is supporting RDD&D dependent on the price of the carbon product sold, on conversion of CO2 to useful products. thus high value and volume carbon markets for the carbon products are pivotal for methane pyrolysis to play a large role in the clean hydrogen space. In 2021, DOE’s LPO announced a conditional commitment for a loan guarantee to Monolith™ Inc. (formerly Monolith Nebraska, LLC) for approximately $1 billion to deploy methane pyrolysis technology at their Oliver Creek facility in Hallam, Nebraska. Hydrogen produced at this facility will be used to produce ammonia fertilizer. Deployment of this facility is also expected to create approximately 1,000 jobs during construction and 75 high-paying, highly skilled, clean energy jobs to support facility operations.163 The GHG intensity of hydrogen production from methane feedstocks also depends on the extent of methane leaks from the production and transportation of the natural gas supply. Anticipated Figure 24: Cost reductions necessary to achieve $1/kg regulations and advances in methane monitoring are production cost for methane feedstocks with CCS. expected to reduce these emissions and provide Baseline assumes autothermal reforming with CCS. greater measurement certainty. Methane leakage rates, which can have both air quality and toxicity There are a growing number of carbon capture, use, impacts, can vary by operator practice and basin.164 and storage projects in the United States. For instance, in Louisiana, Air Products is building a Today, hydrogen production from SMR systems facility expected to come online in 2026 and produce equipped with CCS is roughly 55 percent more 1,800 tonnes of reformation-based hydrogen daily. expensive than that of SMR alone.158 Cost reductions The site will take advantage of Louisiana’s geology to in CO2 transport and storage, variable costs, and sequester 5 MMT of CO2 each year, announced as the capital costs could help meet the Hydrogen Shot world’s largest.165,166 In Iowa, Green Plains, Inc., has target, as shown in Figure 24. DOE funds RDD&D to announced a carbon offtake agreement for three lower costs and improve performance of SMR and ethanol biorefineries, where captured carbon dioxide ATR systems with CCS and pathways for future cost will be transported via pipeline to underground reductions include improved process integration of geological structures in North Dakota for storage. CO2/H2 separation, use of high pressure or high This project is expected to begin operations in 2025 temperature separations through membranes, solid and should sequester 10 MMT of CO2 each year.167 CO2 sorbents, advanced catalysts, and novel methods of oxygen separation. However, using low-cost Policies such as the 45Q tax credit for CCS, which natural gas remains the most important method of cannot be combined with 45V tax credits for obtaining a lower cost of hydrogen through hydrogen production but that can incentivize fossil- reforming with CCS pathways. In addition to lowering based production, can pave the way for clean cost, the national strategy continuously emphasizes hydrogen production at scale.168 the importance of low GHG pathways, including In all cases when using fossil fuels, federal agencies reduction of upstream emissions. Captured carbon will prioritize reducing emissions across the value U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 44 chain from production through end-use. In addition, including the supply chain for fuel cells and it will be important to develop measurement and electrolyzers, in response to President Biden’s monitoring solutions and to factor in hydrogen Executive Order 14017 on America’s Supply Chains.169 leakage risks into decisions to build out hydrogen The BIL electrolyzer and clean hydrogen transport infrastructure, regardless of its primary manufacturing and recycling provisions ($1.5 billion production pathway. Finally, federal agencies will over five years) will be used, along with annual prioritize stakeholder engagement to address appropriations, to address this strategy.15,16 In potential environmental concerns and cumulative addition, Treasury and IRS, in partnership with DOE, burdens imposed on communities that may host announced additional guidance for approximately $4 fossil fuel-based hydrogen and CCS technologies. billion in a first round of the Qualifying Advanced Energy Project Credit (48C) for projects that expand Hydrogen Production from Biomass U.S. supply chains for clean energy technologies and and Waste Feedstocks critical materials for clean energy technology Additional pathways to hydrogen production include production, and for projects that reduce greenhouse biomass gasification with carbon capture and storage gas emissions at industrial facilities.170 Facilities that and SMR or ATR using feedstocks such as biogas manufacture electrolyzers, fuel cell vehicles, and from organic landfill matter, sewage, or agricultural other hydrogen technologies are eligible to apply.171 wastes in place of natural gas. These production methods have the potential to be low-carbon or The cost of hydrogen delivery, storage, and carbon-negative depending on the feedstock. dispensing to an end-user varies widely given the Lifecycle emissions across the entire biomass supply mode of supply used. There are four main methods chain, including direct and indirect land-use changes, of hydrogen delivery at scale today: gaseous tube and agricultural inputs such as fertilizer should be trailers, liquid tankers, pipelines (for gaseous considered when evaluating this pathway. hydrogen), and chemical hydrogen carriers. Tube trailers and liquid tankers are commonly used in When biomass pathways are coupled with CCS, their regions where hydrogen demand is developing and net emissions have the potential to be negative. For not yet stable. Gaseous pipelines are commonly used example, when the waste feedstock is diverted from when demand is predictable for decades and at a landfills and instead used to make hydrogen, some of regional scale of thousands of tonnes per day. the methane generated by processing the waste is Chemical carriers are of interest for long-distance also diverted from the atmosphere and thermally hydrogen delivery and export markets and can be converted to clean hydrogen (i.e., methane that broadly classified as one-way or two-way carriers. would not otherwise have been flared, given regional One-way carriers are materials that do not release a best practices and regulations). by-product for re-use or disposal after the hydrogen Other System Costs is released (such as ammonia). Two-way carriers are Cost reduction is not limited to hydrogen production those whose products are typically returned for alone. For instance, the costs for various technologies processing for reuse or disposal after the hydrogen is and components across the hydrogen value chain are released (such as methylcyclohexane/toluene). The shown in Figure 25 and Figure 26. Agencies will use of chemical hydrogen carriers is in the early continue to strengthen their activities to reduce the stages of commercialization and RD&D efforts are cost of all key technologies across the value chain, needed to increase the hydrogen-carrying capacity of including reducing supply chain vulnerabilities and these materials and improve the charge-and- boosting domestic manufacturing. DOE has released discharge rates, reversibility, and overall round-trip a set of clean energy supply chain assessments, efficiency U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 45

​2030 Midstream costs if advances in distribution and storage technology are commercialized: ​Downstream: End use applications ​Hydrogen distribution and storage assuming state-of-art technology at scale1 Clean Hydrogen Production Commercialized, ​Industry ​Ammonia ​$0.1/kg at 600 tpd, best-in-class 300 km, 12” OD ​Gas replacement gas compression ​$0.1/kg ​Refining ​$0.2-0.4/kg ​$0.1/kg at ~5000 ​Transport at 80 bar for 7 days, at 500 bar, 10 tpd tpd, 1000 km, 42” 600 tpd (tank storage, truck OD ​Steel distribution) Salt cavern H2 storage pipeline ​$0.1/kg ​Chemicals ​at 80-120 bar, 50 + tpd ​$0.8 / kg ​$0.7-1.5/kg ​(pipeline, co-located at 500 bar for 7 days at 10 tpd, 250 km electrolysis) ​NG blending Compressed Gas phase gas tank storage trucking ​Industrial heat ​$0.2/kg for 7 days, 50 ​$0.2-0.3/kg ​Power generation ​$2.7/kg at 50 tpd tpd scale at 50 tpd, 250 km Liquid Liquid ​Aviation and Liquefaction hydrogen hydrogen ​$1 -3.6/kg maritime fuels storage trucking ≥700 kg/day, 700 bar 1. Data based on cost-downs shared from leading-edge companies who have deployed at demonstration scale (or larger) Next generation ​HDMD road transport 2. Greater than or equal to 70% utilization, assumes line fill at high pressure fuel dispensing Sources: HDSAM, Argonne National Laboratory; Hydrogen Council at high utilization2 Figure 25: Industry-informed estimates of midstream costs by 2030 and potential end uses. Repurposed from DOE’s report, Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen. Figure 25 from DOE’s Commercial Pathways Liftoff increase throughput of these components. Once it is report summarizes the key midstream infrastructure dispensed, hydrogen is typically stored onboard pathways and industry cost estimates. As more real- vehicles in all-metal or composite-overwrapped world operational data becomes available, agencies pressure vessels. R&D is needed to reduce the cost of and the private sector can target the key priorities to current designs, such as through reductions in the enable cost reduction and commercial viability. cost of carbon fiber overwrap, and to advance novel approaches to onboard storage, such as in insulated After delivery, hydrogen may need to be conditioned liquid tanks. For example, R&D is needed in next onsite (e.g., pressurized, pre-cooled, or purified) generation fuel dispensing, which have higher costs, before use. At hydrogen fueling stations for vehicles, driven by the capital expenses involved and compression, storage, and dispensing are the three complexity of fueling vehicles at high rates and very largest drivers of levelized cost. R&D efforts are high pressures (700 bar) while complying with safety needed to reduce the cost, improve reliability, and protocols. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 46 Figure 26: Examples of cost drivers for hydrogen production, distribution, and storage technologies.172 U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 47 Strategy 3: Focus on Regional Networks The third strategy will focus on achieving large-scale, hydrogen producers, consumers, and local connective commercially viable deployment of clean hydrogen infrastructure to accelerate the use of hydrogen as a by matching the scaleup of clean hydrogen supplies clean energy carrier that can deliver or store with a concomitant and growing regional demand. tremendous amounts of energy. Shared – i.e., “open Co-locating large-scale clean hydrogen production access” - scaled infrastructure is critical to reducing with multiple end-uses can foster the development of the delivered cost of clean hydrogen and ensuring low-cost hydrogen and the necessary supporting that use cases, particularly those that do not have infrastructure to jumpstart the hydrogen economy in collocated production and offtake, can reach important market segments. In addition, pursuing a commercial scale. Midstream infrastructure requires regional strategy for hydrogen development will rapid scale-up, with investment requirements allow companies across the supply chain to take growing from $2 billion to $3 billion annually from advantage of the benefits that come when similar 2023 to 2030, increasing to $15 billion to $20 billion firms locate near one another in industrial clusters. annually from 2030 to 2050, as more distributed end- These can include the benefits that come from shared uses like road transportation adopt clean hydrogen infrastructure including access to raw materials and and local hubs and regional networks can be linked other downstream supply chains, transportation and into a national network. transmission systems, and a strong and well-trained The Hydrogen Shot Request for Information (RFI), labor pool. In addition, industrial clusters benefit from issued in 2021, received over 200 responses the proximity of innovation to manufacturing, leading describing diverse resources, end-uses, and impact to knowledge sharing across firms. Industrial clusters potential in various regions.173 Figure 27 is based on can also help to create stronger social and civic those RFI responses and synthesizes distinct regional engagement, as workers have multiple job examples and advantages in clean hydrogen opportunities in the region so are more likely to form production, storage, and end-use potential. lasting ties with the community. Ultimately, Respondents identified very specific end-use developing hydrogen through a hub approach will opportunities for clean hydrogen in some regions, create stronger and more competitive regional such as for port communities or offshore wind economies, much as the creation of auto industry generation. In other regions, stakeholders indicated a (e.g., Detroit) has done in the past. strong interest in leveraging abundant energy From a technical standpoint, DOE’s regional clean resources like biomass or infrastructure such as hydrogen networks will create near-term and long- energy storage or geological caverns. Stakeholders term jobs, increase tax revenues for regional also provided examples where disadvantaged or economies, and reduce emissions and multiple tribal communities could be engaged, and examples agencies, including DOL, will work together to of potential job opportunities. Details and examples determine opportunities for both near-term and were provided in presentations at the Hydrogen Shot sustained jobs benefits. Regional Clean Hydrogen Summit and DOE webinars.174,175 Hubs supported by the BIL will create networks of U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 48 Figure 27: Examples of regions identified by responses to the Hydrogen Shot Request for Information (RFI). The Hydrogen Shot RFI underlined the numerous Near-term, absence of long-term offtake contracts to opportunities for strategic hydrogen use across the manage volume and price risk also presents a U.S. In many cases, the current infrastructure that challenge to accelerating the clean hydrogen respondents highlighted can support early regional economy. Shifting from bilateral contracts to a deployment needs. The BIL’s Regional Clean commodity market could lower the cost of capital by Hydrogen Hub provision provides a unique, reducing counterparty risk, but the transition from unprecedented opportunity for the U.S. to jumpstart bilateral agreements would require significantly a clean hydrogen economy while achieving tangible increased coordination between investors and project regional and community-level benefits. Data developers across the value chain. Of the 12 gathered from the hubs will be used in future MMT/year of clean hydrogen production capacity analyses to identify optimal approaches to market annnounced in the U.S. to date, only ~10 percent has liftoff, such as using contracts for difference; achieved final investment decision (FID), largely due matching production with offtakers; creating to this lack of long-term offtake.3 Securing long-term targeted, large-scale demand with anchor tenants; offtake will be critical to ensure production projects and using existing infrastructure where applicable, reach FID and can access low cost of capital (e.g., including CCS and other pipeline infrastructure. bond debt). Figure 28 summarizes the critical elements of Long-term offtake agreements in the form of power successful Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, the three purchase agreements (PPAs) were critical for the “pillars” that characterize the hubs (per the BIL) and scale-up of wind and solar, but the hydrogen market, outlines key desired outcomes. like other commodity markets, has not historically U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 49 operated with these kinds of long-term, fixed price and industry analyses, DOE estimated the technical contracts. Prospective clean hydrogen buyers are potential for producing hydrogen from diverse additionally hesitant to commit to multi-year offtake domestic resources. The technical potential estimates given projected clean hydrogen cost declines. Policies for these renewable resources are shown in Figure 29 or mechanisms that address this issue could play a and Figure 30. role in the early scale-up of clean hydrogen projects. Longer-term, the development of a mature commodity market for clean hydrogen and its derivatives can also allow easier access to financing by providing transparent price information and allowing developers to hedge price and counterparty risk. The development of price transparency and standard contract terms are necessary prerequisites for a functioning commodity market for clean hydrogen. Figure 29: Production Potential of Hydrogen Across the United States.176 Lowest-cost production methods for clean hydrogen will depend upon regional resource availability, and early market developments will need to be located near end-users to reduce the costs of hydrogen delivery. The combination of natural resources, infrastructure assets, and hydrogen demand opportunities varies from region to region and will determine optimal region-specific approaches. Solar and wind resource potentials dominate in the plains, southwest, and mountain regions. Biomass resources are prevalent in the midwestern, northeastern, and southeastern United States. Major shale natural gas- producing regions include the Marcellus, Permian, and Haynesville formations. Geologic CO2 storage potential is dominant in the industrial heartland and the Gulf Coast, where natural gas resources are also Figure 28: Critical elements of successful Regional prevalent, as shown in Figure 32. With today’s nuclear Clean Hydrogen Hubs and key outcomes. fleet and next-generation, advanced nuclear approaches (including small modular reactors), there Regional production potential are multiple regional opportunities for clean, firm As part of the strategy, DOE will continue to refine nuclear power. Future work will include an and update regional analyses across the hydrogen assessment of the economic opportunities associated value chain, including the availability of water and supplying hydrogen by leveraging each of these other resources. Using data from national laboratory regional resources. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 50 240,000 (kg/km²/year) 100,000 <10,000 740,000 (kg/km²/year) 370,000 <3,000 a) Hydrogen production potential from onshore b) Hydrogen production potential from offshore wind resources, by county land area wind resources, by area 55,000 (kg/km²/year) 10,000 <1,000 230,000 (kg/km²/year) 100,000 <1,000 c) Hydrogen production potential from solid d) Hydrogen production potential from existing biomass resources, by county land area hydropower assets, by county land area 1,600,000 (kg/km²/year) 500,000 <10,000 1,300,000 (kg/km²/year) 750,000 <250,000 e) Hydrogen production potential from f) Hydrogen production potential from utility- concentrated solar power, by county land area scale PV, by county land area Figure 30: Production potential for clean hydrogen from onshore wind, offshore wind, biomass resources, existing hydropower, concentrated solar power, and utility-scale photovoltaic solar power. Alaska and Hawaii will be added in future roadmaps. (Source: NREL176) U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 51 Electrolyzers would likely need to be in regions with Tanks and liquid dewars are already commercially high wind and solar potential, or alongside high used in industry and at hydrogen fueling stations to capacity factor clean power, such as hydroelectric and store hydrogen at scales of hundreds of kilograms to nuclear power plants. In regions with high renewables many metric tonnes. Limited deployments of larger- penetration, electrolysis can help manage variable scale vessels have primarily stored hydrogen in liquid loads on the grid, utilizing excess capacity during form for aerospace applications that require the use peak production to produce hydrogen rather than of liquid hydrogen onboard. The world’s largest liquid letting power be curtailed. For instance, electrolyzers hydrogen storage vessel today is at Kennedy Space integrated with offshore wind in regions with Center in Florida, storing 1.25 million gallons or over transmission constraints could create another 330 tonnes of liquid hydrogen.179 Even larger scales revenue stream for the renewable generation. Federal of hydrogen storage currently employ underground agencies will assess various options in collaboration caverns and are used to buffer seasonal differences with states and local communities. between hydrogen supply and demand for the Regional availability of water resources is also an petrochemical sector. The U.S. has three large-scale important factor in the siting and sustainability of geological hydrogen storage caverns including the hydrogen production facilities. While the water world’s largest in Beaumont, TX, storing over 7,000 supply required for hydrogen production is likely to tonnes underground.44 represent a small fraction of annual freshwater Underground hydrogen storage caverns have consumption nationwide,177 water availability can primarily been excavated in salt deposits near the vary widely by region. Future analysis may identify point of hydrogen use, with limited demonstrations preferable locations for deployments of hydrogen in hard rock. Additional geologies used for natural production facilities based on regions of abundant gas storage and could potentially be used for water supply and may also identify strategies to hydrogen in the future include depleted oil and gas deploy supporting infrastructure in water-stressed reservoirs and aquifers. Figure 31, below, shows the regions, such as water distribution pipelines, approximate availability of these geological reclaimed purification systems, and desalination formations throughout the United States. In many plants. cases, these regions overlap with the dominant production potential regions shown in Figure 29. DOE Regional storage potential funds research on subsurface hydrogen storage As real-world hydrogen projects ramp up, federal through the Subsurface Hydrogen Assessment, agencies will continue to assess optimal approaches Storage, and Technology Acceleration (SHASTA) and siting opportunities for hydrogen storage at program.180 The program aims to expand the scale. Hydrogen storage can decouple power technical storage viability of hydrogen beyond salt generation from energy use and achieve lower costs and hard rock formations to expand the geographic than other technologies at scales of multiple days or diversity of low-cost hydrogen storage opportunities. weeks.178 Hydrogen can be stored in gaseous or DOE will continue its analyses and RDD&D on liquid vessels, in underground formations, or in storage location opportunities and on technologies materials, such as hydrogen carriers, depending on including advanced hydrogen carriers, such as how it will be used. Each approach has both ammonia and liquid organic hydrogen carriers, as advantages and disadvantages; several DOE and these can carry hydrogen at high energy densities. industry projects and analyses are underway to reduce cost and potential emissions and improve efficiency and storage capacity. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 52 Figure 31: Underground storage opportunities in the United States. (Source: SHASTA181) Many of these geologies and reservoirs can also be projects are currently identifying approaches to used for permanent CO2 storage in support of clean optimally leverage these resources and deploy future hydrogen production. Figure 32 depicts the locations CO2 and hydrogen infrastructure for cross-sector of potential CCS along with existing hydrogen and decarbonization. ammonia production plants. Ongoing analysis Figure 32: Potential locations for CCS based on geologic formations and existing hydrogen and ammonia plants in the United States. Alaska and Hawaii will be added in future roadmaps. (Source: Teletzke, G.F.182) U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 53 Regional end-use potential industry segments will depend on the viability of As shown in Figure 33, some regions in the country integrating clean hydrogen on a sector-by-sector and have industrial clusters where several industries are region-by-region basis. Yet, there is strong potential potential candidates to adopt hydrogen as a to leverage networks that can enable hydrogen feedstock or energy source. Decarbonizing these infrastructure or large-scale CCS and develop best practices that can be used in other sectors. Figure 33: Industrial clusters in the United States create potential regions for decarbonization hubs. (Source: Psarras et al.183) Strategic deployment of clean hydrogen will need to Regional clean hydrogen hubs will demonstrate the ensure clusters are not just a collection of disparate efficacy of coordinating regional decarbonization projects. Projects should be sized, scoped, and efforts and support the business case of these planned in coordination with each other to match projects to stimulate private capital investment. scale, cost, and duration. Coordinated projects will The hubs will also create avenues to engage help avoid stranded assets by providing a critical stakeholders at every stage of the process to earn mass of offtakers, leveraging CCS and other public support, develop community benefit infrastructure, and ensuring public investments pay agreements, and ensure projects advance dividends to meet our net-zero goal. environmental, health, and equity goals. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 54 Industries that already consume hydrogen at scale, Figure 35 show examples of current and future such as ammonia production, are likely to be early hydrogen production potential and the existing adopters of clean hydrogen, given their existing ammonia production sites. supply chains and economies of scale. Figure 34 and Figure 34: Existing hydrogen and ammonia production plants and potential wind energy resources in the United States. Figure 35: Existing hydrogen and ammonia production plants and nuclear energy plants in the United States. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 55 Supporting Each Strategy To support all three key strategies, federal agencies 2023.185 The requirements apply to several tax credits will leverage the entire continuum of activities across relevant to clean hydrogen technologies, including basic science184 through applied research, the Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit, the development, demonstration, and large-scale Alternative Fuel Refueling Property Credit, and the deployments. As shown in Figure 36, the continuum Credit for Carbon Oxide Sequestration, among of activities will be supported by foundational and others.185 The Department of Labor is responsible for crosscutting efforts to promote diversity, equity, determining the prevailing wage and can assist inclusion, and accessibility; engage communities, taxpayers and contractors to ensure that they ranging from environmental justice groups to Tribes, understand their responsibilities to secure tribal organizations and labor unions; develop the compliance.185 workforce; advance policy; support the technology and energy transition; and enable market adoption at The U.S. Government’s RDD&D activities are scale. informed by market-based technical targets that enable hydrogen use to be competitive with incumbent fuels across sectors. The BIL requires DOE to develop targets for the program to address near- term (up to 2 years), mid-term (up to 7 years), and long-term (up to 15 years) challenges to the advancement of clean hydrogen systems and technologies. 186 Key targets are shown in Table 1. Activities across government, industry, and academia must work in concert to advance technologies and provide market signals toward these targets. And, to ensure that the clean hydrogen market is self- sustaining (e.g., offers market-rate returns) when certain incentive programs (e.g., 45V, 45Q) expire. Many existing consortia and initiatives are already working to achieve these goals through collaborations between national laboratories, Figure 36: Foundational and crosscutting efforts will industry, and academia. Key examples include DOE’s support the entire lifecycle of activities at DOE, from H2NEW consortium on electrolyzer technologies, the basic research through large-scale deployment. M2FCT consortium to advance fuel cells for heavy- Workforce development and good job creation will duty trucks, the Hydrogen Materials Compatibility be supported by IRA. The U.S. Treasury Department Consortium (H-Mat), and other R&D projects and and Internal Revenue Service published guidance on first-of-a-kind demonstrations funded through the IRA’s prevailing wage and apprenticeship previous solicitations. requirements, which went into effect January 29, U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 56 Table 1: Key Program Targets 2022-2036. 2022-2023 2024-2028 2029-2036 • 3 or more pathways identified • 10 or more demos with renewables • 10 MMT per year by 2030or more with potential to meet (including offshore wind), nuclear, and of clean H2 produced in the U.S. Hydrogen Shot waste/fossil with CCS from diverse sources • 10,000 hours of high- • $2/kg clean H2 from electrolysis at scale • $1/kg clean H2 production from temperature electrolyzer testing by 2026* diverse resources at scale* Production • 3 or more pathways assessed for • 51 kWh/kg efficiency; 80,000-hr life; and • 46 kWh/kg efficiency; 80,000-hr life cycle emissions $250/kW for low temperature life; $100/kW uninstalled cost for • 1.25 MW of electrolyzers electrolyzers low temperature electrolyzers integrated with nuclear for H2 • 44 kWh/kg efficiency; 60,000-hr life; and • 80,000-hr life $200/kW cost for production $300/kW for high temperature high temperature electrolyzers • 2 or more conditional loan electrolyzers while maintaining or improving program agreements • 20 MW of nuclear heat extraction, efficiency distribution, and control for electrolysis • 10 kg/min average H2 fueling • 7 kWh/kg efficiency for H2 liquefaction • $4/kg H2 cost at scale (including Infrastructure & Supply Chains rate for heavy-duty applications • 50% cost reduction of carbon fiber for production, delivery, and • 40% reduction in footprint of H2 storage vessels (vs. 2020) dispensing at fueling stations) liquid H2 fueling stations vs. • 50% of membrane/ionomer material • 70% of membrane/ionomer current (2016) code. recovery and >95% of platinum material recovery and 99% of • 50% increase in seal and metal group metals (PGMs) recovery from PGMs from MEA pathways durability in H2 service vs. 2018 fuel cell membrane electrode identified through recycling and baseline assemblies (MEA) pathways identified upcycling • 400 kg/hr. high-pressure through recycling and upcycling • 3 or more pathways validated for compressors and cryopumps • 3 GW or more electrolyzer emissions reductions, while • 5% or better accuracy for H2 manufacturing capacity in the United meeting environmental and flow meters at up to 20 kg/min States energy justice priorities flow • $170/kW heavy-duty truck fuel • $140/kW heavy-duty truck fuel cell cost • $80/kW heavy-duty truck fuel cell cell cost vs. $200/kW baseline • 50% reduction of fuel cell PGMs vs. cost while also meeting durability • 18,000-hr fuel cell durability for 2020 baseline and performance buses. • 1 ton/week reduction of iron with H2 • $900/kW and 40,000-hr durability End-Use and Enablers • 1.5 MW or more of H2 fuel cells and pathway to 5,000 tonnes/day fuel-flexible stationary fuel cells for data center resilience • 9 ppm NOx emissions for 100% H2 • 4 or more end-use demos (e.g., • 1 MW scale electrolyzer and turbines, 2 ppm with selective catalytic steel, ammonia, storage) at scale fueling marine applications reduction • 10 MMT per year or more of clean • 15 fuel cell delivery trucks • 3 H2 fuel cell Super Truck projects H2 used in strategic markets at operating in disadvantaged completed scale aligned with the National community, creating potential • 2 or more pilot projects with tribes Hydrogen Strategy goal for market growth that reduces • 4 template community benefit emissions and creates jobs agreements • 1 or more integrated H2 for • 4 or more Regional Clean Hydrogen ammonia production Hubs using diverse resources and for demonstration multiple strategic end-uses * Modeled cost at scale to meet Hydrogen Shot goal U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 57 C: Guiding Principles and National Actions Guiding Principles Federal Agencies will adhere to guiding principles in eight categories Figure 37: Eight guiding principles for the development of clean hydrogen production, transport, delivery, storage, and use. • Enable deep decarbonization a competitive domestic industry, and sustained private investment, building upon American through strategic, high-impact ingenuity, talent, and initiative. Demonstration and uses: deployment programs (e.g., Regional Clean The U.S. Government will enable the national net- Hydrogen Hubs) will help de-risk first-of-a-kind zero and clean grid goals through targeted projects and scaled, shared infrastructure—helping deployments of clean hydrogen in sectors where to unlock lower delivered cost of hydrogen as well its use has the most impact, including industrial as access to commercial debt. processes, heavy-duty transport, high-temperature heat, and long duration energy storage. These • Foster Diversity, Equity, Inclusion & strategic deployments will be informed through Accessibility: analyses and stakeholder input to address key The U.S. Government will promote diversity, priorities including environmental, energy justice, equity, inclusion, and accessibility to effectively and economic benefits. advance the U.S. research, innovation, and commercialization enterprise. Federal agencies’ • Catalyze innovation and actions will support stewardship and promotion of investment: diverse and inclusive workplaces that value and The U.S. Government will foster partnerships with celebrate a diversity of people, ideas, cultures, and industry, academia, national laboratories, and educational backgrounds that are foundational to other stakeholders to invest in innovation across delivering on the clean hydrogen strategy. the entire RDD&D value chain for clean hydrogen technologies. DOE’s actions will stimulate growth, U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 58 • Advance Energy and Environmental the free and fair chance to join a union. Federal agencies’ actions will also provide opportunities Justice: for workers and communities transitioning away As a covered program under the Justice 40 from carbon-intensive sectors, leveraging existing initiative, the U.S. Government will prioritize and developing new skills across industries by energy and environmental justice. Federal utilizing and expanding registered apprenticeship agencies’ actions will seek to create new programs, developing sectoral strategies for programs, tools and initiatives that will increase workforce development, and supporting job transparency, community engagement, economic growth at each step in the hydrogen value chain— opportunities, and access to clean hydrogen from equipment manufacturing and trucking to technologies that can help improve the health and pipeline construction and CCS. DOE’s report, well-being of communities, including Tribal Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen, Nations and other communities who have been estimated approximately 100,000 new direct and historically underserved in alignment with the indirect jobs could be created related to the build- Justice40 Initiative. Siting and benefits of clean out of new projects and clean hydrogen hydrogen deployments should be developed infrastructure.3 Direct jobs relate to employment in through meaningful and sustained engagement roles such as engineering and construction, and with each community that desires to take part in indirect jobs relate to manufacturing and the raw the clean hydrogen economy and government- material supply chain. wide tools such as the Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool (CEJST)187 should be • Spur domestic manufacturing and consulted prior to engagement to help developers robust supply chains: identify burdens, disparities, and opportunities in The U.S. Government will promote U.S. overburdened and underserved communities. manufacturing, ensure robust, secure, and Additional government-sponsored community resilient supply chains, and increase exports. engagements and listening sessions are planned Federal agencies’ actions will utilize multiple tools, to help surface frontline and fenceline community from grants to financing to facilitating concerns, specifically around hydrogen partnerships. Recent DOE analyses have technologies including CCS technologies. Efforts characterized the makeup of hydrogen are already underway to understand and address technologies, as well as vulnerabilities in the community concerns, ranging from NOx emissions supply chain for electrolyzers and fuel cells.188 to environmental health risks associated with DOE is now supplementing this work with unconventional natural gas production, per- and substantial RD&D investments to reduce the cost polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) use in hydrogen of electrolyzer and fuel cell manufacturing and fuel cells and electrolyzes, and hydrogen leakage enable scale-up, expand the supply chain for detection. Future guidance will be issued to help electrolyzer and fuel cell components, and identify and quantify benefits that will flow to advance recycling technologies, in support of disadvantaged communities. Safe practices in the EPACT- 2005 Sections 815 and 816 (as enacted by production, storage, distribution, and use of BIL Section 40314).189 hydrogen will continue to be an integral part of development. • Enable affordability and versatility: • Grow Quality Jobs: The U.S. Government will target affordability and create flexibility in the energy system by The U.S. Government will focus on preserving and leveraging and coupling diverse sources, including growing quality jobs. These jobs are defined as renewables and high baseload clean assets such as good-paying, family-sustaining jobs with pathways nuclear power, utilizing fossil and CCS for advancement, worker voice in workplace health infrastructure where appropriate, and enabling and safety plan design and implementation, and U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 59 resilience and energy security. By using clean pursuant to Executive Order (E.O.) 13985, Advancing hydrogen as a fuel or feedstock or as an energy Racial Equity and Support for Underserved carrier and storage medium, federal agencies can Communities;190 E.O. 14020, Establishment of the provide multiple revenue streams across sectors White House Gender Policy Council;191 and E.O. and avoid stranded assets. 14008, Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad.192 • Approach holistically: The U.S. Government will approach clean Community engagement and collaboration, including hydrogen development and deployment work undertaken through community benefit holistically and will cultivate sustainable best agreements, will take time and must be part of a practices through targeted development to long-term effort. Programmatic changes are in support—not compete with—other development that extend response times, lower decarbonization technologies such as barriers for participation, and increase opportunities electrification. Federal agencies will foster rigorous for community engagement. By recognizing and and transparent analyses on social, environmental, addressing the challenges early on and across the economic, and energy impacts to help guide hydrogen value chain, we will collectively accelerate sustainable development of the nascent global progress towards our goals. With the right strategy clean hydrogen industry. and implementation plan, clean hydrogen technologies can reduce not only GHG emissions, but Federal agencies will use these guiding principles as emissions of nitrogen oxides and particulates from the U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and heavy-duty road transportation and stationary power, Roadmap is developed and continuously refined. improve human and environmental health, and Principles of equity and justice are a high priority, provide resilience and energy security—all while consistent with the Biden Administration’s creating new regional economic opportunities and commitments to ensure that overburdened, positioning the United States as a global leader in a underserved, and underrepresented individuals and nascent industry. communities have access to Federal resources U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 60 Actions Supporting the U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap Federal agencies, in partnership with state, local, and hydrogen strategy. While past analyses of the Tribal governments, and stakeholders will take action benefits of hydrogen have largely focused on GHG to develop and deploy clean hydrogen technologies. emissions, ongoing and planned activities are also Planned actions are outlined across the near-term aiming to quantify other benefits, such as mitigation through 2025, mid-term to 2029, and longer term to of criteria pollution, job creation, and domestic 2035. The plans outlined in this report will be used to leadership in innovation. Future versions of this fulfill the reporting requirement in the BIL and are Roadmap will describe these impacts in great expected to be continually refined and updated. They depth.193 are based on lessons learned and best practices from This is only the beginning of the national effort to the development of both hydrogen and other innovate and build the full value chain for clean advanced technologies, considering local and hydrogen from production through delivery and regional opportunities with a focus on environmental storage infrastructure, market adoption and and energy justice, and forging partnerships across economic development—continued effort and government, industry, investors, and academic and investment will be required. The U.S. Government is research institutions to speed progress. taking a holistic view of catalyzing investments and Several of these actions are already in progress and actions to accelerate the commercialization of will be supported by existing and recently announced hydrogen and related technologies across the Nation. public funding opportunities, such as initiatives under The National Strategy and Roadmap aligns with the DOE’s LPO and Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs under key hydrogen provisions in the BIL, as shown in BIL. Subject to annual congressional appropriations Figure 38, and will advance the broader national and private sector investment, federal agencies and effort to innovate and build the full value chain for other stakeholders will undertake additional actions clean hydrogen. across the RDD&D pipeline. DOE will track key indicators and metrics to track progress of the U.S. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 61 Figure 38: Timeline for key hydrogen provisions in the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. Federal agencies will work with states, Tribal examples of specific regulatory activities by the governments, communities, and other stakeholders various agencies. Agencies will work together to to identify regulatory gaps and develop strategies to regularly update this assessment and to identify address them. and prioritize actions to ensure the U.S. can accelerate the buildout of hydrogen production, Figure 39, based on input across agencies, shows delivery, storage, and end-use, while also addressing various segments of the hydrogen value chain from potential environmental concerns and ensuring production through end-use and lists the agencies equity and justice for overburdened, underserved, that may have jurisdiction in key areas. Based on a and underrepresented individuals and communities. DOE-funded report by Sandia National Laboratories,194 Table 2 and Table 3 (below) show U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 62 Figure 39: The regulatory landscape involves a suite of Federal and local regulators who may oversee each segment of the hydrogen value chain. (Source: Sandia National Lab) U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 63 Table 2: Examples of regulatory activities by U.S. agencies relevant to hydrogen production, storage, and delivery. Agency Regulation Summary EPA 40 CFR Part 98 Requires greenhouse gas reporting by applicable facilities, including related to hydrogen production and other applicable source Production categories. DOE IIJA Sec 40315 (Sec Directs DOE to develop a clean hydrogen production standard. 822 of EPACT-2005) FAA 14 CFR Part 420 Dictates the separation distance requirements for storage of liquid hydrogen and any incompatible energetic liquids. FERC* 18 CFR Part 157 Issuance of certificates of public convenience and necessity to prospective companies providing energy services or constructing and operating interstate natural gas pipelines and storage facilities. EPA 40 CFR 144, 146 Authorization to inject hydrogen for the purposes of subsurface storage. Storage OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910 Dictates the safety of the structural components and operations of gaseous and liquid hydrogen storage and delivery. BSEE 43 USC Chapter 29 Manages compliance programs governing oil, gas, and mineral operations on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). Transportation by Pipeline FERC* 18 CFR Part 153, 157, Applications for authorization to construct, operate, or modify facilities and 284 used for the export or import of natural gas. Issuance of certificates of public convenience and necessity to prospective companies providing energy services or constructing and operating interstate natural gas pipelines and storage facilities. Regulation of natural gas transportation in interstate commerce. PHMSA 49 CFR Part 192, 195 Prescribes minimum safety requirements for pipeline facilities, pipelines, and the transportation of gas or hazardous liquids within the limits of the outer continental shelf. USCG 33 CFR Part 154 Regulations for facilities transferring hazardous materials back and forth from a vessel to a facility. PHMSA 49 USC 5117 and 49 Lists and classifies hazardous materials for transportation and Transportation by CFR Part 172, 173, prescribes the requirements for papers, markings, labeling, and vehicle 174, 179, 180 placarding. Provides requirements for preparing hazardous materials for shipment as well inspection, testing, and other requirements for transportation of hazardous materials in or on rail cars, including construction & Rail usage instructions for DOT-113A60W tank cars. Gives the authority to authorize a variance that is still at the same safety level, special permit is required to use an alternative fuel that does not have a safety standard. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 64 FHWA 23 CFR Part 658, 924 Regulates size and weight of trucks and highway safety which includes bridges, tunnels, and other associated elements. FMCSA 49 CFR Part 356, 389, Motor carrier routing requirements, general motor carrier safety 397 regulations, and transportation of hazardous materials. Transportation by Road FTC 16 CFR Part 306 Describes the certification and posting of automotive fuel ratings in commerce. PHMSA 49 CFR Part 172, 173, Lists and classifies hazardous materials for transportation, and 177, 178, 180 prescribes requirements for papers, markings, labeling, and vehicle placarding. Provides requirements for preparing hazardous materials for shipment, and inspection, testing, and other requirements for transportation of hazardous materials via public highways (including transportation containers). PHMSA 49 CFR Part 172, 173, Lists and classifies hazardous materials for transportation and 176, 178, 180 prescribes the requirements for papers, markings, labeling, and vehicle Transportation by Waterways placarding. Provides requirements for preparing hazardous materials for shipment, as well inspection, testing, and other requirements for containers. Requirements for transportation by vessel. USCG 33 CFR Part 154, 156 Regulations for transferring hazardous materials back and forth from a and 46 CFR Part 38, vessel to a facility. 150, 151, 153, 154 Transfer of oil or hazardous material on the navigable waters or contiguous zone of the U.S. Requirements for transportation of liquified or compressed flammable gases, including incompatibility of hazardous materials and rules for containers. Regulations for ships and vessels carrying bulk cargo, including bulk liquified gases as cargo, residue, or vapor. * Application of some of these authorities to hydrogen may require additional legislative or regulatory action (e.g., FERC) U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 65 Table 3: Examples of regulatory activities by U.S. agencies relevant to end-use of hydrogen. End-Use System Agency Regulation Summary

14 CFR Part 23, 25, Requirements for electrical generating systems including auxiliary and FAA 27, 29 Subpart E backup power for airplanes and rotorcraft. Auxiliary Power and Regulates additional equipment on commercial vehicles to ensure it FMCSA 49 CFR Part 390 does not reduce the overall safety of the vehicle. Regulations for electrical systems, generators, protection from Alternative Power Supply FRA 49 CFR Part 229 hazardous gases from exhaust and batteries, and crashworthiness for locomotives. USCG 46 CFR Part 111 Regulations for power supply systems on ships. Requires greenhouse gas reporting by applicable facilities, including EPA 40 CFR Part 98 related to general stationary combustion and other applicable source Chemical and categories. Industrial Use Dictates the safety of the structural components and operations of OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910 gaseous and liquid hydrogen in terms of storage as well as delivery.

10 CFR Part 503, Relates to new baseload powerplants including the use of alternative DOE 504 fuels as a primary energy source. Electricity Production Addresses GHG emissions from fossil fuel-fired electric generating EPA 40 CFR Part 60 units (EGUs). Regulations regarding small power production and cogeneration FERC* 18 CFR Part 292 facilities. Regulations for self-propelled vessels that contain bulk liquified gases Import/Exp as cargo, cargo residue, or vapor.

33 CFR Part 154, ort USCG

156 Transfer of oil or hazardous materials on the navigable waters or Terminals contiguous zone of the U.S.

23 CFR Part 658, Regulates the size and weight of trucks and highway safety which FHWA Use in Consumer and 924 includes bridges, tunnels, and other associated elements. Commercial Vehicles Provides Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards for motor vehicles NHTSA 49 CFR 571 and motor vehicle equipment. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 66

14 CFR Part 23, Provides requirements and airworthiness standards for airplanes and Use in FAA 25,26, 27, 29, 33 rotorcraft. Aviation Requirements for National Public Transportation Safety Plan for public FTA 49 USC Chapter 53 transportation that receives Federal funding. Use in Maritime Regulation of vessel construction for both passenger and cargo

46 CFR Parts 24– USCG applications as well as general fuel requirements based on the flash 196 point of the fuel.

49 CFR Part 229, Locomotive safety design and crashworthiness requirements, including FRA 238 safety requirements for passenger locomotives. Provides guidance for rail fixed guideway systems and the oversight of safety, including hazard management and safety and security plans

49 CFR Part 659, Use in Rail FTA and review. 674 Mandates state safety oversight of fixed guideway public transportation systems. * Application of some of these authorities to hydrogen may require additional legislative or regulatory action (e.g., FERC) U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 67 Actions and Milestones for the Near-, Mid-, and Long- term Figure 40: The national action plan for clean hydrogen. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 68 Actions to support clean, affordable, and sustainable hydrogen production 2022-2025 2026-2029 2030-2035 • Assess pathways from lifecycle, • Deploy clean hydrogen from • Produce at least 10 MMT/year sustainability, cost, regional, and equity renewables, nuclear, fossil + CCS of clean hydrogen by 2030. perspectives to prioritize strategies, at scale. • Enable clean hydrogen determine gaps, and inform interim goals. • Enable clean hydrogen production at $1/kg3 from • Establish Clean Hydrogen Production production from electrolysis at diverse resources. Standard. $2/kg.2 • Demonstrate electrolysis • Demonstrate clean hydrogen production • Enable multi-gigawatt-scale stacks that minimize the use technologies from multiple pathways, domestic electrolyzer of critical materials and including pyrolysis, waste, renewables, and manufacturing capacity. achieve targeted performance nuclear. • Demonstrate catalysts and and durability. • Reduce the cost of electrolyzers at scale components that minimize use • Demonstrate novel, through RDD&D on manufacturing, stacks, of critical materials while commercially viable and BOP components. achieving competitive approaches to hydrogen • Reduce the cost of thermal conversion performance and durability. production leveraging diverse technologies through RDD&D on modular • Optimize integration between feedstocks, such as designs and process intensification. electrolyzers and clean energy wastewater or high- Clean Hydrogen Production • Develop low-cost, durable membranes and supplies to reduce cost and temperature heat, at scale. separation materials. improve efficiency and • Ensure resilient and • Identify opportunities for standardization resilience. sustainable domestic supply of components, reduce dependence on • Advance the most promising chains are available for all critical materials, and foster a robust supply concepts for hydrogen production pathways chain. production currently at lab scale, employed and enable • Design and conduct accelerated stress such as thermochemical, independence from imports. testing techniques to assess and improve photoelectrochemical or • Continue to collect data from durability. biological approaches. real-world deployments to • Publish case studies on pathways, • Collect data from real-world inform RDD&D, identify emissions, and cost and update GREET demonstrations to inform remaining gaps and refine capabilities for user-friendliness, RDD&D and continue improving strategies. transparency, and additional pathways in performance and durability. • Apply best practices, lessons support of 45V. • Refine and update pathways learned, and rigorous • Develop rigorous data collection and assessments to ensure the most analyses, including through monitoring framework for future sustainable, equitable, resilient, global collaboration and deployments. and affordable approaches are sustainability frameworks to • Identify needed worker competencies and targeted. ensure the most sustainable, develop consensus-based, industry- • Use rigorous analyses, lessons equitable, resilient, and accepted training credentials where learned, best practices, and affordable approaches are possible. broad stakeholder feedback to advanced to maximize • Promote higher-education and identify pathways for scale up benefits. apprenticeship programs, especially in with highest benefits. Review • Sustain university, community disadvantaged communities, for training and refine work competencies college, and union training the clean hydrogen workforce, including on and industry-accepted training programs to support a robust safety, codes, and standards. standards to match industry workforce. • Promote career awareness efforts to attract need. people to join the hydrogen workforce

2 Modeled cost at scale, meets BIL provision (Sec. 816 of EPACT-2005) $2/kg by 2026.

3 Modeled cost at scale to meet Hydrogen Shot goal. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 69 Actions to support safe, efficient, and reliable clean hydrogen delivery and storage infrastructure 2022-2025 2026-2029 2030-2035 • Develop and update rigorous • Validate and refine analyses, • Design networks of hydrogen analytical models and tools to models, and tools to prioritize infrastructure optimized for assess delivery and storage delivery and storage pathways for regional supply and demand, in pathways, determine gaps, and various applications. collaboration with local prioritize strategies. • Demonstrate efficient and reliable communities and stakeholders to • Develop technologies to tightly hydrogen pipeline compressor maximize benefits and ensure monitor and mitigate hydrogen operation. energy, environmental, and equity leaks and boil-off. • Quantify loss rates from gaseous goals are addressed. • Assess compatibility of pipeline and liquid hydrogen infrastructure • Demonstrate advanced liquefaction and component materials with to inform mitigation requirements with double the efficiency of hydrogen and hydrogen blends in large-scale deployments. current concepts. with natural gas. • Develop designs for commercial- • Develop long term storage • Advance novel approaches for low scale novel, high efficiency systems plan/strategic hydrogen reserve to Delivery and Storage Infrastructure cost, high efficiency hydrogen for hydrogen liquefaction. ensure resilience of supply. liquefaction and boil-off mitigation. • Advance promising concepts for • Deploy Regional Clean Hydrogen • Conduct discovery and hydrogen carriers and design Hubs with advanced low-cost clean development of hydrogen carrier reliable, low-cost regenerator hydrogen storage and materials for use in bulk storage systems. infrastructure. and distribution. • Initiate regional bulk hydrogen • Collect data, including emissions • Identify geologic formations that storage demonstrations, including data, from demonstrations of bulk can be used for bulk hydrogen underground approaches, and hydrogen distribution (e.g., storage, and associated ensure local and regional benefits. through pipelines or carriers) in development and operating • Demonstrate novel, efficient, and real-world environments to inform requirements. low-cost approaches to bulk RDD&D that reduces cost and • Develop and optimize designs for hydrogen delivery. improves reliability. hydrogen infrastructure in key • Deploy scalable hydrogen fueling • Continue collecting data to inform applications, such as industry and stations to support early fleet scale up of optimal delivery and energy storage. markets, such as heavy-duty trucks storage pathways and RDD&D. • Develop technologies for high and buses. • Ensure any safety or other best throughput dispensing of • Ensure monitoring systems and practices related to hydrogen hydrogen for heavy-duty vehicles. data collection are in place for infrastructure are shared across • Develop and harmonize fueling potential hydrogen and other diverse stakeholders to enable protocols for heavy-duty and off- emissions/releases. continuous improvement. road vehicles for which hydrogen is • Design sustainable and equitable • Leverage global collaborations on the optimal solution. regional clean hydrogen networks hydrogen infrastructure to inform • Accelerate RDD&D to reduce the in key locations to maximize long term investment plans and cost of high pressure and liquid benefits, ensuring energy and hydrogen exports opportunities. hydrogen storage tanks, including environmental justice and equity. carbon fiber composite vessels. • Establish data monitoring and collection framework to assess upstream and on-site emissions. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 70 Actions to support clean hydrogen use and broader market adoption 2022-2025 2026-2029 2030-2035 • Lay regulatory groundwork for large- • Enable international • Develop market structures and scale clean hydrogen deployments harmonization of codes and regulatory guidance to enable across production, processing, standards related to hydrogen clean hydrogen exports. delivery, storage, and end-use. technologies. • Utilize lessons learned from • Work across industries (e.g., nuclear, • Address regulatory challenges large-scale deployments to renewables, fossil, CCS, energy to increase electrolyzer access identify priority sectors for storage) to identify regulatory, and to renewable and nuclear future growth with a focus on policy gaps, and key strategies to energy. holistic approaches that address them (e.g., “Dig Once” • Share safety best practices and support the most efficient, approaches to co-locate lessons learned from early affordable, and climate-aligned transmission, CO2, hydrogen, and deployments through publicly goals that maximize public other conduits) to minimize impacts. accessible platforms. health safety and the • Develop streamlined guidance on • Deploy at least two Regional environment. hydrogen pipeline and large-scale Clean Hydrogen Hubs, • Demonstrate and quantify the project permitting with stakeholder demonstrating hydrogen use in benefits of hydrogen in engagement and addressing hard-to-decarbonize sectors enabling the resilience of future environmental, energy, and equity (e.g., industry and heavy-duty clean energy systems and End-Use and Market Adoption priorities. transport). addressing disaster mitigation • Develop market structures and • Develop national guidance for (e.g., microgrids, cyber security, offtake agreements to accelerate hydrogen blending limits. remote communities). progress. • Supply clean hydrogen to • Demonstrate ultra-low-NOx • Initiate transition to clean hydrogen produce at least 3 billion turbine operation and low-PGM for hard-to-decarbonize industrial gallons of sustainable aviation fuel cell operation on 100% applications and identify specific fuels from biomass and wastes hydrogen for power generation locations for potential scale up (e.g., by 2030. by 2030. ammonia, refineries, steel). • Increase the efficiency and cost- • Launch at least one Regional • Advance efficient end-use effectiveness of recovery and Clean Hydrogen Hub technologies (fuel cells/other power recycling of raw materials from demonstrating hydrogen use in conversion with low/zero emissions) electrolyzers, fuel cells, and energy storage for a clean grid and down select for scale up. other components across the and quantify opportunities for • Complete robust modeling and hydrogen value chain to ensure hydrogen to support achieving improve data collection to quantify independence from foreign a carbon pollution free grid by climate impacts of hydrogen imports. 2035 including regional factors. leakage. • Collect and analyze safety, risk, • Continue collecting and • Develop best practices and guidance and reliability data to develop analyzing safety, risk and to assess life cycle emissions of real- early insights that can influence reliability data and developing world deployments of clean future deployments. insights that enable continuous hydrogen and inform “guarantees of improvement. origin” and certification schemes. • Establish safety, risk and reliability data monitoring and collection frameworks. • Catalyze long-term, credit-worthy offtake including from more nascent sectors that are on the cusp of adopting clean hydrogen. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 71 Actions to enable a safe, affordable, and sustainable clean hydrogen economy and ensure energy justice 2022-2025 2026-2029 2030-2035 • Develop and implement frameworks for • Refine and continuously • Quantify benefits from broad and inclusive community improve community deployments and identify engagement, including from engagement and inclusion additional policy or program environmental and energy justice, and apply lessons learned. priorities to accelerate disadvantaged communities, Tribes, Tribal • Foster public-private progress in targeted, no- organizations labor unions, industry, partnerships to enable regrets areas. academia, national laboratories, and inclusion and accelerate • Deploy manufacturing Federal, state, and local governments to progress. facilities for clean hydrogen ensure broad participation and hold • Develop and implement technologies in listening sessions to gather stakeholder community benefit disadvantaged communities feedback. agreements with for local and regional • Incorporate Community Benefit Plans into disadvantaged communities benefits. funding opportunities requiring applicants in Hub regions. • Evaluate the techno-socio- to describe and commit to community • Launch deployments of economic impact of and labor engagement, investing in hydrogen technologies that Regional Clean Hydrogen creating good jobs, furthering diversity, reduce criteria pollution in Hubs. equity, inclusion and accessibility and nonattainment areas and • Develop and refine market meeting Justice 40 goals. provide resilience, jobs, and structures to distribute costs • Identify metrics for diversity, equity, other key benefits for local and benefits of new inclusion, accessibility, and other key and disadvantaged technologies equitably. priorities, for teams and organizations, communities. • Ensure adaptation, cyber, Enablers and Environmental and Energy Justice and geographical/community locations • Conduct impact assessments resilience, and other for Federally funded demonstrations. of hydrogen technologies on mitigation approaches are • Launch tools and platforms (e.g., regional water supply and included in strategic plans H2Matchmaker) to facilitate partnerships, other regional resources. for scale up. inclusion, and market success. • Identify and apply lessons • Update and refine • Develop retraining programs for workers learned for environmental sustainability frameworks (e.g., from fossil industries), enabling both and risk assessments, and best practices to inform near- and long-term good paying jobs. including through global and future deployments of • Develop recruitment and career programs regional collaborations. hydrogen. for students from underrepresented • Work with unions to develop • Leverage global communities and foster diversity, equity, and expand registered collaborations and initiatives inclusion, and accessibility. apprenticeship programs for to maximize success across • Develop and implement sustainability hydrogen technologies. the RDD&D pipeline and frameworks and NEPA best practices. • Establish education and ensuring an equitable clean • Develop education resources to support engagement pathways for energy transition. hub community outreach and first responders and code engagement strategies. officials. • Improve data collection on regional • Utilize H2Tools and other priorities (e.g., criteria pollution) and platforms to share best identify applications to inform clean practices and lessons learned. hydrogen deployments. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 72 Phases of Clean Hydrogen Development Figure 41: Clean hydrogen will be developed in waves, based on the relative attractiveness in each end-use application. Arrows depict the timeframe when hydrogen is expected to be competitive with incumbent technologies at scale throughout the U.S. The market penetration of hydrogen technologies will and where there is access to hydrogen and depend on numerous factors including technical compatible end uses. This includes existing refining maturity, cost, infrastructure availability, and ammonia production plants. Industrial clusters manufacturing and supply chain capacities, the cost that co-locate large scale production with end-use for of other low-carbon solutions, the policy and such applications can help drive down costs and regulatory landscape, regional and state initiatives, create the infrastructure that could be leveraged for industry momentum and commitments, and other markets in subsequent phases. unlocking private capital and investment. • Forklifts and other material handling Based on two key factors—estimated break-even and equipment in warehouses, ports, and other the relative attractiveness of hydrogen as a industrial sites have high utilization, predictable decarbonization solution—as well as stakeholder refueling locations and a need for fast refueling. input, the federal government envisions three The U.S. Government has already catalyzed this application adoption phases or “waves” for clean niche application in the United States, enabling hydrogen use in the United States. Figure 41 depicts thousands of systems in the market and a nascent how potential markets will evolve in the U.S. and infrastructure. ramp up in the early, mid, and long term. The relative • Refineries represent the largest hydrogen market placement of end-use applications in each phase is today and have no alternative for cracking heavy based on a range of quantitative and qualitative crude oil and for desulfurization. Switching to the factors and will be updated over time as the industry use of clean hydrogen will create demand in the and policy landscape evolves. near term and immediately reduce emissions. First Wave • Transit buses could be an attractive use case, particularly in regions that require long-distance Applications of clean hydrogen in the first wave will operation and high uptimes and for transit be jumpstarted by existing markets that have few agencies with large bus fleets where individual alternatives to clean hydrogen for decarbonization U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 73 battery electric vehicle charging may be with internal combustion engines as hydrogen and challenging. fuel cell costs decline. • Long-haul heavy-duty trucks have high • Certain industrial chemical production, such utilization, high energy requirements, and need to as in the plastics industry, requires high- refuel quickly. Together with medium-duty temperature heat that is difficult to achieve with vehicles, they produce about 20 percent of electricity, or rely on hydrogen feedstock from transportation-sector greenhouse gas emissions in fossil sources today. These sectors could be the United States.195 decarbonized using clean hydrogen for heat • Heavy machinery in mining, construction and generation, and as a feedstock. agriculture could benefit from fuel cell • Steel production can decarbonize with clean propulsion, since they have high power hydrogen when applied to iron ore-based steel requirements, need to be refueled quickly, and production that requires carbon-free reductants may need to operate far from power grids. These and high temperatures, where electrolytic applications require large volumes of hydrogen production would not yet be viable. and will create demand. • Energy storage & power generation can • Ammonia production uses carbon-intensive transition to gas turbines fueled with mixtures of hydrogen as a feedstock today can be replaced hydrogen and natural gas for near-term emission with clean hydrogen without retrofitting plants. As reductions in fossil assets. Pure hydrogen can also the second largest captive market requiring be used as technologies become available that hydrogen following refining, ammonia can also produce low nitrogen oxides. Fuel cells can also be offer stable demand for clean hydrogen. used as a power conversion technology. Clean hydrogen can play a key role in seasonal storage By supporting demonstrations and infrastructure for to decarbonize the grid and reduce fossil-based many of the above markets, federal agencies can generation. enable high volumes of hydrogen in limited regions • Aviation can transition to sustainable fuels that and provide tangible benefits to disadvantaged are produced using clean hydrogen and biomass communities or workers that would otherwise be and waste feedstocks, contributing to the Biden- exposed to diesel exhaust and other pollutants. Harris Administration goal of 3 billion gallons of sustainable aviation fuel.114 The production of Second Wave clean hydrogen at scale will also lay the Applications in the second wave include use cases groundwork to produce power-to-liquids in the where clean hydrogen offers a growing economic longer term. Industry feedback suggest certain value proposition, supported by commitments by market segments could additionally use hydrogen industry and policy momentum. This phase includes a directly, though cryogenic storage may be broader range of transportation use cases and widens required due to energy density requirements. to include greater use of industrial fuel and feedstock. A few examples of additional applications Third Wave beyond those in the first wave include: Applications in the third wave will become competitive as clean hydrogen production scales • Medium-duty trucks powered by hydrogen fuel significantly and as costs decline and infrastructure cells should become increasingly available at scale as heavy-duty transport leads the way in becomes available. For example: expanding hydrogen distribution and refueling • Backup power & stationary power from fuel infrastructure. cells can replace diesel generators in providing • Regional ferries powered by fuel cells, which resilience to critical 24/7 facilities such as hospitals could transport people or goods over short and data centers, also offering advantages to distances, are likely to become cost-competitive U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 74 disadvantaged communities and improving air such as those listed in Figure 42, to evaluate the role quality. Backup power is distinct from energy of hydrogen in industry, transportation, and the storage as its role is to provide resilience for a energy sector. Data from real-world deployments in singular customer or microgrid, whereas energy the coming years will be used to continually refine storage supports the macro grid. these tools to ensure they reflect status of technology • Methanol produced with clean hydrogen can also cost and performance. be used directly as a fuel or fuel supplement, for Analysis tools that DOE has funded to date cut across container ships, rail, or other maritime many different aspects of hydrogen markets. applications, and as an energy carrier. Foundational tools evaluate the cost and • Container ships carry about 90 percent of global performance of individual technologies, such as trade by volume, producing about 3 percent of hydrogen production or infrastructure equipment. global carbon emissions and a larger share of Technology assessments can then be used in supply sulfur dioxide emissions.196 Potential alternatives chain analyses and to characterize the total cost and during the third wave include clean ammonia, emissions of an application in a region. Supply chain clean methanol, and liquified clean hydrogen. analyses then inform market adoption analysis—for • Cement can use clean hydrogen to decrease example, estimating the value proposition of direct CO2 emissions where electrification is not an hydrogen energy storage and sales of fuel cell trucks. option due to high heat requirements. All analyses are used to inform RDD&D activities and • Blending with existing natural gas networks real-world data from technical demonstrations are can support targeted decarbonization of high- fed back into foundational models to improve temperature heating systems, primarily in the assessments in the future. industrial sector where high temperatures are needed for certain sectors, such as chemicals. Ongoing government-funded and government-led While this application can start even during the analyses are identifying optimal pathways to achieve first wave, costs must decline considerably to be net-zero emissions economy-wide by 2050, using economically viable. cross-sector tools such as the Global Change Analysis Model (GCAM) and the National Energy Modeling The phases of clean hydrogen deployment are highly System (NEMS). DOE is currently funding updates to dependent on the development of technology, these tools to represent diverse hydrogen research, and supportive policy structures. However, production, distribution, and utilization methods that concentrating efforts on sectors that are more are expected to be deployable at scale in the near- commercially viable, lack decarbonization term. Cross-office analyses completed using these alternatives, and enjoy industry momentum will models may inform strategy in future versions of this increase the impact of public investments. roadmap. In collaboration with international partnerships, such Systems Analysis Will Continue to as Mission Innovation, DOE is also funding the Inform the U.S. National Clean development of metrics and criteria that can be used Hydrogen Strategy and Actions to ascertain the impacts of hydrogen deployments on sustainability, such as on water consumption, labor Robust and transparent analysis and modeling efforts opportunities, air quality improvements and more. completed through collaborations between national DOE’s solicitation for Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs laboratories, industry, and academia will continue to also evaluates applicants based on environmental inform priorities, milestones, and actions to advance justice criteria, such as community benefits. These clean hydrogen deployment in priority sectors. Over criteria and impacts will be further described in future the past several decades, the federal government, versions of the roadmap. including DOE, has funded the development of tools, U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 75 Figure 42: A suite of tools and models support systems analysis work from fundamental model validation and techno-economic work, to planning, optimization, and integrated analysis. ADOPT: Automotive Deployment Options Projection Tool; Autonomie: (a vehicle system simulation tool); BEAM: Behavior, Energy, Autonomy, and Mobility; FASTSim: Future Automotive Systems Technology Simulator; GCAM: Global Change Assessment Model; GREET: Greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in Technologies Model; H2A: The Hydrogen Analysis Project; H2FAST: Hydrogen Financial Analysis Scenario Tool; HDRSAM: Heavy-Duty Refueling Station Analysis Model; HDSAM: Hydrogen Delivery Scenario Analysis Model; HRSAM: Hydrogen Refueling Station Analysis Model; LAVE-Trans: Light-Duty Alternative Vehicle Energy Transitions; PLEXOS: (an integrated energy model); POLARIS: (a predictive transportation system model); ReEDS: Regional Energy Deployment System; REMI: Regional Economic Models, Inc.; RODeO: Revenue Operation and Device Optimization Model; SERA: Scenario Evaluation and Regionalization Analysis; StoreFAST: Storage Financial Analysis Scenario Tool; VISION: (a transportation energy use prediction model) U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 76 Collaboration and Coordination Efficient and effective collaboration and government representatives discussed a potential coordination are vital to implement the U.S. national framework for global hydrogen coordination at the clean hydrogen strategy. Agencies have already been launch of the Hydrogen Breakthrough Agenda in coordinating with each other, and with industry, Glasgow at COP26 in November 2021. Such a states, and numerous stakeholders to execute on coordination framework would help unify various hydrogen related activities.197 Agencies will also ramp organizations and initiatives199 to avoid duplication, up engagement across the entire spectrum of leverage resources, and accelerate the successful stakeholders from industry and academia to labor scale up of clean hydrogen technologies. The U.S. unions, disadvantaged communities, and Tribal Government will work with the UK and other communities. Several opportunities exist across countries to strengthen coordination and will agencies, building on activities underway over more continue to play a key role in several multi-lateral and than a decade198 to accelerate progress aligned with bi-lateral hydrogen partnerships. Table 4 shows the National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap. examples of preliminary feedback from over 30 Examples include the following, though many others countries engaged in clean hydrogen initiatives, can play a role as the clean hydrogen economy developed through the Hydrogen Breakthrough develops. Agenda. As specific activities and mutually agreed upon priorities are defined, the U.S. Government will The U.S. will also continue to work across countries to continue to play a leadership role to foster enable an affordable, clean, and sustainable global collaboration, share information, and accelerate hydrogen economy and to achieve the U.S. action towards tangible outcomes and successes. Government’s collective climate goals. Multiple Table 4: Emerging priorities for strengthened global collaboration. Regulation, Demand Creation Finance & Research & Standards & & Management Investment Innovation Certification Demand signals along Access to appropriate Research & Innovation Regulatory frameworks with matching supply to finance is critical. underpins progress across including internationally avoid stranded assets are Investments are hydrogen systems — accepted and an important driver of starting to be made but helping reduce costs, implemented standards investment in clean scale is still small improve performance, & certification hydrogen infrastructure relative to needs. address supply chains, schemes across the and will build investor Developed countries face and broaden applicability. hydrogen value chain are confidence. challenges but Significant activity essential enablers of particularly acute for exists driving action in production, trade, and Some activity exists but developing world. multiple countries. Scope use. coordination should be strengthened at Some activity exists but exists to accelerate Significant work is sufficient scale, not widely coordinated, innovation to reduce underway by a wide range visibility, and breadth. visible or with sufficient cost and increase of actors on key elements. scale and breadth. scale— particularly for Activities are not yet Scope to explore how pilot and demo projects closely coordinated, public and private sector and gaps are unclear. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 77 actors can strengthen Scope exists to increase and to include more Ensuring rapid and wide demand signals to ensure public and private sector countries. adoption remains offtakers and supply investment, particularly challenging. Scope exists to build on chains to reduce risk. enabling investment and existing initiatives to Scope exists to connect coordination with increase diversity and existing work across developing countries. scalability of demo entities, identify and projects, involve more address gaps and elevate countries and share and broaden political learnings more widely to support. guide RDD&D. The U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and include enabling industrial ports as hubs for Roadmap also supports recommendations outlined in hydrogen at scale; using existing gas infrastructure the IEA Future of Hydrogen report released at the to spur new clean hydrogen supplies; supporting

2019 G20 Summit:200 transportation fleets, freight, and corridor; and enabling hydrogen shipping to jumpstart 1. “Establish a role for hydrogen in long-term energy international hydrogen trade. strategies … Key sectors include refining, chemicals, iron and steel, freight and long- U.S. Government activities as outlined in this distance transport, buildings, and power document are also aligned with the Global Action generation and storage.” Agenda as developed through the Hydrogen Energy 2. “Stimulate commercial demand for clean Ministerial in September 2019. Key pillars include:201 hydrogen.” This includes scaling up both hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCS and hydrogen (using 1. “Collaboration on technologies and coordination renewables) as well as water electrolysis using on the harmonization of regulation, codes and nuclear resources. standards;” 3. “Address investment risks of first movers.” New 2. “Promotion of information sharing international applications for hydrogen, as well as clean joint research and development emphasizing hydrogen supply and infrastructure projects can hydrogen safety and infrastructure supply chains;” be supported through tools such as loan 3. “Study and evaluation of hydrogen’s potential guarantees to reduce risk. across sectors including its potential for reducing 4. “Support R&D to bring down costs. Alongside cost both carbon dioxide emissions and other reductions from economies of scale, R&D is crucial pollutants; and” to lower costs and improve performance.” 4. “Communication, Education and Outreach” 5. “Eliminate unnecessary regulatory barriers and harmonize standards. Project developers face DOE has already played a strong leadership role in challenges where regulations and permit convening and supporting its counterparts in requirements are unclear.” Addressing safety, multiple nations. DOE has long been recognized as codes and standards is necessary for a harmonized instrumental in accelerating progress through global supply chain. tangible outcomes as a co-lead for the hydrogen 6. “Engage internationally and track progress.” initiatives under the auspices of both the Clean Enhanced international co-operation is essential Energy Ministerial and Mission Innovation, as former and supported by a number or partnerships. chair and current vice chair of the IPHE, and as a 7. “Focus on four key opportunities to further strong contributor to the IEA’s hydrogen and fuel cell increase momentum over the next decade.” These programs. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 78 Concrete actions include launching DOE’s H2 Twin In summary, through the cohesive and coordinated Cities initiative202 to foster partnerships between efforts by the federal government, along with states, cities across continents deploying hydrogen industry, National Laboratories, academia, and technologies, with emphasis on equity and justice, through extensive stakeholder input and co-leading initiatives to facilitate international trade collaboration, implementation of this plan will and develop a common methodology for assessing contribute to achieving the vision set forth for the carbon footprint of hydrogen, harmonizing codes hydrogen in the United States: Affordable clean and standards, and launching an early career network hydrogen for a net-zero carbon future and a that is run entirely by students and early career sustainable, resilient, and equitable economy. professionals from more than 34 countries. The U.S. Government will continue to advance these and additional concrete actions as global momentum builds for clean hydrogen. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 79 Conclusion Clean hydrogen, as shown in the Biden-Harris Federal agencies, through a whole of government Administration’s Long-Term Strategy of the United approach, are committed to working with partners in States, is an important element of the Nation’s path industry, academia, national laboratories, local and to decarbonization. Though much remains uncertain, Tribal communities, and more to advance this the potential for hydrogen is clear. Focused transition and will leverage a broad array of tools investment and action in the near, mid, and long- including policies, financial assistance, loans, term will lay the foundation for broader clean apprenticeship programs, and stakeholder hydrogen adoption, drive down cost, and increase engagement, to accelerate progress. Further details scale in a sustainable and holistic manner. Clean and appendices will continue to be developed to hydrogen across the entire RDD&D spectrum, ensure the most up to date information is available203 catalyzed by the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and the and DOE will update this document at least every Inflation Reduction Act, will both enable three years, as required. decarbonization of hard-to-abate sectors and create Through effective collaboration and with the right and preserve good-paying jobs, provide strategies and implementation plans, the United environmental and energy justice benefits, and create States can and must succeed in the development of a energy independence and export opportunities for sustainable, resilient, and equitable clean hydrogen the United States. economy. Government actions can support and catalyze investment across the value chain for clean hydrogen. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 80 Acknowledgments DOE was required to develop this document per the and the Offices of Energy Efficiency and Renewable BIL (Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §814 (codified as Energy (across the pillars of Renewables, Sustainable

42 U.S.C. 16161b (2021)) but would like to Transportation, and Energy Efficiency), Fossil Energy acknowledge multiple Federal agencies for their input and Carbon Management, Nuclear Energy, Science, and guidance, particularly the Hydrogen Interagency Technology Transitions, Policy, Clean Energy Working Group which was established by the Energy Demonstrations, Indian Energy Policy and Programs, Policy Act of 2005 and includes more than 10 Federal Economic Impact and Diversity, Energy Jobs, agencies. DOE appreciates early engagement by the Electricity, Congressional and Intergovernmental Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association (FCHEA) Affairs, International Affairs, Loan Programs Office, and its members and FCHEA’s hosting of listening and Advanced Research Projects Agency – Energy. sessions that included the following organizations: Multiple sessions were convened through DOE’s California Fuel Cell Partnership; California Hydrogen Science and Energy Technology Team to coordinate Business Council; Clean Hydrogen Future Coalition; across the spectrum of RDD&D. Authors of DOE’s Colorado Hydrogen Network; Connecticut Hydrogen Report, Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean and Fuel Cell Coalition; Green Hydrogen Coalition; Hydrogen, particularly Hannah Murdoch and Jason Hawaii Technology Development Corp; Hydrogen Munster provided valuable input and assessments. Forward; Massachusetts Hydrogen Coalition; National Technical and program managers at fifteen DOE Fuel Cell Research Center, University of California National Labs engaged in hydrogen RDD&D (Irvine); New Jersey Fuel Cell Coalition; Ohio Fuel Cell provided input for concrete actions and milestones. Coalition; Renewable Hydrogen Alliance; Southeast DOE is particularly grateful to McKinsey who was also Hydrogen Energy Alliance; and US Hydrogen Alliance. engaged in developing the U.S. industry hydrogen DOE is also grateful for various listening sessions and roadmap in 2019; for H2@Scale analyses led by Mark presentation sessions including with Tribal Ruth, Mark Chung, and Michael Penev at the National communities, labor unions, NASEO, and Renewable Energy Laboratory and Amgad Elgowainy environmental and energy justice stakeholders. DOE at Argonne National Laboratory; and for emissions particularly recognizes the valuable input from the analysis led by Amgad Elgowainy at Argonne environmental community through listening sessions National Laboratory. The multi-agency regulatory gap with the Natural Resources Defense Council, Rocky analysis funded by HFTO was conducted by Sandia Mountain Institute, Environmental Defense Fund, National Laboratories. DOE is also grateful for Sierra Club, Earthjustice, and Union of Concerned stakeholder feedback through Requests for Scientists. Information issued on February 15, 2022, on the BIL In addition to the thanking the above stakeholders, Regional Clean Hydrogen Hub, electrolyzer, and clean the primary authors of this report—Sunita Satyapal, hydrogen manufacturing provisions. Neha Rustagi, Tomas Green, Marc Melaina, Michael The draft document was released in September 2022 Penev, and Mariya Koleva—would like to for public comment and revised for publication in acknowledge multiple DOE offices including: the June 2023. As required by the BIL, the document will Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office (HFTO) be updated at least every three years. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 81 LDES Long-Duration Energy Storage Glossary of Acronyms LOHC Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers ARRA American Recovery and Reinvestment LPO Loan Programs Office Act MARAD Maritime Administration (of the U.S. ATR Autothermal Reforming Department of Transportation) BIL Bipartisan Infrastructure Law MMT Million Metric Tonnes BOF Basic Oxygen Furnaces MW Megawatt BOP Balance of Plant M2FCT Million Mile Fuel Cell Truck BSEE Bureau of Safety and Environmental Consortium Enforcement NHTSA National Highway Transportation CCS Carbon Capture and Storage Safety Administration DOE U.S. Department of Energy NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory EAF Electric Arc Furnaces OCS Outer Continental Shelf EO Executive Order OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration EPACT-2005 Energy Policy Act of 2005 PEM Proton Exchange Membrane or FAA Federal Aviation Administration Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (a type FERC Federal Energy Regulatory of electrolyzer or fuel cell) Commission PGM Platinum Group Metal FHWA Federal Highway Administration PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Safety Administration Administration R&D Research and Development FTC Federal Trade Commission RD&D Research, Development, and GHG Greenhouse Gas Demonstration GREET Greenhouse Gases, Regulated RDD&D Research, Development, Emissions, and Energy Use in Demonstration, And Deployment Technologies (model) RFI Request for Information H2NEW Hydrogen from Next-generation SAF Sustainable Aviation Fuel Electrolyzers of Water (consortium) SHASTA Subsurface Hydrogen Assessment, HFTO Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Storage, and Technology Acceleration Office SMR Steam Methane Reforming IEA International Energy Agency SOEC Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cells IIJA Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act TCO Total Cost of Ownership IMO International Maritime Organization UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle IPHE International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy USCG United States Coast Guard IRA Inflation Reduction Act 21CTP 21st Century Truck Partnership U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 82 References

1 Emission savings based on ranges of hydrogen production carbon intensities, accounting for hydrogen fossil and clean electrolysis pathways, as well as hydrogen demands across transportation, industry, and grid energy storage. Estimates of emissions savings per unit of hydrogen consumed across pathways were approximately 10 kgCO2e/kg-H2. Estimates were developed using Argonne National Laboratory’s Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies Model. Source: Argonne National Laboratory, "GREET Model,” Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL https://greet.es.anl.gov/.

2 Emission savings based on ranges of hydrogen production carbon intensities, accounting for hydrogen fossil and clean electrolysis pathways, as well as hydrogen demands across transportation, industry, and grid energy storage. Estimates of emissions savings per unit of hydrogen consumed across pathways were approximately 10 kgCO2e/kg-H2. Estimates were developed using Argonne National Laboratory’s Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies Model. Source: Argonne National Laboratory, "GREET Model,” Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL. https://greet.es.anl.gov/.

3 U.S. Department of Energy, “Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen,” March 2023. https://liftoff.energy.gov/wp- content/uploads/2023/05/20230320-Liftoff-Clean-H2-vPUB-0329-update.pdf

4 S. Satyapal. “2022 AMR Plenary Session,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, June 2022. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/plenary4_satyapal_2022_o.pdf.

5 U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program, “Hydrogen Shot,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2021. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-shot.

6 The Study Task Force of the Hydrogen Council. “Hydrogen Scaling Up,” The Hydrogen Council, November 2017. https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Hydrogen-scaling-up-Hydrogen-Council.pdf

7 E. Connelly, A. Elgowainy, and M. Ruth, U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program, “Current Hydrogen Market Size: Domestic and Global,” U.S. Department of Energy, October 2019. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19002-hydrogen-market-domestic- global.pdf.

8 Estimates based on “Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen,” https://liftoff.energy.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/20230320- Liftoff-Clean-H2-vPUB-0329-update.pdf and https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20003-h2-production-potential-nuclear-power.pdf

9 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, “Special Report: Global Warming Of 1.5 ºC: Summary for Policy Makers,” The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, October 2018. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3- 24. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.001

10 The White House Office of Domestic Climate Policy, “National Climate Task Force,” The White House, Washington, DC, January 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/climate/.

11 The U.S. Department of State and the U.S. Executive Office of the President, “The Long-Term Strategy of the United States: Pathways to Net-Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions by 2050,” The White House, Washington, DC, November 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp- content/uploads/2021/10/US-Long-Term-Strategy.pdf.

12 S. Young, B. Mallory, and G. McCarthy, “The Path to Achieving Justice40,” The White House, Washington, DC, July 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/briefing-room/2021/07/20/the-path-to-achieving-justice40/.

13 Office of Economic Impact and Diversity, “DOE Justice40 Covered Programs,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. https://www.energy.gov/diversity/doe-justice40-covered-programs.

14 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28

15 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §816 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16161c (2021)).

16 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §815 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16161c (2021)).

17 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §813 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16161a (2021)).

18 U.S. Department of Energy, “Funding Notice: Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs,” Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations, https://www.energy.gov/oced/funding-notice-regional-clean-hydrogen-hubs. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 83

19 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40315, §82 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16166 (2021)). Draft guidance for the Clean Hydrogen Production Standard was released for public comment in September of 2022, and is available here: https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/clean-hydrogen-production-standard.pdf

20 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §814 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16161b (2021)).

21 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 13204, §45V (codified as 26 U.S.C. 45V (2022)).

22 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 50142 and sec. 50143.

23 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 50161.

24 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 50144 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16517).

25 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 13501.

26 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 13203, §40B (codified as 26 U.S.C. 40B (2022)).

27 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 13704, §45Z (codified as 26 U.S.C. 45Z (2022)).

28 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 60102, §133.

29 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Development of Guidance for Zero-Emission Clean Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Port Equipment, and Fueling Infrastructure Deployment under the Inflation Reduction Act Funding Programs,” Federal Register Vol. 88, no. 88, (May 8, 2023): page 29666-70. https://www.regulations.gov/document/EPA-HQ-OAR-2023-0216-0001

30 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 60101, §132.

31 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, title I, sec. 13104, §45Q (codified as 26 U.S.C. 45Q (2022)).

32 U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program, “Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan," U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, November 2020. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/hydrogen-program-plan-2020.pdf.

33 Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association, “Road Map to a US Hydrogen Economy,” Fuel Cell and Hydrogen energy Association, Washington, DC, 2020. https://www.fchea.org/us-hydrogen-study.

34 Executive Office of the President, “Exec. Order No. 14008, Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad,” Federal Register, Washington, DC, February 2021. https://www.Federalregister.gov/documents/2021/02/01/2021-02177/tackling-the-climate-crisis-at-home-and- abroad

35 The U.S. Department of State and the U.S. Executive Office of the President, “The Long-Term Strategy of the United States: Pathways to Net-Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions by 2050,” The White House, Washington, DC, November 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp- content/uploads/2021/10/US-Long-Term-Strategy.pdf.

36 U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2021 Annual Energy Outlook, February 2021. https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/archive/aeo21/.

37 U.S. Department of Energy, “H2@Scale,” Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/h2scale

38 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Greenhouse Gas Standards and Guidelines for Fossil Fuel-Fired Power Plants,” Washington, D.C. May 2023. https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/greenhouse-gas-standards-and-guidelines-fossil-fuel-fired-power. 39 1) Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, “Hydrogen Roadmap Europe: A Sustainable Pathway for The European Energy Transition,” Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, Brussels, Belgium, January 2019. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/- /publication/0817d60d-332f-11e9-8d04-01aa75ed71a1/language-en 2) The Energy Transitions Commission, “Making the Hydrogen Economy Possible: Accelerating Clean Hydrogen in an Electrified Economy,” The Energy Transitions Commission, April 2021; 3) The Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company, “Hydrogen Insights: A perspective on hydrogen investment, market development and cost competitiveness,” The Hydrogen Council, January 2021. https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Hydrogen-Insights-2021-Report.pdf; 4) International Energy Agency, “Net Zero by 2050,” International Energy Agency, Paris, France, May 2021. https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050; 5) Bloomberg New Energy Finance, “New Energy Outlook 2021,” Bloomberg New Energy Finance, July 2021. https://www.bnef.com/insights/26815; 6) International Renewable Energy Agency, “World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5°C Pathway,” International Renewable Energy Agency, U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 84 Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, June 2021. https://irena.org/publications/2021/Jun/World-Energy-Transitions-Outlook.https://energy- transitions.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/ETC-Global-Hydrogen-Report.pdf; 3) The Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company, “Hydrogen Insights: A perspective on hydrogen investment, market development and cost competitiveness,” The Hydrogen Council, January 2021. https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Hydrogen-Insights-2021-Report.pdf; 4) International Energy Agency, “Net Zero by 2050,” International Energy Agency, Paris, France, May 2021. https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050; 5) Bloomberg New Energy Finance, “New Energy Outlook 2021,” Bloomberg New Energy Finance, July 2021. https://www.bnef.com/insights/26815; 6) International Renewable Energy Agency, “World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5°C Pathway,” International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, June 2021. https://irena.org/publications/2021/Jun/World- Energy-Transitions-Outlook. Not all sectors are shown on the figure given limitations in reported results. If sectoral energy demand was not reported, the proportion of energy demand for hydrogen is not shown, despite hydrogen being consumed in that sector.

40 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2022,” International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2022. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/c5bc75b1-9e4d-460d-9056-6e8e626a11c4/GlobalHydrogenReview2022.pdf

41 Estimate assumes that SMR produces ~10 kg-CO e/kg-H on average (Source: Argonne National Laboratory’s Greenhouse gases, 2 2 Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies model, https://greet.es.anl.gov/, and National Energy Technology Laboratory “Comparison of Commercial, State-of-the-art, Fossil-based Hydrogen Production Technologies. https://www.netl.doe.gov/projects/files/ComparisonofCommercialStateofArtFossilBasedHydrogenProductionTechnologies_041222.pdf). This estimate was developed with an assumption of fugitive methane emissions of ~1%, GWP of methane of 29.8, and that the U.S. produces about 10 million metric tonnes of hydrogen per year (Source: https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19002-hydrogen- market-domestic-global.pdf). It is important to note that the GWPs of GHGs are published periodically by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and depend on several parameters, such as how climate cycle responses are accounted for and the length of the analysis period. A GWP of 29.8 for methane reflects a 100-year analysis period, inclusion of climate cycle responses, is specific to fossil methane, and alignment with AR6. AR6 is the most recent AR available at the time this Roadmap was published. The Fifth Assessment Report GWPs is currently utilized in national reporting to the UNFCCC and are being incorporated into the U.S. EPA’s Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program.

42 R. Gubler, B. Suresh, H. He, and Y. Yamaguchi, “Hydrogen,” Chemical Economics Handbook, IHS Markit, May 2021. https://ihsmarkit.com/products/hydrogen-chemical-economics-handbook.html.

43 U.S. DRIVE, “Hydrogen Delivery Technical Team Roadmap,” July 2017, https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/us-drive-hydrogen- delivery-technical-team-roadmap

44 M. Graff, “Statement of Mr. Michael J. Graff Chairman & CEO, American Air Liquide Holdings Inc. Executive Vice President & Executive Committee Member Air Liquide Group Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources,” U. S. Senate, Washington, DC, February 10, 2022. https://www.energy.senate.gov/services/files/C00CE119-046B-4E3C-8C7C-B534B4A1674B.

45 U.S. Department of Energy, “DOE Announces First Loan Guarantee for a Clean Energy Project in Nearly a Decade,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, June 2022. https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-announces-first-loan-guarantee-clean-energy-project-nearly- decade.

46 Air Products “Landmark U.S. $4.5 Billion Louisiana Clean Energy Complex,” Air Products, Allentown, PA. https://www.airproducts.com/campaigns/la-blue-hydrogen-project.

47 Air Products “Air Products and AES Announce Plans to Invest Approximately $4 Billion to Build First Mega-scale Green Hydrogen Production Facility in Texas,” Air Products, Allentown, PA. https://www.airproducts.com/company/news-center/2022/12/1208-air- products-and-aes-to-invest-to-build-first-mega-scale-green-hydrogen-facility-in-texas

48 Genesee County Economic Development Center “Plug Power is Building the Green Hydrogen Ecosystem at STAMP!,” Genessee County Economic Development Center, Batavia, NY. https://www.gcedc.com/wnystamp/projectgateway

49 V. Arjona, “Electrolyzer Installations in the United States” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, June 2023. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/23003-electrolyzer-installations-united-states.pdf

50 Additional chemicals not listed in the Figure, ordered by consumption rate for hydrogen in the US, include: oxo chemicals, hydrogenated vegetable oil, aniline, caprolactam, cyclohexane, hydrogen peroxide, adipic acid, toluene diisocyanate, hydrochloric acid, and 1,4 butanediol.

51 U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, “H2 Matchmaker,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 85 https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/h2-matchmaker.

52 N. Rustagi, “Systems Analysis Overview,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, June 2022. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/plenary9_rustagi_2022_o.pdf.

53 U.S. Department of Energy’s Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office funded approximately $40 million through ARRA for fuel cell forklifts and backup power units. First-of-a-kind demonstrations were conducted through collaboration with DOE and DOD’s Defense Logistics Agency more than a decade ago. Source: P. Devlin and G. Morland, “DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record #18002: Industry Deployed Fuel Cell Powered Lift Trucks,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, May 2018. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/18002_industry_deployed_fc_powered_lift_trucks.pdf. Reporting from forklift companies provides information about the number of fueling stations deployed for hydrogen forklifts, such as:

54 J. Marcinkoski, “Hydrogen Class 8 Long Haul Truck Targets,” U.S. Department of Energy, October 31, 2019. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19006_hydrogen_class8_long_haul_truck_targets.pdf.

55 Hydrogen Shot, electrolysis, and SMR with CCS costs shown are for reference and exclusively depict the cost of production, not including any downstream costs, such as compression, storage, and dispensing. Willingness to pay values based on numerous sources, including: 1) Forklift costs and industrial heat costs based on Hydrogen Council “Path to hydrogen competitiveness”, January 2020. https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Path-to-Hydrogen-Competitiveness_Full-Study-1.pdf 2) Transportation costs from Ledna, C., et. al. “Decarbonizing Medium- & Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles: Zero-Emission Vehicles Cost Analysis”. 2022. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/82081.pdf 2) 3) Biofuels, ammonia, chemicals, steel, seasonal storage, and industrial heat costs based largely on Elgowainy, et. al., “Assessment of Potential Future Demands for Hydrogen in the United States”. 2020 Argonne National Laboratory, https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-us_future_h2 4) Chemicals costs additionally based on Zang, et. al., “Technoeconomic and Life Cycle Analysis of Synthetic Methanol Production from Hydrogen and Industrial Byproduct CO2”. Environmental Science & Technology 2021 55 (8), 5248-5257 , https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.0c08237 5) Steel costs additionally based on preliminary analysis from Argonne National Laboratory, https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/sa174_elgowainy_2021_o.pdf 6) Power-to-liquid, or synthetic fuel, costs additionally based on Zang, et. al. “Performance and cost analysis of liquid fuel production from hydrogen and CO 2 based on the Fischer-Tropsch process”. Journal of CO2 Utilization 2021 46, 101459, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2212982021000263 6) Industrial heat costs based on Hydrogen Council “Path to hydrogen competitiveness”, January 2020. Path-to-Hydrogen- Competitiveness_Full-Study-1.pdf (hydrogencouncil.com).

56 The National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “TEMPO: Transportation Energy & Mobility Pathway Options,” The National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. https://www.nrel.gov/transportation/tempo-model.html.

57 In 2021, the U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Department of Transportation, and U.S. Department of Agriculture adopted a goal of supplying sufficient SAF to meet 100% of aviation fuel demand in 2050, estimated at 35 billion gallons. (Source: The White House, “FACT SHEET: Biden Administration Advances the Future of Sustainable Fuels in American Aviation,” 9 September 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/09/fact-sheet-biden-administration-advances-the-future-of- sustainable-fuels-in-american-aviation/) While a variety of different biofuel and power-to-liquid fuel pathways could meet this supply, the estimate of 4 MMT/year of hydrogen is based on preliminary modeling from NREL of 11 different biofuel production pathways with varying endogenous and exogenous hydrogen supply requirements.

58 A. Elgowainy, M. Mintz, U. Lee, T. Stephens, P. Sun, K. Reddi, Y. Zhou, G. Zang, M. Ruth, P. Jadun, E. Connelly, and R. Boardman, “Assessment of Potential Future Demands for Hydrogen in the United States,” Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, October 2020. https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-us_future_h2.

59 S. de Jong, K. Antonissen, R. Hoefnagels, et al., "Life-cycle analysis of greenhouse gas emissions from renewable jet fuel production," Biotechnology for Biofuels, March 14, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-017-0739-7

60 The lower end of this estimate assumes production of 120 MMT steel per year in 2050, consistent with the U.S. Department of Energy’s Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap. (https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022- 09/Industrial%20Decarbonization%20Roadmap.pdf). The higher end assumes production of 130 MMT steel per year to enable exports of 8% of U.S. steel production, consistent with current practice. Source: International Trade Administration, “Global Steel Trade Monitor – Steel Exports Report: United States,” International Trade Administration, Washington, DC, May 2020. https://legacy.trade.gov/steel/countries/pdfs/exports-us.pdf.

61 Range of estimates of U.S. methanol demand are based on: 1) Low end: International Energy Agency estimate for North America (Source: U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 86 International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, “The Future of Petrochemicals Towards more sustainable plastics and fertilisers,” International Energy Agency, France, October 2018. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/bee4ef3a-8876-4566-98cf-7a130c013805/The_Future_of_Petrochemicals.pdf), and 2) High end: Global estimates developed by the International Renewable Energy Agency (Source: International Renewable Energy Agency and Methanol Institute, “Innovation Outlook: Renewable Methanol,” International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2021. https://www.irena.org/- /media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Jan/IRENA_Innovation_Renewable_Methanol_2021.pdf), and an assumption that the U.S. share of global demand remains at ~6% (Source: IHS Markit, “Methanol: Chemical Economics Handbook,” IHS Markit, March 2021. https://ihsmarkit.com/products/methanol-chemical-economics-handbook.html).

62 Estimates of high-temperature heat demand in 2050 are based on DOE Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy, “Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap,” September 2022. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap.pdf).

63 U.S. Department of Energy, "IEDO FY23 Multi-topic Funding Opportunity Announcement,” Industrial Efficiency and Decarbonization Office, https://www.energy.gov/eere/iedo/iedo-fy23-multi-topic-funding-opportunity-announcement 64 1) Low end: P. Denholm, P. Brown, W. Cole, T. Mai, B. Sergi, M. Brown, P. Jadun, J. Ho, J. Mayernik, C. McMillan, R. Sreenath, Examining Supply-Side Options to Achieve 100% Clean Electricity by 2035 (2022). NREL/TP-6A40-81644. 2) High end: U.S. Department of Energy Solar 2021 Futures Study Source: U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office, “Solar Futures Study,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, September 2021. https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/solar-futures-study

65 C. A. McMillan, M. Ruth, “Using facility-level emissions data to estimate the technical potential of alternative thermal sources to meet industrial heat demand,” Applied Energy, Volume 239, Pages 1077-1090, February 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.077.

66 Studies used to develop estimates of energy storage included: 1) Lowest bound, from Princeton Net-Zero America (Source: Net Zero America “Potential Pathways, Infrastructure, and Impacts,” Princeton University, December 2020. https://netzeroamerica.princeton.edu/?explorer=year&state=national&table=2020&limit=200), 2) Lower end of core range is from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (Denholm, Paul, Patrick Brown, Wesley Cole, et al., “Examining Supply-Side Options to Achieve 100% Clean Electricity by 2035,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2022. https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/100-percent-clean-electricity-by-2035-study.html) 3) Higher end of core range and upper bound based on DOE Solar Futures Study (U.S. Department of Energy Solar 2021 Futures Study Source: U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office, “Solar Futures Study,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, September 2021. https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/solar-futures-study.)

67 S. Satyapal, “Testimony of Dr. Sunita Satyapal Director for a Hearing on Hydrogen,” U.S. Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee, February 2022. https://www.energy.senate.gov/services/files/FE1C53B0-3925-46E3-B1D3-B8E2C0DD92B6.

68 S. Satyapal, “High-level Recap and Menti Questions Results,” U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Shot Summit, Sept 1, 2021. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-09/h2-shot-summit-closing-plenary-recap.pdf.

69 S. Satyapal, J. Litynski, L. Horton, “Overview,” U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Shot Summit, Sept 1, 2021. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-09/h2-shot-summit-plenary-doe-overview.pdf.

70 California Fuel Cell Partnership, “Cost to refill,” https://cafcp.org/content/cost-refill.

71 S. Satyapal, “2021 AMR Plenary Session,” U.S. Department of Energy, June 2021. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-06/hfto- amr-plenary-satyapal-2021.pdf

72 M. Ruth and F. Josech, “Hydrogen Threshold Cost Calculation,” DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, March 24, 2011. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/11007_h2_threshold_costs.pdf

73 The energy content of hydrogen is 33 kWh/kg, while the energy content of gasoline is 12 kWh/kg, based on the lower heating value.

74 Current hydrogen production cost based on: U.S. Department of Energy, “Cost of Electrolytic Hydrogen Production with Existing Technology,” September 22, 2020. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20004-cost-electrolytic-hydrogen-production.pdf. Projected cost at economies of scale assumes $460/kW electrolyzer, based on: D. Peterson, J. Vickers, and D. DeSantis, “Hydrogen Production Cost from PEM Electrolysis – 2019,” U.S. Department of Energy, 3 February 2020. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 87 https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19009_h2_production_cost_pem_electrolysis_2019.pdf. Delivery and dispensing costs based on: N. Rustagi, A. Elgowainy, and J. Vickers, “Current Status of Hydrogen Delivery and Dispensing Costs and Pathways to Future Cost Reductions,” U.S. Department of Energy, 17 December 2018. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/18003_current_status_hydrogen_delivery_dispensing_costs.pdf and Hydrogen Delivery Scenario Analysis Model (https://hdsam.es.anl.gov/index.php?content=hdsam) Fuel cell costs based on analysis from Strategic Analysis, Inc., 2021 (https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/fc163_james_2021_o.pdf).

75 International Energy Agency, “Chemicals,” https://www.iea.org/reports/chemicals.

76 Guiyan Zang*, Pingping Sun, Amgad Elgowainy, and Michael Wang, “Technoeconomic and Life Cycle Analysis of Synthetic Methanol Production from Hydrogen and Industrial Byproduct CO2,” Environmental Science & Technology, 2021, 55 (8), 5248-5257. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.0c08237.

77 X. Liu, A. Elgowainy and M. Wang, “Life cycle energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of ammonia production from renewable resources and industrial by-products,” Green Chem., 2020, 22, 5751-5761. https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2020/gc/d0gc02301a.

78 International Energy Agency, “Iron and Steel Technology Roadmap,” October 2020. https://www.iea.org/reports/iron-and-steel- technology-roadmap.

79 A. Elgowainy, “Technoeconomic and Life Cycle Analysis of Synthetic Fuels and Steelmaking,” Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, June 2021. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/sa174_elgowainy_2021_o.pdf.

80 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2020,” 2022, EPA 430-R-22-003. https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-04/us-ghg-inventory-2022-main-text.pdf.

81 U.S. Department of Energy, “Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap,” September 2022. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022- 09/Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap.pdf.

82 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2021,” International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2021. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/5bd46d7b-906a-4429-abda-e9c507a62341/GlobalHydrogenReview2021.pdf.

83 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2017, National Minerals Information Center, Reston, VA, 2017. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nitrogen/mcs-2017-nitro.pdf.

84 U.S. Department of Energy, “REFUEL,” Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy. https://arpa- e.energy.gov/technologies/programs/refuel.

85 International Energy Agency, “Global crude steel production by process route and scenario, 2019-2050,” 8 October 2020. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/global-crude-steel-production-by-process-route-and-scenario-2019-2050.

86 American Iron and Steel Institute, “Steel Production,” https://www.steel.org/steel-technology/steel-production/.

87 A. Elgowainy, “Technoeconomic and Life Cycle Analysis of Synthetic Fuels and Steelmaking,” Argonne National Laboratory. Argonne, IL, June 2021, https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/sa174_elgowainy_2021_o.pdf.

88 U.S. Department of Commerce International Trade Administration, “Steel Imports Report: United States,” May 2020. https://legacy.trade.gov/steel/countries/pdfs/imports-us.pdf.

89 The White House, “FACT SHEET: The United States and European Union to Negotiate World’s First Carbon-Based Sectoral Arrangement on Steel and Aluminum Trade,” October 31, 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/10/31/fact- sheet-the-united-states-and-european-union-to-negotiate-worlds-first-carbon-based-sectoral-arrangement-on-steel-and-aluminum- trade/.

90 J. Brouwer and L. Mastropasqua, “Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC) Integrated with Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) Plants for Producing Green Steel,” University of California, Irvine, 2021. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/ta052_brouwer_2021_p.pdf.

91 R.J. O’Malley, “Grid-Interactive Steelmaking with Hydrogen (GISH),” Missouri University of Science & Technology, February 2021. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/ta053_omalley_2021_p.pdf.

92 U.S. Department of Energy, “AMO Steel Industry Roundtable,” 20 February 2020. https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/downloads/amo- U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 88 steel-industry-roundtable.

93 U.S. Department of Energy, “TRANSSFORM Workshop Presentations,” 25 October 2021. https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/articles/transsform-workshop-presentations.

94 U.S. Department of Energy, “Chapter 6: Innovating Clean Energy Technologies in Advanced Manufacturing,” Quadrennial Technology Review, 2015. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/06/f32/QTR2015-6I-Process-Heating.pdf.

95 U.S. DOE, “HyBlend: Opportunities for Hydrogen Blending in Natural Gas Pipelines,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hyblend- opportunities-hydrogen-blending-natural-gas-pipelines.

96 NREL, “NREL Marks Partner Forum with Dedication of Bioreactor,” August 22, 2019. https://www.nrel.gov/news/program/2019/nrel- marks-partner-forum-with-dedication-of-bioreactor.html.

97 C. Ledna et al., “Decarbonizing Medium- & Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles: Zero-Emission Vehicles Cost Analysis,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, March 2022. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/82081.pdf

98 Hunter, et. al. “Spatial and Temporal Analysis of the Total Cost of Ownership for Class 8 Tractors and Class 4 Parcel Delivery Trucks”. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 202.” https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/71796.pdf

99 U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), the United States Department of Transportation (DOT), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), The U.S. National Blueprint for Transportation Decarbonization, January 20223. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-01/the-us-national-blueprint-for- transportation-decarbonization.pdf

100 U.S. Department of Energy, “21st Century Truck Partnership,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/21st-century-truck-partnership.

101 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles,” https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles.

102 M2FCT was launched by DOE’s Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office in 2020 and brings together national labs, industry, and academia to achieve specific targets for commercial viability of long-haul trucks. https://millionmilefuelcelltruck.org/.

103 U.S. Department of Energy, “DOE Announces Nearly $200 Million to Reduce Emissions from Cars and Trucks,” 1 November 2021. https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-announces-nearly-200-million-reduce-emissions-cars-and-trucks.

104 J. Hanlin and E. Brewer, “Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Delivery Van Project,” Center for Transportation and the Environment, 21 May 2021. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/ta016_hanlin_2021_o.pdf.

105 J. Adams, “Technology Acceleration Overview,” U.S. Department of Energy, 7 June 2021. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/plenary10_adams_2021_o.pdf.

106 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “Fuel Cell Electric Bus Evaluations,” https://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/fuel-cell-bus-evaluation.html.

107 The Maritime Executive, “IMO Answers Questions on the 2020 SOx Regulation,” 2018. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/imo- answers-questions-on-the-2020-sox-regulation.

108 O. Merk, “Shipping Emissions in Ports,” International Transport Forum, p. 15, 2014. https://www.itf- oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/dp201420.pdf.

109 International Energy Agency. “The Future of Hydrogen. Seizing Today’s Opportunities,” June 2019. https://www.iea.org/reports/the- future-of-hydrogen. Note: The report recommends that governments and industry “make industrial ports the nerve centers for scaling up the use of clean hydrogen.”

110 U.S. Department of Energy, “H2@Ports Workshop,” Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/h2ports-workshop

111 U.S. Department of Transportation, “Fuel Cells,” Maritime Environmental and Technical Assistance (META) Program. https://www.maritime.dot.gov/innovation/meta/maritime-environmental-and-technical-assistance-meta-program#Fuel%20Cells.

112 L. Goodbody, “Medium/Heavy Duty & Marine Applications for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in California,” November 4, 2019. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/htac_nov19_04_goodbody.pdf.

113 N. Pal, “SF Waterfront Maritime Hydrogen Demonstration Project,” U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Annual Merit Review. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 89 https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/ta045_pal_2022_o.pdf.

114 The White House, “FACT SHEET: Biden Administration Advances the Future of Sustainable Fuels in American Aviation,” 9 September 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/09/fact-sheet-biden-administration-advances-the- future-of-sustainable-fuels-in-american-aviation/.

115 Federal Aviation Administration, “Aviation Climate Action Plan,” November 2021. https://www.faa.gov/sustainability/aviation-climate- action-plan.

116 U.S. Department of Energy, “Sustainable Aviation Fuel Grand Challenge,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/bioenergy/sustainable-aviation- fuel-grand-challenge.

117 ASTM International, “Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons,” July 15, 2021. https://www.astm.org/d7566-21.html.

118 K. Swider-Lyons, “Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Small Unmanned Air Vehicles,” U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, May 26, 2016. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/05/f32/fcto_webinarslides_h2_fc_small_unmanned_air_vehicles_052616.pdf.

119 ZeroAvia, “ZeroAvia & Otto Aviation Partner to Deliver First New Airframe Design with Hydrogen-Electric Engine Option,” 15 June 2022. https://www.zeroavia.com/otto-aviation.

120 C. Ryan and S. Philip, “Airbus turboprop design gaining favor as first hydrogen plane,” Bloomberg, February 11, 2021. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-11/airbus-turboprop-design-gaining-favor-as-first-hydrogen-plane.

121 Argonne National Laboratory, “H2@Airports Workshop Report,” November 2020. https://www.anl.gov/aet/reference/h2airports- workshop-report.

122 Federal Railroad Administration, “Freight Rail Overview,” U.S. Department of Transportation. https://railroads.dot.gov/rail-network- development/freight-rail-overview.

123 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Fast Facts on Transportation Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/fast-facts-transportation-greenhouse-gas-emissions.

124 Alstom, “Alstom's Coradia iLint hydrogen train runs for the first time in France,” Sept. 6, 2022. https://www.alstom.com/press-releases- news/2021/9/alstoms-coradia-ilint-hydrogen-train-runs-first-time-france.

125 San Bernadino County Transportation Authority, “Green-Tech for the US: Stadler Signs First Ever Contract for Hydrogen-Powered Train,” November 14, 2019. https://www.gosbcta.com/green-tech-for-the-us-stadler-signs-first-ever-contract-for-hydrogen-powered-train/.

126 U.S. Department of Energy, “H2@Rail Workshop,” August 2019. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/h2rail-workshop.

127 R.K. Ahluwalia, J-K Peng, F. Cetinbas, D. D. Papadias, X. Wang, J. Kopasz, and T. Krause, “Rail, Aviation, and Maritime Metrics,” Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, June 2021. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/ta034_ahluwalia_2021_o.pdf.

128 T. Krause, D. Papadias, R. Ahluwalia, J-K Peng, and G. Moreland, “Total Cost of Ownership and Hydrogen Demand for Fuel Cell-Powered Railroad Locomotives,” Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, 29 January 2021. https://annualmeeting.mytrb.org/OnlineProgramArchive/Details/15394.

129 U.S. Department of Energy, “Tri-Generation Success Story,” December, 2016, https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2016/12/f34/fcto_fountain_valley_success_story.pdf 130 U.S. Department of Energy, “Durability Working Group,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/durability-working-group.

131 U.S. Department of Energy, “Reversible Fuel Cells Workshop,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/reversible-fuel-cells-workshop.

132 U.S. Department of Energy, “Early Markets: Fuel Cells for Backup Power,” October 2014. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/10/f19/ftco_early_mkts_fc_backup_power_fact_sheet.pdf.

133 P. Denholm, W. Cole, A.W. Frazier, K. Podkaminer, and N. Blair, “The Four Phases of Storage Deployment: A Framework for the Expanding Role of Storage in the U.S. Power System,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 2021. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/77480.pdf.

134 A.W. Frazier, W. Cole, P. Denholm, S. Machen, N. Gates, and N. Blair, “Storage Futures Study: Economic Potential of Diurnal Storage in the U.S. Power Sector,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, NREL/TP-6A20-77449. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 90 https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/77449.pdf. 135 https://fuelcellsworks.com/news/nextera-sets-goal-of-16gw-of-green-hydrogen-power-stations-in-florida/

136 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “ARIES: Advanced Research on Integrated Energy Systems,” https://www.nrel.gov/aries/.

137 U.S. Department of Energy, “Advanced Turbine Systems,” https://www.energy.gov/fecm/science-innovation/clean-coal- research/hydrogen-turbines.

138 J. Adams, “Technology Acceleration Overview,” U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen Annual Merit Review, 6 June 2022. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/plenary8_adams_2022_o.pdf

139 S. Satyapal, R. Schrecengost, J. Marcinkoski, J. Vetrano, and T. Shrader, “DOE Hydrogen Program Panel Discussion,” U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen Annual Merit Review, 6 June 2022. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/plenary5_program_panel_2022_o.pdf

140 U.S. Department of Energy, “DOE Announces First Loan Guarantee for a Clean Energy Project in Nearly a Decade,” Loan Programs Office,

28 June 2022. https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-announces-first-loan-guarantee-clean-energy-project-nearly-decade

141 U.S. General Services Administration, “Federal Fleet Report (FFR) Open Data Set Library,” https://www.gsa.gov/policy- regulations/policy/vehicle-management-policy/federal-fleet-report-ffr-open-data-set-library.

142 U.S. General Services Administration, “GSA Properties,” https://www.gsa.gov/real-estate/gsa-properties.

143 U.S. Department of Energy, “Clean Hydrogen Production Standard Draft Guidance,” https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/clean-hydrogen- production-standard.html

144 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40315, §822 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16166(b)(2) (2021).

145 U.S. Department of Energy, “The H2IQ Hour: Learn to use the GREET Model for Emissions Life Cycle Analysis,” Oct. 28, 2021. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-11/h2iq-hour-10282021.pdf.

146 Argonne National Laboratory, GREET model, https://greet.es.anl.gov/. Updates will be provided regularly as pathways and assumptions are refined.

147 National Energy Technology Laboratory, “Comparison of Commercial, State-of-the-Art, Fossil-Based Hydrogen Production Technologies,” DOE/NETL-2022/3241, 12 April 2022. https://www.netl.doe.gov/projects/files/ComparisonofCommercialStateofArtFossilBasedHydrogenProductionTechnologies_041222.pdf.

148 International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy, www.iphe.net.

149 International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy, “Methodology for Determining the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with the Production of Hydrogen,” October 2021. https://www.iphe.net/_files/ugd/45185a_ef588ba32fc54e0eb57b0b7444cfa5f9.pdf.

150 U.S. Department of Transportation Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Notice of Proposed Rulemaking “Pipeline Safety: Gas Pipeline Leak Detection and Repair,” https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2023-09918

151 U.S. Department of Energy, “Energy Earthshots Initiative,” https://www.energy.gov/policy/energy-earthshots-initiative.

152 A. Mayyas, M. Ruth, B. Pivovar, G. Bender, and K. Wipke, “Manufacturing Cost Analysis for Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolyzers,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A20-72740, August 2019. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/72740.pdf.

153 D. Peterson, J. Vickers, and D. DeSantis, “Hydrogen Production Cost from PEM Electrolysis – 2019,” U.S. Department of Energy, 3 February 2020. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19009_h2_production_cost_pem_electrolysis_2019.pdf

154 U.S. Department of Energy, “Cost of Electrolytic Hydrogen Production with Existing Technology,” 22 September 2020. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20004-cost-electrolytic-hydrogen-production.pdf.

155 U.S. Department of Energy, “Hydrogen from Next-generation Electrolyzers of Water (H2NEW),” https://h2new.energy.gov/.

156 B. Pivovar, “Current Status of (Low Temperature) Electrolyzer Technology and Needs for Successful Widespread Commercialization and Meeting Hydrogen Shot Targets,” U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen Shot Summit, September 2021. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 91 https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-09/h2-shot-summit-panel1-lte-status.pdf

157 Sun, Pinging, et. al. “The Analysis of U.S. Refinery Sector Decarbonization Potential and Cost”. Argonne National Laboratory, January 2023. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.2c07440

158 National Energy Technology Laboratory, “Comparison of Commercial, State-of-the-Art, Fossil-Based Hydrogen Production Technologies,” National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA, DOE/NETL-2022/3241, 2022. https://www.netl.doe.gov/energy- analysis/details?id=ed4825aa-8f04-4df7-abef-60e564f636c9.

159 Argonne GREET Publication : Updated Natural Gas Pathways in GREET 2022 (anl.gov)

160 U.S. Department of Energy, “2022 Methane Pyrolysis Cohort Annual Meeting,” Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy, 12 January 2022. https://arpa-e.energy.gov/2022-methane-pyrolysis-cohort-annual-meeting.

161 U.S. Department of Energy, “U.S. Department of Energy Announces $28 Million to Develop Clean Hydrogen,” Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management, 7 February 2022. https://www.energy.gov/fecm/articles/us-department-energy-announces-28-million-develop- clean-hydrogen.

162 U.S. Department of Energy, “Open for Business: LPO Issues New Conditional Commitment for Loan Guarantee,” Loan Programs Office, 23 December 2021. https://www.energy.gov/lpo/articles/open-business-lpo-issues-new-conditional-commitment-loan-guarantee. 163 https://www.energy.gov/lpo/articles/revisiting-prior-conditional-commitments-monolithtm-inc 164 https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/US-Methane-Emissions-Reduction-Action-Plan-1.pdf

165 Air Products, “Landmark U.S. $4.5 Billion Louisiana Clean Energy Complex,” Air Products. https://www.airproducts.com/campaigns/la- blue-hydrogen-project.

166 Ascension Parish, where the project, has Census Tracts defined as a DAC by the Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool; https://screeningtool.geoplatform.gov/en/#10.78/30.1098/-91.0479.

167 Green Plains, “Green Plains Announces Carbon Sequestration Partnership with Summit Carbon Solutions,” 18 February 2021. https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/02/18/2178062/0/en/Green-Plains-Announces-Carbon-Sequestration-Partnership- with-Summit-Carbon-Solutions.html

168 Congressional Research Service, “The Tax Credit for Carbon Sequestration (Section 45Q),” 8 June 2021. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/IF11455.pdf.

169 Department of Energy, Securing America’s Clean Energy Supply Chain, 2022. https://www.energy.gov/policy/securing-americas-clean- energy-supply-chain.

170 U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Additional Guidance for the Qualifying Advanced Energy Project Credit Allocation Program under Section 48C(e),” Internal Revenue Service, https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-drop/n-23-44.pdf 171 https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-drop/n-23-18.pdf

172 Hydrogen production costs based on high-temperature electrolysis and assuming $0.03/kWh electricity: D. Peterson, J. Vickers, and D. DeSantis, “Hydrogen Production Cost from High Temperature Electrolysis – 2020,” U.S. Department of Energy, 14 February 2020. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20006-production-cost-high-temperature-electrolysis.pdf. Hydrogen fueling station costs developed using Hydrogen Delivery Scenario Analysis Model: Argonne National Laboratory, “Hydrogen Delivery Scenario Analysis Model (HDSAM),” https://hdsam.es.anl.gov/index.php?content=hdsam. Hydrogen storage costs based on: M. Kolyva and N. Rustagi, “Hydrogen Delivery and Dispensing Cost,” U.S. Department of Energy, 2 October 2020. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20007-hydrogen-delivery-dispensing-cost.pdf.

173 U.S. Department of Energy, “DOE Update on Hydrogen Shot, RFI Results, and Summary of Hydrogen Provisions in the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law | Department of Energy,” December 9, 2021. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/articles/doe-update-hydrogen- shot-rfi-results-and-summary-hydrogen-provisions

174 U.S. Department of Energy, “Hydrogen Shot Summit,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-shot-summit.

175 U.S. Department of Energy, “2021 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office Webinar Archives,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/2021-hydrogen-and-fuel-cell-technologies-office-webinar-archives#12082021. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 92

176 E. Connelly, M. Penev, A. Milbrandt, B. Roberts, N. Gilroy, and M. Melaina, “Resource Assessment for Hydrogen Production,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, NREL/TP-5400-77198. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy20osti/77198.pdf.

177 To produce 10MMT of hydrogen via renewable or nuclear electrolysis alone, the total water requirement would be approximately 29-650 billion gallons (depending on the type of power generation used), representing 0.03%-0.6% of annual U.S. freshwater withdrawals. E. Connelly, M. Penev, A. Milbrandt, B. Roberts, N. Gilroy, and M. Melaina, “Resource Assessment for Hydrogen Production,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, NREL/TP-5400-77198. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy20osti/77198.pdf.

178 C. Hunter, M. Penev, E. Reznicek, J. Eichman, N. Rustagi, and S. Baldwin, “Techno-economic analysis of long-duration energy storage and flexible power generation technologies to support high-variable renewable energy grids,” Joule 5, 2077–2101, August 18, 2021. https://www.cell.com/joule/pdf/S2542-4351(21)00306-8.pdf.

179 J.E. Fesmire and A. Swanger, “Overview of the New LH2 Sphere at NASA Kennedy Space Center,” August 18, 2021. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-10/new-lh2-sphere.pdf.

180 National Energy Technology Laboratory, “Subsurface Hydrogen Assessment, Storage, and Technology Acceleration," 2022. https://edx.netl.doe.gov/shasta/

181 National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Subsurface Hydrogen and Natural Gas Storage: State of Knowledge and Research Recommendations Report, DOE/NETL-2022/3236, NETL Technical Report Series, U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory: Morgantown, WV, 2022; p. 6. https://www.netl.doe.gov/projects/files/SubsurfaceHydrogenandNaturalGasStorageStateofKnowledgeandResearchRecommendationsRe port_041122.pdf. Images of Alaska and Hawaii to be hosted at Images – SHASTA (doe.gov)

182 G.F. Teletzke et al., “Evaluation of Practicable Subsurface CO2 Storage Capacity and Potential CO2 Transportation Networks,” Onshore North America, 14th Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies Conference, Melbourne, October 2018. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3366176.

183 H. Pilorge, adapted from: P. Psarras et al., “Carbon Capture and Utilization in the Industrial Sector,” Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 19, 11440–11449. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b01723.

184 For example, see DOE’s Office of Science report: U.S. Department of Energy, “Basic Energy Sciences Roundtable Foundational Science for Carbon-Neutral Hydrogen Technologies,” 2021. https://science.osti.gov/- /media/bes/pdf/reports/2021/Hydrogen_Roundtable_Brochure.pdf?la=en&hash=08CACFB80F803504B7D6C629FEB1426BBD6CBF69.

185 U.S. Department of Labor, “Prevailing Wage and the Inflation Reduction Act,” Wage and Hour Division. https://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/IRA

186 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40313, §805(j) (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16154(j) (2021).

187 Council on Environmental Quality, “Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool,” November 22, 2022. https://screeningtool.geoplatform.gov/

188 U.S. Department of Energy, “Water Electrolyzers and Fuel Cells Supply Chain: U.S. Department of Energy Response to Executive Order 14017, ‘America’s Supply Chains,’” February 24, 2022. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022- 02/Fuel%20Cells%20%26%20Electrolyzers%20Supply%20Chain%20Report%20-%20Final.pdf 189 https://eere-exchange.energy.gov/Default.aspx#FoaIda9a89bda-618a-4f13-83f4-9b9b418c04dc

190 The White House, Executive Order on Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility in the Federal Workforce, June 25, 22021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/06/25/executive-order-on-diversity-equity-inclusion-and- accessibility-in-the-Federal-workforce/.

191 The White House, Executive Order on Establishment of the White House Gender Policy Council, March 8, 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/03/08/executive-order-on-establishment-of-the-white-house- gender-policy-council/. 192 The White House, Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad, January 27, 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/27/executive-order-on-tackling-the-climate-crisis-at-home- and-abroad/.

193 Other recent roadmaps published by DOE, such as the Commercial Pathways Liftoff Reports have evaluated the potential for job creation U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 93 in the hydrogen industry under various future scenarios, as well as the total financial investment needed for these scenarios to materialize. These estimates will be refined as data is gathered from ongoing and future deployments, such as those in support of the BIL and IRA.

194 A.R. Baird et al., “Federal Oversight of Hydrogen Systems,“ Sandia National Laboratory, SAND2021-2955, March 2021. https://energy.sandia.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/H2-Regulatory-Map-Report_SAND2021-2955.pdf

195 C. Ledna, M. Muratori, A. Yip, P. Jadun, and C. Hoehne, “Decarbonizing Medium- & Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles: Zero-Emission Vehicles Cost Analysis,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, March 2022. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/82081.pdf.

196 Umair Irfan, “How to save the planet from the largest vehicles on Earth,” Vox, April 21, 2022. https://www.vox.com/recode/22973218/container-shipping-industry-climate-change-emissions-maersk.

197 U.S. Department of Energy, “Internal and External Coordination and Collaboration,” Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan, Nov 2020, pp. 36-43. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/hydrogen-program-plan-2020.pdf.

198 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Interagency Action Plan, 2011, https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/hydrogen_fuelcell_interagency_action_plan.pdf

199 Examples of global partnerships involving hydrogen include but are not limited to: IEA (International Energy Agency) launched in the 1974; IPHE (International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy) launched by the U.S. in 2003 (with Netherlands as current Chair, U.S. and Japan as Vice-Chairs); IRENA, launched in 2009; HEM (Hydrogen Energy Ministerial) launched by Japan in 2018; the Hydrogen Council, launched by industry in 2017; CEM (Clean Energy Ministerial) Hydrogen Initiative launched by Canada in 2019 (with the European Commission, Japan, Netherlands, and U.S. as co-leads), MI (Mission Innovation) Clean Hydrogen Mission launched by the UK in 2021 (with Australia, Chile, EC, Saudi Arabia, and U.S. as co-leads).

200 International Energy Agency, “The Future of Hydrogen. Seizing Today’s Opportunities,” June 2019. https://www.iea.org/reports/the- future-of-hydrogen.

201 Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). ”Fifth Hydrogen Energy Ministerial Held,” October 7, 2022. https://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2022/1007_001.html

202 Clean Energy Ministerial. “ H2 Initiative Launches H2 Twin Cities Program | Clean Energy Ministerial.” https://www.cleanenergyministerial.org/h2-initiative-launches-h2-twin-cities-program/

203 Further technical details and appendices may be made available at www.hydrogen.energy.gov to provide transparency and the most up- to-date information to stakeholders and the public. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 94 Appendix A: Supplementary Information and Analysis DOE recently published the Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen (Pathways report), which was formed using extensive stakeholder feedback and new analysis to characterize the market potential for hydrogen in the near- and long-term. The Pathways report provides market and investment perspective in the following phases: Near-term expansion: Inspects risks and uncertainties of early market introduction, considering matching supply and demand geographically with limited connective infrastructure, hydrogen offtake uncertainties, manufacturing supply chains, permitting and workforce challenges. Industrial scaling: Considers barriers remaining after IRA subsidy period and impact of emerging clean electricity economics on the prevailing hydrogen production pathways. During this phase, financing scale and credit risk will be subject to the remaining market barriers after an IRA sunset. Long-term growth: This phase will be fueled by cost reductions achieved through IRA period. Emerging financing structures and market history will streamline capital procurement and risk management. The report envisions a 2030 landscape for low-cost clean hydrogen becoming integral component for industrial, transportation and gas replacement uses. Readers are encouraged to explore the report for a rigorous description of market opportunities and barriers for hydrogen. Examples of key results described in the report include revenue potential (Figure A), required investments (Figure B), demand scenarios (Figure C), and potential supply chain vulnerabilities (Figure D). Figure A: The hydrogen economy could reach $80 – 150B market size by 2050 with industrial and medium and heavy-duty transportation accounting for the majority of the market share. See figure above for articulation of market size potentials. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 95 Figure B. Investments to achieve a successful role of hydrogen and enabling net zero by 2050 are quantified through the IRA period between $105 and 235B as shown in the figure above. Largest investments are forecasted in hydrogen production, followed by mid-stream infrastructure. Significant investments need to be made in end-use applications to allow safe and efficient utilization of hydrogen in new and existing applications. While clean hydrogen hub investments via the bipartisan infrastructure law provide an initial boost in investments, a subsequent gap of 85-215 remain. Such investment could be catalyzed by cost reductions and de-risking from IRA and BIL activities. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 96 Figure C: Hydrogen uptake scenarios considered in the Pathways Report with market attribution. Figure D: Supply chain vulnerabilities assessment for production (upstream), transmission & distribution (midstream), and select end uses (downstream). U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 97