National Adaptation Plan (NAP)

1.1 National Context 2

1.2 Socioeconomic Circumstances 3

1.2.1 Economy 3 1.2.2 Changes in population structure and transition into an aging society 4

1.2.3 Urbanization 4

1.3 Climate Trend 4

1.3.1 Temperature 5

1.3.2 Precipitation 7

1.3.3 Sea level 10 CHAPTER 2 NAP PROCESS 13

2.1 Conceptual Framework and Preparation Process 14

2.2 Institutional Arrangement (Governance) 16

2.2.1 National Committee on Climate Change (NCCC) 16

2.2.2 The Subcommittee on Climate Change Policy and 16 Planning Integration

2.2.3 Working Group on National Climate Change Adaptation 16 Implementation Integration

2.2.4 Implementation of national climate change adaptation 17 at the sectoral level

2.2.5 Implementation of national climate change adaptation 17 at the provincial level IV THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.3 Efforts to Strengthen Thailand’s NAP Process 17

2.3.1 Establishment of the National Framework for 17 Climate Services (NFCS)

2.3.2 Development/refinement of sectoral and area-based 18 adaptation plans, adaptation policy instruments, and monitoring and evaluation (M&E) for climate resilience 2.3.3 Steering for the implementation of flagship adaptation 18 projects/programs CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS 19

3.1 Specific Sectoral Goals 21

3.2 Adaptation Guidelines by Sector 22 1) Water Resource Management 22 2) Agriculture and Food Security 27 3) Tourism 33 4) Public Health 38 5) Natural Resource Management 43 6) Human Settlements and Security 50 CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION 57

4.1 Cross-cutting Issues 58

4.2 Thailand’s Needs for Support 62 CHAPTER 5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION 65

5.1 Adaptation Monitoring and Evaluation Framework 66

5.2 Adaptation Reporting 69 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 70 V THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) LIST OF TABLES Table 1-1 Summary of Thailand’s climate trends. Table 3-1 Top 10 of risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for Water Resource Management sector. Table 3-2 Top 10 of risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for Agriculture and Food Security sector. Table 3-3 Top 10 of risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for tourism sector. Table 3-4 Top 10 of risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for Public Health sector. Table 3-5 Top 10 of risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for the natural resource sector. Table 3-6 Top 10 of risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for Human settlement and Security sector. Table 4-1 Thailand’s Support Needs in terms of financing, capacity-building and technological development and transfer for NAP process and implementation. Table 5-1 Example of Thailand’s Climate resillience indicators. VI THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1 Thailand’s topographic map. Figure 1-2 Annual Mean Temperature (Dry-Bulb) in Thailand (°C) 1951-2021. Figure 1-3 Annual Mean Maximum Temperature in Thailand (°C) 1951-2021. Figure 1-4 Annual Mean Minimum Temperature in Thailand (°C) 1951-2021. Figure 1-5 Future changes in temperature in Thailand. Figure 1-6 Annual Mean Rainfall in Thailand (mm) 1951-2021. Figure 1-7 Projection of Rx1day anomaly under RCP4.5. Figure 1-8 Projection of PRCPTOT anomaly under RCP4.5. Figure 2-1 Conceptual framework in the development of the National Adaptation Plan (NAP). Figure 2-2 Preparation process of the Thailand’s National Adaptation Plan (NAP). Figure 2-3 Institutional arrangement for climate change adaptation. Figure 3-1 Specific sectoral goals for NAP. Figure 3-2 Risk areas for Water Resources Management sector under RCP 4.5 with focus on temperature hazard, floods and drought area, shown in country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted area. Figure 3-3 Risk areas for Agriculture and Food Security sector under RCP 4.5 with focus on temperature hazard, floods and drought area, shown in country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted area. Figure 3-4 Risk areas for Tourism sector under RCP 4.5 with focus on temperature hazard, floods and drought area, shown in country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted area. Figure 3-5 Risk areas for Public Health sector under RCP 4.5 with focus on temperature hazard, floods and drought area, shown in country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted rea. Figure 3-6 Risk areas for Natural resources sector under RCP 4.5 with focus on temperature hazard, floods and drought area, shown in country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted area. Figure 3-7 Risk areas for Human Settlements and Security sector under RCP 4.5 with focus on temperature hazard, floods and drought area, shown in country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted area. Figure 5-1 Thailand’s Adaptation Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. Figure 5-2 Framework to monitor and evaluate Thailand’s resilience. Figure 5-3 Sectoral focal point for Thailand’s M&E adaptation actions. VII THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) ABBREVIATIONS AF : Adaptation Fund M&E : monitoring and evaluation AR5 : Fifth Assessment Report MHESI : Ministry of Higher Education, AR6 : Sixth Assessment Report Science, Research and Innovation BCP : Business Continuity Plans MNRE : Ministry of Natural Resources and CCBA : Climate Change Benefit Analysis Environment CCRMDS : Climate Change Risk Maps Database MOAC : Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives System MOI : Ministry of Interior CMIP : Coupled Model Intercomparison Project MOPH : Ministry of Public Health COP : Conference of the Parties of the MOTS : Ministry of Tourism and Sports UNFCCC MSDHS : Ministry of Social Development and CRI : Global Climate Risk Index Human Security CSR : Corporate Social Responsibility NAP : National Adaptation Plan DCCE : Department of Climate Change and NbS : Nature-based Solutions Environment NCCC : National Committee on Climate Change DDPM : Department of Disaster Prevention NDCs : Nationally Determined Contributions and Mitigation NFCS : National Framework for Climate Services DOH : Department of Health OAE : Office of Agricultural Economics DOT : Department of Tourism ONEP : Office of Natural Resources and DPT : Department of Public Works and Environmental Policy and Planning Town and Country Planning ONWR : Office of the National Water Resources EbA : Ecosystem-based Adaptation OPM : Office of the Prime Minister EPAs : Environmentally Protected Areas PA : Protected Areas FTI : Federation of Thai Industries PCCB : Provincial Climate Change and GCF : Green Climate Fund Biodiversity Coordination Center GCMs : General Circulation Models PES : Payment For Ecosystem Services GDP : Gross Domestic Product RCPs : Representative Concentration Pathways GEF : Global Environment Facility RU-CORE : Ramkhamhaeng University, Center GFCS : Global Framework for Climate of Regional Climate Change and Services Renewable Energy GHG : Greenhouse Gas SCCF : Special Climate Change Fund IKI : International Climate Initiative SEA : Strategic Environmental Assessment IPCC : Intergovernmental Panel on Climate TMD : Thai Meteorological Department Change TSRI : Thailand Science Research and IWRM : Integrated Water Resources Innovation Management TWA : Thai Water Assessment LAOs : Local Administrative Organizations TWP : Thai Water Plan LT-LEDS : Long-Term Low Greenhouse Gas UNFCCC : United Nations Framework Convention Emission Development Strategies on Climate Change VIII THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES 1 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

1.1 National Context Thailand is located in mainland Southeast Asia encompassing a total area of 513,115 km2. Thailand’s climate CHAPTER 1 is tropical, and influenced by two seasonal monsoon winds most of the year. The southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean lasts from May until October and results in the rainy season causing abundant rain over most of the country. The northeast monsoon from the South China Sea brings cold and dry air over most of Thailand from October to February. The country’s climate can be broadly divided into three seasons: 1) Rainy or the southwest monsoon season, from mid-May to mid-October, 2) Winter or the northeast monsoon season from mid-October to mid-February, and 3) Summer or the pre-monsoon season, from mid-February to mid-May. Thailand’s topography includes high mountains, valleys, and forests covering most of the country’s North, where temperatures are cooler than the other parts of the country. The Northern region is thus the origin of streams and rivers, including the Ping, Wang, Yom, and Nan Rivers, which unite to become the Chao Phraya River in the Central Plain. With its landscape of high mountains, steep river valleys, and upland areas, summer storms often occur, and these natural characteristics have made several varieties of agriculture possible, including wet rice farming in the valleys, shifting cultivation in the uplands, and other economic crop farming, such as cassava, maize, longan, lychee, etc. The Central Plain is a lowland area where the Chao Phraya River and its tributaries flow into a delta at the Bay of Bangkok, all contributing to the region’s fertility. Due to the presence of a large amount of flat land, fertile soil, warm weather, rain, a multitude of rivers, canals, and highly developed irrigation systems, the region is one of the most productive agricultural regions in the world with a variety of agricultural produce, including rice, sugar cane, cassava, and various kinds of fruit. Unfortunately, it is also one of the most frequently flooded areas of the country. The northeastern part of the country is an upland plateau and shallow lakes that flow into the Mekong River. The region is arid and often suffers from drought. Almost every year, there are floods or drought, or both. The Northeast has a long dry season, and much of the area is covered with sparse grass. The Mekong River runs through most of the northern and eastern border of the region, thus enabling cultivation in several provinces, and most of Thailand’s jasmine rice is produced in this region. Southern Thailand is a narrow peninsula and has a total coastline of 3,151.02 km consisting of the Andaman coast to the west and the Gulf of Thailand coast to the east. The sea influences this region on both sides, which means that it experiences heavy rain for most of the year. Most areas are flat with rolling and mountainous terrain, and the absence of large rivers is a conspicuous feature of the South. Its economy depends on rubber and oil palm production for industry. Other sources of income include coconut plantations, fisheries, and tourism, particularly coastal and marine tourism. 2 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES CHAPTER 1 Figure 1-1: Thailand’s topographic map. Source: Geo-Informatics Center for Thailand (GISTHAI)

1.2 Socioeconomic Circumstances

1.2.1 Economy Thailand has a mixed economic system consisting of resource-based, service-based, and industrial-based economic activities. In 2021, the Thai economy grew by 1.6%. The value of the gross domestic product (GDP) at current prices was 16.2 trillion THB (505.6 billion USD), while the GDP per capita was 232,176 THB (7,255.5 USD) per person per annum. For the years 2020-2021, agriculture, manufacturing, and the wholesale and retail trade sectors grew by 1.4%, 4.9%, and 1.7%, respectively. On the other hand, the accommodation and food services sectors and transport and storage services sectors declined by 14.4% and 2.9%, respectively. In 2021, total agricultural production increased by 1.4% recovering from a decline of 3.5% in 2020. Furthermore, in 2021, total employment in the agricultural sector accounted for approximately 12 million of the labor force (31.78%). On the other hand, tourism has always been a significant part of Thailand’s economic growth generating approximately 20-22% of the GDP. In 2022, after the announcement of the ending of the COVID-19 Emergency Decree, the number of domestic and international tourists significantly increased by approximately 200% (224.5 million tourists) from the previous year. The annual revenue from the tourism sector also increased by almost 350% (1.08 trillion THB) from the previous year. In addition, approximately 3.98 million of the labor forces (10.55%) were employed in the tourism sector in 2021. 3 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

1.2.2 Changes in population structure and transition into an aging society Thai society has entered into being an aging society since 2005. By 2020, the elderly population totaled more than 11.6 million (17.57%), and continues to increase. Therefore, it is expected that by 2023, Thailand CHAPTER 1 would become a fully aged society with 19.46% of the total population aged over 60 years. The proportion of the working-age population is continuously decreasing, which could lead to labor shortage problems in the country. Moreover, a higher proportion of the aged population means a higher proportion of vulnerable population groups in terms of more exposure and less adaptive capacity to climate-related health risks and natural disaster-related risks, for instance.

1.2.3 Urbanization Thailand has become increasingly urbanized. In 2022, the population in the urban areas (municipalities) was about 22,610,822 people (34.21%). As such, infrastructure development has become a challenge with rapid urban expansion, and economic activities have often been concentrated primarily in Bangkok and the Central Plain and Eastern regions with Bangkok having the highest ratio of the provincial product value to the GDP. This rapid transition into an urban society could create more opportunities by raising the average income and standard of living, driving innovations, and increasing productivity. However, it could also be a leading cause of climate change. Urban areas consume over 78% of the global electricity and produce more than 60% of the global GHG emissions from power generation, transport, industry, etc. Simultaneously, cities are at a high risk of the impact of climate change from the rise in the sea level, increased rainfall, severe and frequent storms and floods, and prolonged intense heat and cold weather, for instance. Moreover, rapid urbanization increases the burden on resources and pollution that impacts the budget for addressing these issues, including other social problems. Therefore, it would be necessary to have effective urban management and planning as well as building resilience to the risks and impacts of climate change to benefit the lives of the urban population and transition into a more low-carbon and climate-resilient urban expansion in the future.

1.3 Climate Trend Thailand has been ranked ninth as the country most affected by the impact of climate change in the last 20 years (2000-2019) by the Global Climate Risk Index 2021 (CRI), both in terms of human consequences (fatalities) and direct economic losses. The CRI indicated that Thailand was among the highest-risk countries because it had faced many mega natural disasters. During the past 20 years, the country has experienced 137 natural disasters, the worst of which was the major flood in 2011. This flood accounted for 87% of the past total damage; the World Bank estimated that the cost of damage and losses were as high as 1.44 trillion THB (approximately 46.5 billion USD). Hence, Thailand is making efforts to prepare itself for better management of climate-related impacts. In 2020, the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP) conducted a study to assess Thailand’s future climate trends. These are summarized in Table 1.1. Thailand is aware of the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) from the IPCC, in which more up-to-date scenarios have been developed. However, the current NAP uses data and projected information predominantly from the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) from the IPCC and localizes data of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) 5 projection for the impact chain and risk analysis. The reason behind the current usage of the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) based on the AR5 is that most of the national level projection is based on the RCP scenarios, thus the current NAP uses the AR5 instead of AR6 due to the availability of the data. 4 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

1.3.1 Temperature Statistical trends CHAPTER 1 Between 1981-1990, mean temperatures increased by 0.33°C, while 1991-2000 and 2001-2010 recorded temperature increases of 0.16°C and 0.14°C per decade, respectively. The average temperature in Thailand from 2011 to 2021 increased by an average of 0.09°C per year. In addition, data on temperature fluctuations in Thailand over the 10 years of 2012-2021 showed the highest temperatures. These high temperatures are likely to continue to rise. The annual mean temperature (dry-bulb) in 2020-2021 was 28.0°C and 27.5°C, respectively (Figure 1-2). Figure 1-2: Annual mean temperature (dry-bulb) in Thailand (°C) during 1951-2021. Source: Thai Meteorological Department. The annual mean maximum temperature in 2020-2021 was 33.7°C and 33.0°C, respectively. In April 2016, Thailand recorded its highest temperature since 1951 at 44.6°C in Mae Hong Son province (Figure 1-3). Figure 1-3: Annual mean maximum temperature in Thailand (°C) during 1951-2021. Source: Thai Meteorological Department. 5 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES The annual mean minimum temperature reflected a larger increase from 22.5°C in 1951 to 23.5°C and 23.2°C in 2020-2021, respectively (Figure 1-4). CHAPTER 1 Figure 1-4: Annual mean minimum temperature in Thailand (°C) during 1951-2021. Source: Thai Meteorological Department. Projected trends The analysis of extreme climate change in Thailand can be divided into three cases; namely, anomaly analysis under the mean temperature change of 1°C, 1.5°C, and 2°C, respectively compared to the base years of 1970-2005. All three higher values were calculated from the 10-year moving average of future daily temperature projections. In addition, three general circulation models (GCMs), MPI-ESM-MR, EC-Earth and HadGEM2-ES, were compared with the mean temperature during the base year of the daily temperature data shown in Figure 1-5. The mean temperature change of 1°C under the RCP4.5 scenario of the three GCMs is projected to occur approximately in the period of 2030-2040, while the RCP8.5 scenario is expected to occur approximately in the period of 2020-2035. Moreover, under the ensemble of the three GCMs under the scenarios, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 are projected to occur around 2035 and 2030, respectively. The mean temperature change of 1.5°C under the RCP4.5 scenario of the GCMs results is projected to occur as early as 2050 (HadGEM2-ES) and, at the latest, around the year 2080 (EC-Earth), while the ensemble modeling is projected to occur around 2060. Additionally, the RCP8.5 scenario is expected to occur around 2055-2060, and under the ensemble model, it is expected to happen around 2045. The mean temperature change of 2°C under the RCP4.5 scenario is only the HadGEMS2-ES of the three models, which would experience a mean temperature increase by the end of the century or 2100, which is expected to occur around 2.0oC during the year 2070. The RCP8.5 scenario is projected to occur approximately during 2050-2060 and under the ensemble model, it is expected to occur around 2055. By the end of the century or 2100, the average temperature in Thailand is projected to increase by around 2°C under the ensemble model RCP4.5 and about 4°C under RCP8.5. 6 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES CHAPTER 1 Figure 1-5: Future changes in temperature in Thailand. Source: Thailand Science Research and Innovation (TSRI) and Ramkhamhaeng University, Center of Regional Climate Change and Renewable Energy (RU-CORE).

1.3.2 Precipitation Statistical trends The variation of precipitation and the number of rainy days has oscillated over time. In the last seven years (2015-2021), rainfall variation has fluctuated the most with the lowest rainfall in 40 years in 2019 (1,343.4 mm) since 1979 (1,332.3 mm). The highest annual rainfall in Thailand was recorded in 2017 (2,017 mm). The annual rainfall in 2020 and 2021 was recorded at 1,528.8 mm. and 1,759.3 mm., respectively (Figure 1-6). Figure 1-6: Annual mean rainfall in Thailand (mm) during 1951-2021. Source: Thai Meteorological Department. 7 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES Projected trends Under RCP4.5, the three GCMs; namely, EC-Earth, HadGEM2-ES, and MPI-ESM-MR, and three times CHAPTER 1 horizons: near future (2016-2035), intermediate future (2046-2065), and far future (2081-2099), could display the future projection of extreme rainfall. Figure 1-7 shows that the maximum one-day precipitation (Rx1day) is projected to increase. This reflects the tendency of flash floods from heavy precipitation. Figure 1-7: Projection of an Rx1day anomaly under RCP4.5. Source: Thailand Science Research and Innovation (TSRI) and Ramkhamhaeng University, Center of Regional Climate Change and Renewable Energy (RU-CORE). 8 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES Figure 1-8 shows that the total annual precipitation is projected to decrease, thus reflecting the signal of drought under future climate change. Under these scenarios, the Northeastern and Southern regions would tend to have higher drought impacts than other regions of Thailand. CHAPTER 1 Figure 1-8: Projection of the PRCPTOT anomaly under RCP4.5. Source: Thailand Science Research and Innovation (TSRI) and Ramkhamhaeng University, Center of Regional Climate Change and Renewable Energy (RU-CORE). 9 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

1.3.3 Sea level Statistical trends CHAPTER 1 Changes in the sea level in the past 20 years were observed based on the information gathered from two sources: (1) Measuring stations, which provided data from specific spots on the coasts, and (2) satellite altimetry, which provided data at the global level. The average change in the global sea level is in the range of 2.8 mm (measuring stations) to 3.2 mm (satellite) per year. For Thailand, most of the data came from the measuring stations, and most of the calculated changes were on the relative sea level. In some areas, especially in the upper Gulf of Thailand, the change in the relative sea level was higher than in other areas, which was due to widespread pumping of groundwater for public consumption resulting in land subsidence. After the 2004 Tsunami, vertical ground movements in Thailand and the neighboring areas became evident. The uplifting ground motion in Thailand also contributed to changes in the relative sea level. Projected trends The effects of climate change would affect the sea levels. In particular the area near the equator, for instance, as a result of the melting ice caps and the expansion of ocean water masses from rising sea temperatures. These changes in the trends are in line with the results of a study on the rise of the sea level from data from 13 sea level monitoring stations in the Gulf of Thailand (1985-2009) showing that the annual local mean sea level in 11 stations had increased dramatically depending on the location of the stations. Likewise, the mean sea level has been forecasted to increase at an average rate of 5 mm per year (over a 25-year period). It is also expected that land subsidence at the estuary where the station is located would play a major role in the annual rise of the local mean sea level. In addition, the findings pointed out that Thailand could experience severe coastal recession in the near future if measures are not taken to stop land subsidence near the coast. Table 1.1: Summary of Thailand’s climate trends. Statistical Climate Trends Projected Climate Trends Temperature Temperature Between 1981-1990, mean temperatures increased The analysis of extreme climate change in Thailand by 0.33°C, while 1991-2000 and 2001-2010 can be divided into two cases; namely, anomaly recorded temperature increases of 0.16°C and analysis under the mean temperature change 0.14°C per decade, respectively. The average of 1.5°C and 2°C, respectively compared to the temperature in Thailand from 2011 to 2021 base years of 1970-2005. All two higher values increased by an average of 0.09°C per year. were calculated from the 10-year moving average Data on the temperature fluctuations in Thailand of future daily temperature projections. In over the 10 years of 2012-2021 showed the addition, three GCMs, MPI-ESM-MR, EC-Earth highest temperatures. These high temperatures and HadGEM2-ES, were compared with the are likely to continue to rise. mean temperature during the base year of the daily temperature. 10 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES Statistical Climate Trends Projected Climate Trends The annual mean maximum temperatures in The mean temperature change of 1.5°C under CHAPTER 1 2020-2021 were 33.7°C and 33.0°C, respectively. the RCP4.5 scenario of the GCMs results is In April 2016, Thailand recorded its highest projected to occur as early as 2050 and, at the temperature since 1951 at 44.6°C in Mae Hong latest, around the year 2080, while the ensemble Son province. modeling is projected to occur around 2060. In the RCP8.5 scenario, it is expected to occur The annual mean minimum temperature reflected around 2055-2060, and under the ensemble a larger increase from 22.5°C in 1951 to 23.5°C model, it is expected to happen around 2045. and 23.2°C, respectively in 2020-2021. The mean temperature change of 2°C under the RCP4.5 scenario is expected to occur during the year 2070. The RCP8.5 scenario is projected to occur approximately during the years 2050- 2060 and under the ensemble model, it is expected to occur around 2055. By the end of the century or 2100, the average temperature in Thailand is projected to increase by around 2°C under the ensemble model RCP4.5 and about 4°C under RCP8.5. Precipitation Precipitation The variation of precipitation and the number of Under RCP4.5, the three GCMs, namely EC-Earth, rainy days has oscillated over time. In the last HadGEM2-ES, and MPI-ESM-MR and three times seven years (2015-2021), rainfall variation has horizons: near future (2016-2035), intermediate fluctuated the most with the lowest rainfall in 40 future (2046-2065), and far future (2081-2099), years in 2019 (1,343.4 mm) since 1979 (1,332.3 could display the future projection of extreme mm). The highest annual rainfall in Thailand was rainfall. recorded in 2017 (2,017 mm). The annual rainfall in 2020 and 2021 was recorded at 1,528.8 mm. The total annual precipitation is projected to and 1,759.3 mm, respectively. decrease reflecting the signal of drought under future climate change. Under these scenarios, the Northeastern and Southern regions would tend to have higher drought impacts than other regions of Thailand. 11 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES Statistical Climate Trends Projected Climate Trends Sea level Sea level CHAPTER 1 Changes in the sea level in the past 20 years The effects of climate change would affect sea were observed based on the information gathered levels. In particular, the area near the equator, from two sources: (1) Measuring stations, which for instance, as a result of the melting ice caps provided data from specific spots on the coasts, and the expansion of ocean water masses from and (2) satellite altimetry, which provided data rising sea temperatures. These changes of at the global level. The average change in the the trends are in line with the results of a study on global sea level is in the range of 2.8 mm the rise of the sea level from data from 13 sea (measuring stations) to 3.2 mm (satellite) per level monitoring stations in the Gulf of Thailand year. For Thailand, most of the data has come (1985-2009) showing that the annual local mean from the measuring stations, and most of the sea level in 11 stations had increased dramatically calculated changes were on the relative sea depending on the location of the stations. level. In some areas, especially in the upper Likewise, the mean sea level has been forecasted Gulf of Thailand, the change in the relative to increase at an average rate of 5 mm per year sea level was higher than in other areas due to (over a 25-year period). It is also expected widespread pumping of groundwater for public that land subsidence at the estuary where consumption resulting in land subsidence. After the station is located would play a major role the 2004 Tsunami, vertical ground movements in the annual rise of the local mean sea level. in Thailand and the neighboring areas became The findings pointed out that Thailand could evident. The uplifting ground motion in Thailand experience a severe coastal recession in contributed also to changes in the relative sea the near future if measures are not taken to stop level. land subsidence near the coast. 12 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 1 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES CHAPTER 2 NAP PROCESS 13 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 2 NAP PROCESS

2.1 Conceptual Framework and Preparation Process Thailand’s NAP has been developed with the aim to provide a framework for the climate change adaptation actions of the country in order to build resilience, reduce vulnerabilities, and increase the adaptive capacity to be in line with the three dimensions (economic, social, and environmental) of sustainable development. The Plan is also in line with Thailand’s national framework policies, including the 20-year National Strategy, National Reform Plan, Thailand 4.0, National Economic and Social Development Plans, Climate Change Master Plan 2015-2050, and the Policy and Plans for the Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality (2017-2036), and takes into account relevant sectoral plans. Thailand’s NAP emphasizes the outcome of long-term actions in six key sectors comprising (1) water resource management, (2) agriculture and food security, (3) tourism, (4) public health, (5) natural resource management, (6) human settlements and security, and cross-cutting issues by applying the following approaches (Figure 2-1): CHAPTER 2 • Integrating climate adaptation to national policies and plans at all levels. • Providing guidance of the adaptation options for each sector and for the cross-cutting aspects to be in line with the national context. • Enabling the relevant agencies to use the Plan as a framework to appropriately implement mainstream climate adaptation into sectoral and subnational policies, plans, and projects, while effectively involving key stakeholders in the sectors and across different area-based levels. Conceptual Framework • 20-Yr National Strategy National Policy and Plan for • National Reform Plan Climate Change Enhancement and • Thailand 4.0 Master Plan Conservation of National • National Economic and 2015-2050 Environmental Quality Social Development Plan (2017-2036) Sectoral Plans: • Climate change action plan Thailand’s Global mechanisms for agriculture (2023-2027) National UNFCCC/PA • Health National Adaptation Adaptation Plan (HNAP), Phase 1 (2021- 2030) SDGs Plan (NAP) • (Draft) 20-Year Water Resources Management Master Plan (1st Updated, 2023-2037) • The Master Plan for Integrated Water Agriculture Natural Human Tourism Public Resources and Food Resources Settlements Health Management Security Management and Security Adaptation actions across different area-based levels : Subregions/Provinces/Local Authorities/Communities/Individuals Figure 2-1: Conceptual framework in the development of the Thailand’s National Adaptation Plan (Thailand’s NAP). 14 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 2 NAP PROCESS The preparation of the NAP is based on the above conceptual framework. Thailand’s NAP process starts with the analyses of the risks and vulnerabilities in each sector by using the global climate models under the IPCC’s SRES A1B emission scenario, in which the GHG intensity would be equal to 850 ppm by the end of the 21st century. The downscaling would enable the simulation of the climate trends to be used together with the risk management approach to develop the initial guidelines and measures for the climate change adaptation in each sector. Consequently, the NAP was drafted and presented for consultations with all the concerned sectors such as government, private sectors, academia, and NGOs through a participatory approach. The draft NAP then went through the process of consideration and endorsement by the Subcommittee on the Integration of Climate Change Policies and Planning under the National Committee on Climate Change (NCCC), and the NCCC itself, respectively. The approved draft would then be submitted for the Cabinet’s endorsement, and subsequently submission for publication at the UNFCCC (Figure 2-2). CHAPTER 2 Analyse the risks and vulnerabilities by sector and by areas to formulate the recommendations for the development of the National Adaptation Plan. Organize public consultations in the regions (four times). (draft) Thailand’s National Adaptation Plan Conduct a study on the monitor- Test-run the integration of climate Development of Thailand’s ing and evaluation of the Climate adaptation issues at the pilot sites, Climate Change Risk Change Adaptation Actions and into the pilot sectors Maps Database System (draft) Thailand’s National Adaptation Plan Organize a national public consultation Submit to the Working Group on National Climate Change Adaptation Implementation Integration Submit to the Subcommittee on the Integration of Climate Change Policies and Planning Submit to the National Committee on Climate Change Submit to the Cabinet Submit to the UNFCCC Figure 2-2: Preparation process of the Thailand’s National Adaptation Plan (NAP). 15 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 2 NAP PROCESS

2.2 Institutional Arrangement (Governance) Figure 2-3 demonstrates an institutional arrangement for development of the climate policy, in particular the adaptation policy. National Committee on Climate Change Policy Subcommittee on Climate Change Policy and Planning Integration Working Group on National Climate Change Adaptation Implementation Intergration CHAPTER 2 Water Agri Tourism Working Group on Climate Change Health Natural Human Sectoral level Provincial level Figure 2-3: Institutional arrangement for climate change adaptation.

2.2.1 National Committee on Climate Change (NCCC) Thailand established the NCCC in 2007. The NCCC is chaired by the Prime Minister and has members from both the public and private sectors, including experts from relevant agencies. The NCCC has the mandate to define national climate policies and establish guidelines and mechanisms for international collaboration regarding the conventions and protocols on climate change, including supporting and evaluating the relevant domestic agencies to be in accordance with the national established policies and plans.

2.2.2 The Subcommittee on Climate Change Policy and Planning Integration The roles of the Subcommittee on Climate Change Policy and Planning Integration are to provide comments on policy integration, strategy, and planning that are linked with climate mitigation and adaptation, provide suggestions on the mechanisms and measures, including legal regulations and financial measures, and push forward an integrated budget allocation system on climate change.

2.2.3 Working Group on National Climate Change Adaptation Implementation Integration The Working Group is tasked with the development of the NAP as well as guiding research, policy, strategies, plans, tools, and mechanisms related to the NAP, supporting the mainstreaming of the NAP into the sectoral and regional plans, driving the implementation of the NAP as well as related policies, strategies and plans, monitoring and evaluating the adaptation measures under the NAP, and inviting representatives of public and private organizations to share information related to climate adaptation to the Working Group. 16 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 2 NAP PROCESS

2.2.4 Implementation of national climate change adaptation at the sectoral level The implementation of climate change adaptation in Thailand has been collaborated between the Department of Climate Change and Environment (DCCE) and leading agencies of the six following sectors. 1. Water management sector led by the Office of the National Water Resources (ONWR) under the Office of the Prime Minister (OPM). 2. Agriculture and food security sector led by the Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE) under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC). 3. Tourism sector led by the Department of Tourism (DOT) under the Ministry of Tourism and Sports (MOTS). 4. Public health sector led by the Department of Health (DOH) under the Ministry of Public Health (MOPH). 5. Natural resource management sector led by the ONEP under the MNRE. 6. Human settlement and security sector led by the Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) and Department of Public Works and Town and Country Planning (DPT) under the Ministry of Interior (MOI).

2.2.5 Implementation of national climate change adaptation at the provincial CHAPTER 2 level After receiving the funding from Thailand’s Environmental Fund for implementing the capacity building for the Provincial Office of Natural Resources and Environment in the development of the climate change work plan at the provincial level project, each province has established a provincial working group on climate change in order to develop information on GHG emissions and a mitigation plan at the provincial level as well as a risk profile that would take affect from the climate change and adaptation plan for coping with these effects at the provincial level. This working group consists of representatives from all sectors relating to climate change implementation and a natural resources and environmental protection volunteer network, which would help in the communication and implementation of the adaptation measures in both the top-down and bottom-up approaches.

2.3 Efforts to Strengthen Thailand’s NAP Process Adaptation mainstreaming is recognized as an interdisciplinary and inter-ministerial process. The development of Thailand’s NAP is a starting point and has the initial aim of raising awareness and providing guidance to the relevant sectors and stakeholders to understand how their roles could be linked to climate adaptation. To drive forward actual adaptation mainstreaming and to equip the key sectors and stakeholders with the knowledge and capacity to respond to climate risks and adapt to climate impacts, Thailand is required to make several efforts to strengthen its NAP process. The newly established the DCCE, having taken over the climate mandates from the ONEP, now has the responsibilities to strengthen Thailand’s NAP process, and the development of future NAPs. The following efforts are foreseen:

2.3.1 Establishment of the National Framework for Climate Services (NFCS) The establishment of Thailand’s NFCS aims to strengthen the response to the threat of climate change by ensuring the availability of science-based research and systematic observations for decision-making. The Thai Meteorological Department (TMD) as a focal point, with a legal mandate from the (Draft) Climate Change Act, will work on five major components aligned with the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) that are a user interface platform, climate services information system, observations and monitoring, research modeling and prediction, and capacity-building. 17 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 2 NAP PROCESS As Thailand is working to build its NFCS, the DCCE is trying to establish an interim solution through the development of Thailand’s Climate Change Risk Maps Database System (CCRMDS) to consolidate existing climate risk research and data, which could be used as a basis for planning and implementing adaptation action. The objectives of Thailand’s CCRMDS are (1) to support sectoral and area-based climate risk assessment, (2) to support policy decisions in integrating the climate risks into the relevant sectoral and subnational plans, and (3) to serve as a channel to build public awareness on the climate risks in a concrete and easily accessible way. The system can provide maps and other information, such as future climate projections in various scenarios, climate hazard information, non-climate index, which would be used for risk analysis, and climate risk information in the various sectors. Currently, the database system incorporates only heat, flood, and drought hazards due to climate change and would be expanded to include other hazards when sufficient data is available. It is expected that the upcoming NFCS could significantly and systematically provide support to strengthen the database system. CHAPTER 2

2.3.2 Development/refinement of sectoral and area-based adaptation plans, adaptation policy instruments, and monitoring and evaluation (M&E) for climate resilience With climate services offered by the NFCS, sectoral and subnational agencies could develop and/or refine the relevant analyses, including the impact chain assessment to be based on scientific climate information. This could significantly support sectoral and subnational agencies to understand long-term climate risks and enable these agencies to account for these risks in the sectoral and area-based development plans. The DCCE would coordinate to ensure that climate mainstreaming into sectoral and area-based development planning would be supported with capacity development measures and could be performed effectively. In addition to sectoral and subnational planning, mainstreaming of climate adaptation into the design of policy instruments and into the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system would be necessary to ensure there would be effective policy instruments to support the adaptation actions by different stakeholders, as well as have an effective M&E system to monitor the progress toward climate resilience. These efforts would also need extensive capacity development support to strengthen the DCCE as the focal point, as well as sectoral and subnational agencies. To mobilize and prepare for the implementation of the NAP at the subnational level, the MNRE has established the Provincial Climate Change and Biodiversity Coordination Center (PCCB) at the provincial level. It is expected that the PCCB would play a vital role in driving and coordinating area-based climate and biodiversity actions at the provincial level with various stakeholders in different scales, including the ecosystem, catchments, cities, communities, as well as at the individual levels. The PCCB would also have a role in facilitating the involvement of the private sector to create multi-stakeholder partnerships among the government, private, and non-governmental sectors to leverage public and private investments to support the adaptation actions.

2.3.3 Steering for the implementation of flagship adaptation projects/programs To concretely support the capacity development of the relevant agencies and stakeholders to plan and implement the adaptation actions, the DCCE would focus its roles to steer for the implementation of flagship adaptation projects/programs in priority sectors/topics/areas. This would be a role model of the integrated planning and implementation across agencies, sectors and levels, which could be used as lessons learned for horizontal and vertical mainstreaming, and could be scaled up and replicated. The lessons learned from the implementation of flagship adaptation could inform the design of national policy to support the integrated budget planning and allocation, as well as joint impact monitoring, for instance. 18 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 2 NAP PROCESS CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS 19 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Thailand’s NAP provides a framework for the climate adaptation actions of the country in order to build climate resilience, reduce vulnerabilities, and increase the adaptive capacity to be in line with sustainable development. The plan identifies six priority sectors, which are (1) water resources management, including flood and drought management, (2) agriculture and food security, (3) tourism, (4) public health, (5) natural resource management, and (6) human settlements and security. The objectives of Thailand’s NAP are: 1) To serve as a framework and guideline for the related agencies to be able to integrate climate adaptation into sectoral plans and strategies. 2) To be a budget allocation framework toward concrete climate adaptation actions in line with the country’s sustainable development pathway. 3) To provide the building blocks to strengthen sectoral capacities to adapt and achieve climate resilience, as well as to enhance collaborative and integrated efforts by all sectors and levels to mainstream climate adaptation into sectoral and subnational policies and practices. 4) To create climate awareness among government agencies and all the relevant stakeholders, including the business sector and the general public, for concerted and collaborative climate adaptation actions. Goals and Vision Mission Timeframe “Thailand has 1) To build climate-resilient development by Overall goals and CHAPTER 3 increased its integrating climate adaptation guidelines time frames. adaptive capacities and strategies in all sectors at all levels; and the country’s 2) To strengthen the capacity and awareness sustainable of the development partners at all levels to development is implement the climate adaptation policies resilient to climate and plans more effectively; impacts.” 3) To develop databases, research, knowledge, and technologies to support the climate adaptation actions. Short-term Medium-term Long-term goals goals and continuous goals (2023-2027) (2028-2032) (2033-2037) • Raise climate • Strengthen policy • Ensure climate resilience in awareness. instruments and the country’s development • Build a basis and mainstreaming across the actions. instruments for priority sectors. • Ensure continuity of climate policymaking and • Enhance the awareness, data and mainstreaming. implementation capacities. knowledge capacities. • Establish data and • Enhance data and • Ensure regular monitoring knowledge infrastructure knowledge capacities to of progress and updating to support decision- measure progress and of the relevant policies and making. support decision-making. plans. 20 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS

3.1 Specific Sectoral Goals Increased water security and Water resources decreased losses and damage from management water-related disasters. Productivity and food security Agriculture and maintained amidst climate risks food security and impacts. Specific sectoral goals for the NAP Strengthened capacity of the Tourism tourism sector toward climate-resilience and sustainable development. Established effective public health Public health systems to manage risks and reduce impacts from climate change. CHAPTER 3 Sustainable management of Natural resources biodiversity resources to respond to management climate impacts. Enhanced capacity of Individuals, Human settlements communities, and cities to adapt to climate and security change impacts appropriately according to the local context. Figure 3-1: Specific sectoral goals for the Thailand’s NAP. 21 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS

3.2 Adaptation Guidelines by Sector 1) Water Resources Management The total amount of surface water in Thailand, less infiltration and evaporation, is 285,221 million cubic meters, and the average runoff is 3,496 million cubic meters. The average demand for water in Thailand, based on the information during 2015-2020, was approximately 41,042 million cubic meters, excluding rainfed agricultural areas and water usage for maintaining the ecosystem. Thus, the amount of surface water was considered CHAPTER 3 sufficient for domestic usage. Thailand’s water demand could be divided into the agricultural sector, which has the highest demand, amounting to 83% of the total water consumption, followed by the service and industrial sectors, respectively. Future climate variability would undoubtedly pose challenges to water resource management in the country. Under the RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios, the highest mean rainfall would likely increase, while the number of days with rainfall would remain the same, and the rainfall distribution is predicted to be less in range. This means that in future scenarios, some areas could be more prone to severe drought, while others could be more prone to severe floods, or there could be higher risks to severe drought and floods at different times of the year, consequently making the country’s water resource management efforts much more complicated. National level climate modeling was done by the ONEP and its consultants, in which heat stress, drought, and floods were modeled under the RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. Several provinces in Thailand were listed vulnerable to a different degree under the model as shown in Table 3-1 and Figure 3-2 below. 22 THAILAND’S THAILAND’S NATIONAL NATIONAL ADAPTATION ADAPTATION PLAN PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Table 3-1: Top 10 risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for the water resources management sector. Risks for the Water Resources Management Sector Areas RCP 4.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Chon Buri, Samut Risk areas to Prakan, Buri Ram, Si Sa Ket, Surin, Roi Et, and Khon Kaen. heat stress RCP 8.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Chon Buri, Samut Prakan, Si Sa Ket, Buri Ram, Surin, Roi Et, and Khon Kaen. RCP 4.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Chiang Mai, Bangkok, Nakhon Sawan, Chiang Rai, Khon Kaen, Ubon Ratchathani, Risk areas to Phitsanulok, and Nan. floods Nakhon Ratchasima, Bangkok, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Chiang Mai, RCP 8.5 Nakhon Sawan, Khon Kaen, Chiang Rai, Ubon Ratchathani, Phitsanulok, and Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya. RCP 4.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Bangkok, Khon Kaen, Ubon Ratchathani, Roi Et, Risk areas to Chaiyaphum, Surin, Buri Ram, Udon Thani, and Si Sa Ket. drought RCP 8.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Bangkok, Khon Kaen, Ubon Ratchathani, Roi Et, Nakhon Sawan, Udon Thani, Buri Ram, Sakon Nakhon, and Chaiyaphum. CHAPTER 3 Heat hazard Floods Drought Figure 3-2: Risk areas for the water resources management sector under RCP4.5 with a focus on heat hazard, floods, and drought area shown in the country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted areas. Source: Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (2021). 23 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Adaptation action guidelines for water resources management Climate adaptation guidelines for water resources management have been based on the principles of river basin management with measures that align with and are appropriate for local area-based management. These can be categorized into (1) Upstream management prioritizing the conservation and preservation of upstream areas, (2) Midstream and downstream management of areas with water consumption by various sectors, such as households, agriculture, industry, etc. Measures here would focus on the management of floods and drought that would impact these sectors. (3) Downstream management of areas at the end of river basins that connect to other basins or are situated at river mouths or coastal areas. Measures here would focus on managing the quality of the water sources as well as restoration of water sources and conservation of ecosystems. Apart from river basin-based management principles, there would also be (4) Supporting mechanisms for water resources management. The details are laid out as follows: Guidelines/Measures Output Guideline 1: Upstream management (1) Conservation and restoration of declining All watershed forests in the 22 main river basins CHAPTER 3 watershed forests and preventing topsoil are conser ved and restored to pristine collapse. conditions. (2) Promote a participatory approach with local LAOs and upstream communities take part in administrative organizations (LAOs) and developing policies and plans for land use in the communities in upstream areas in developing form of River Basin Committees in all 22 main policies and land use plans. river basins. (3) Promote economic instruments as incentives Upstream communities adapt economic for upstream communities to protect and instruments to protect and conserve upstream conserve the ecosystem. ecosystems. Guideline 2-1: Midstream and downstream management - Flood management (1) Develop infrastructure for flood responses, Infrastructure for flood responses would be which would consider the characteristics of each established and effective in all flood-risk areas. locality, ecosystem, and community. (2) Increase the efficiency of drainage. Flood risk areas have improvements made to water obstacles and bar riers, shallow natural waterways, and urban and economic area drainage systems to be more efficient in draining water. 24 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (3) Develop an urban flood protection system Flood risk areas have water plans and drainage by creating a water plan and drainage plan at plans at the river basin, province, and city levels. the river basin, province, and city levels. (4) Develop pollution control plans for flood Pollution control plans for flood situations are situations in risk areas. developed in all flood risk areas throughout the country. Guideline 2-2: Midstream and downstream management - drought management (1) Develop database systems on the water Database systems on the water footprint, water footprint, water budget, and water demand of budget, and water demand in each sector each sector in all of Thailand’s 22 main river are established to support water resources basins. management planning for fair and effective water allocation to all sectors. (2) Increase effectiveness in water budget Water usage ratio for each activity which and water retention management by setting a corresponds with the amount of runoff and water usage ratio for each sector taking into reserved water in each catchment is specified, consideration the amount of runoff and reserved and appropriate water allocation for the CHAPTER 3 water in each of Thailand’s 22 main river basins. demand in each sector is executed. (3) Develop infrastructure to reserve rainfall and Water resources are developed in chronic water allocation systems in areas with chronic drought areas, non-irrigated zones, and areas drought, areas outside irrigated zones, and using groundwater, and irrigation systems are areas using groundwater. expanded to cover all areas with the agricultural potential of the country. (4) Increase effectiveness in the conjunctive Effective conjunctive management of surface management of surface water and groundwater water and groundwater, such as restoring in drought prone areas. groundwater resources in drought prone areas across all catchments. (5) Develop a water grid system. A connected water grid system is developed for each domestic river basin. Guideline 3: Downstream water management (1) Conservation and restoration of rivers and Main river basins have a conservation and natural water sources across the country with restoration plan for rivers and natural water participation by all sectors. sources and allocation plans for the protection of the ecosystem. (2) Improve the efficiency of water treatment Urban communities and industrial zones have and control of wastewater released into the en- installed efficient water treatment systems. vironment. 25 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (3) Promote the development and application Flood risk areas have developed wastewater of wastewater treatment technology to recycle treatment technology and methods developed water usage in the household and industrial to support effective water recycle systems sectors. appropriate for households and industries. (4) Increase effectiveness in managing saltwater Infrastructure to prevent saltwater intrusion is intrusion caused by the changing sea level, improved, and the water budget has increased drought, and changes in runoff from human in all risk areas across the country. activities. Guideline 4: Supporting mechanisms for water resources management (1) Develop a national Water Security Index. A Water Security Index is developed. (2) The EbA and/or NbS for river basin water A manual for EbA and/or NbS in water resources resources management. management is developed and capacity building is conducted. (3) Develop a system for water forecasting and Accurate and precise water forecast and reporting. reporting systems are in place and disseminated to public users in local areas. CHAPTER 3 (4) Integrated risk mapping in the form of One Area-level risk maps and forecasts of the climate Map created together by the relevant agencies change impact on water resources management. to predict climate change impacts on water resources management. (5) Develop water resources management River basins have emergency water resources plans, river basin master plans, and operation management plans created by the participation plans. of all sectors. (6) Build disaster watch networks in risk areas Networks for disaster watching and early warnings by strengthening the capacities of the general are established with information sharing channels public from the household to national levels. on floods, drought, and landslides, which are interlinked from the household to the national levels, thus reducing the losses and damage on life and assets. (7) Support the integration of local wisdom Effective integration of local wisdom into into water resources management innovation water resources management innovation is appropriate for each local context. implemented at the local level. (8) Enhance continued collaboration under the Water resources management strategy under cooperation mechanisms on water resources the active cooperation mechanism is integrated management in the catchments with into the local water management plans of all international significance. provinces impacted by water resources management in the Mekong River. Responsible agencies of the water management sector: ONWR, MNRE, MOAC, and MOI. 26 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS 2) Agriculture and Food Security The agricultural sector has experienced multiple effects from climate change directly due to changes in temperature, rainfall, sea level, and seasonal shifts. These changes have also impacted the properties of the soil and water resources, plant diseases, and insect and other species habitat and distribution, which have CHAPTER 3 indirectly impacted agricultural production. Approximately 1,178.91 square kilometres (km²) or 0.49 % of the total agricultural land areas of 238,803.92 km² were affected by storms in 2022, while 2,848 km² (1.20%) were affected by drought in 2020, and 9,120 km² (3.82%) were affected by floods in 2021, as well as another 3,341.22 km² (1.40%) were destroyed by floods in 2021. The total value of loss and damage to lives, assets, housing, agricultural land, and other damages due to storms, drought, and floods during 2011-2019 was 17,487,816.67 USD from storms, 119,386,225.58 million USD from drought, and 23,744,843.00 USD from floods. Due to significant implications for the country’s food security, it would be important to gain a better understanding of future climate risks and the impact on the agricultural sector. In 2016, the ONEP undertook a study to project future climate risks and the impact on rice, other primary field crops (e.g., rice, sugar cane, maize, cassava, and rubber), and horticulture. The study indicated that 25,569.25 km² of rice fields could be subject to flood risks, and the highest risk areas were in the Central Plain. For other primary field crops, there were flood risk areas in the North. For horticulture, the highest risk areas from floods were in the Central Plain. For the assessment of the drought risk area, the highest risk areas for rice fields, other field crops, and horticulture were in the North. National level climate modeling was done by the ONEP and its consultants in which heat stress, drought, and floods were modeled under the RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. Several provinces in Thailand were listed vulnerable to a different degree under the model as shown in Table 3-2 and Figure 3-3 below. 27 THAILAND’S THAILAND’S NATIONAL NATIONAL ADAPTATION ADAPTATION PLAN PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Table 3-2: Top 10 risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for the agriculture and food security sector. Risk for Agriculture and Food Security Sector Areas RCP 4.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Buri Ram, Si Sa Ket, Khon Kaen, Risk areas to Surin, Roi Et, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Udon Thani, and Nakhon Sawan. heat stress RCP 8.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Buri Ram, Si Sa Ket, Khon Kaen, Surin, Roi Et, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Udon Thani, and Nakhon Sawan. RCP 4.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Nakhon Sawan, Chiang Rai, Ubon Ratchathani, Chiang Mai, Kamphaeng Phet, Phitsanulok, Sakhon Risk areas to Nakhon, and Phetchabun. floods Nakhon Ratchasima, Nakhon Sawan, Khon Kaen, Kamphaeng Phet, RCP 8.5 Nakhon Si Thammarat, Ubon Ratchathani, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Buri Ram, and Suphan Buri. RCP 4.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Ubon Ratchathani, Si Sa Ket, Udon Risk areas to Thani, Chaiyaphum, Roi Et, Buri Ram, Surin, and Nakhon Sawan. drought RCP 8.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Ubon Ratchathani, Udon Thani, Nakhon Sawan, Roi Et, Sakhon Nakhon, Buri Ram, Si Sa Ket, and Chaiyaphum. CHAPTER 3 Heat hazard Floods Drought Figure 3-3: Risk areas for the agriculture and food security sector under RCP4.5 with a focus on heat hazard, floods, and drought areas shown in the country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted areas. Source: Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (2021). 28 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Adaptation action guidelines for agriculture and food security Climate adaptation guidelines in the agriculture and food security sector have been developed based on the agricultural production systems at risk; namely, (1) Management of crop farmland, (2) Management of livestock farmland, (3) Management of fisheries and aquaculture, as guidelines for suitable measures in area-based management, as well as (4) Supporting mechanisms for agriculture and food security. The details are laid out as follows: Guidelines/Measures Output Guideline 1: Management of crop farmland (1) Encourage adjustment in agricultural patterns Agricultural patterns and behavior in the risk in response to the changing climate. areas are adjusted in response to the changing climate and appropriate to the local context. (2) Promote integrated farming or crop rotation Farmers in risk areas adopt integrated farming, to mitigate risks and damages from climate thus reducing monocultures. change. CHAPTER 3 (3) Develop and improve water resources Integration of water resources management management in irrigated zones in flood risk and in irrigated agricultural land in flood risk and drought risk areas to be more effective. drought risk areas with water resources management in other sectors to have framework agreements on water utilization in the areas. (4) Develop water resources in non-irrigated An improved rainfall reserve system is in place, zones to be more effective and sufficient to meet and on-farm small-scale water resources are the demand for crops and livestock. developed in non-irrigated zones in risk areas with effective management. (5) Promote measures for soil conservation, Farmers in degraded agricultural land take rehabilitation, and soil fertility maintenance in measures on soil conservation, rehabilitation, degraded agricultural land, such as undertaking and soil fertility maintenance with increasing cover cropping, contour tillage, and crop production per unit, and reducing areas with selection according to the soil and climatic land degradation in the country. conditions in degraded agricultural land to increase production per unit, strengthen food security, and enhance the productivity of the areas. 29 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output Guideline 2: Management of livestock farmland (1) Develop livestock management systems Farmers in the risk areas can develop and and products to respond to the climate change improve livestock management systems and trends. products to respond to climate change. (2) Develop systems to control, prevent, and Adequate systems to control, prevent, and treat treat livestock diseases caused by climate livestock diseases caused by climate change change and epidemics caused by floods and and epidemics caused by floods and drought. drought. Guideline 3: Management of fisheries and aquaculture farmland (1) Develop fishery management systems to Farmers in the risk areas use the improved respond to climate change trends. varieties for further breeding. As well, building coastal erosion protection zones to protect the spawning grounds. (2) Restore fishery resources and aquatic habitats Aquatic habitats are restored and have a diversity to create a balance for aquatic biodiversity. of aquatic species. CHAPTER 3 (3) Develop systems for controlling, preventing, Guidelines and prevention systems to reduce and treating animal diseases. the impacts of damages caused by floods and drought in fisheries and aquaculture production. Guideline 4: Supporting mechanisms for agriculture and food security (1) Develop an index for the capacity of the An index for the capacity of the agricultural agricultural sector’s self-reliance in the event sector’s self-reliance in the event of climate- of climate-related disasters to assess farmers’ related disasters. capacity in different areas. (2) Develop an early warning system for the An effective early warning system for the agricultural sector, which is accurate, easily agricultural sector with interlinkages with other accessible, timely, and linked effectively with related systems is established and easily other early warning systems. accessible for farmers, especially in disaster- risk areas. (3) Map climate-risk agricultural areas and Maps of climate-risk agricultural areas and the climate change impacts at the local level and projection on climate change impacts at the make the information available for farmers to local level with interlinkages to other critical access and apply. socio-economic and environmental databases and information transfer channels to areas at risk. 30 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (4) Develop precision farming technology to Farmers can access and adopt precision lower the cost of operation, thus allowing more farming technology effectively. comprehensive access and adoption among farmers and increasing the effectiveness in planning and managing agricultural activities. (5) Promote agro-economic zoning using a Designation of agro-economic zones and proactive agri-map and mega farm systems for extension activities to encourage farmers to total production. conduct agricultural practices according to the zoning completed in all areas of the country. (6) Promote production with New Theor y Farming communities have sufficient food for Agriculture, Sustainable Agriculture, and consumption using New Theory Agriculture, Integrated Farming to produce sufficient food Sustainable Agriculture, and Integrated Farming. for household consumption, reduce the risk of food shortages, and always have access to food. (7) Promote the restoration of local household Farming communities have reserved food stores. food reserve storing traditions. CHAPTER 3 (8) Establish seed banks for crops, livestock, Seed banks for crops, livestock, and aquatic and aquatic species to loan the means of species to loan the means of production across production and act as a reserve in events of the entire country are established. natural disasters. (9) Promote the improvement of crop/livestock Farmers in the risk areas are able to use the varieties to accommodate the changes in improved crop/livestock varieties effectively in climatic conditions and suppor t farmers’ their production processes. access to these varieties. (10) Develop a national food reserve system A national food reserve system with an effective with effective distribution, and a plan to prevent distribution mechanism is established. shortages of raw materials in food industries when agricultural productivity is impacted by natural disasters. (11) Support research and development to Research and development on technology to reduce food loss and food waste in the reduce food loss and food waste in agricultural agricultural sector. products are available. 31 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (12) Suppor t networks building for climate Cooperation networks on climate change change adaptation in the agricultural sector to adaptation are established with active early enable cooperation on early warnings, climate warning systems and exchanges of knowledge, risk assessments, and exchanges of knowledge, technology, and innovation. technology, and agricultural innovation with link- ages to the local context. (13) Enhance farmers’ awareness of climate Farmers and all relevant stakeholders in the change impacts on the agricultural sector and agricultural sector have access to the databases capacity building of farmers to adaptive and on local wisdom related to climate change climate-risk management. impacts and adaptation. (14) Develop research to assess climate Research that shows the assessment of climate change factors that may impact the agricultural change factors that impact the agricultural sector (crop farming, livestock production, sector that can be used to set systematic fishery, and aquaculture resources). adaptation measures. Responsible agencies of the agriculture and food security sector: MOAC, MHESI, and MNRE. CHAPTER 3 32 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS 3) Tourism Tourism is an important economic sector in Thailand. Climate change has a direct impact on tourism because the sector’s several aspects, including nature-based, historical, and cultural tourism depend on specific climatic conditions. Natural tourist destinations often rely on vulnerable ecosystems, while cultural assets are CHAPTER 3 at risk from current changes in climate variables and future climate change. The more extreme trends of climate change may lead to shorter winters that are not as cold as expected, longer and hotter summers with the wet season remaining the same duration but with more frequent heavy rain, thus affecting the condition of tourism destinations, especially those with fragile ecosystems. Some plant species may not be able to withstand the changes in temperature and humidity. Some flowering species may not bloom in-season, and the affected tourism destinations could become less attractive or it would become more difficult to plan the visit. Changes in the amount and distribution of rainfall would alter the water volume of the waterfalls and could also limit activities, such as rafting, caving, and hiking. These changes could negatively affect tourist satisfaction and could limit future tourism activities. Fewer tourists would mean the tourism industry would become more at risk over loss of revenue, which 10.55% of Thailand’s labor force are currently dependent on (based on 2021 information from International Labour Organization). The ONEP conducted a study to project future climate risks and impacts on the tourism sector in Thailand focusing on natural and cultural tourism destinations. The study categorized the risk areas into three groups: flood risk, drought risk, and landslide risk. From the analysis, it was found that 736 tourist destinations were in drought risk areas. Most of them were located in the North, followed by the Central Plain, West, and the East, respectively. One hundred and sixty-nine tourist destinations were located in flood risk areas; most of them were in the Central Plain and the West, followed by the South and the Northeast, respectively. National level climate modeling was done by the ONEP and its consultants in which heat stress, drought, and floods were modeled under the RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. Several provinces in Thailand were listed vulnerable to a different degree under the model as shown in Table 3-3 and Figure 3-4 below. Several provinces affected are tourism hubs in the country. This could potentially impact the tourism sector negatively. 33 THAILAND’S THAILAND’S NATIONAL NATIONAL ADAPTATION ADAPTATION PLAN PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Table 3-3: Top 10 risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for the tourism sector. Risk for the Tourism Sector Areas RCP 4.5 Trat, Bangkok, Phuket, Mukdahan, Surat Thani, Krabi, Satun, Prachuap Risk areas to Khiri Khan, Ubon Ratchathani, and Chon Buri. heat stress RCP 8.5 Trat, Bangkok, Phuket, Mukdahan, Surat Thani, Krabi, Satun, Prachuap Khiri Khan, Ubon Ratchathani, and Khon Kaen. RCP 4.5 Surat Thani, Chiang Mai, Trat, Bangkok, Phang-nga, Nakhon Si Risk areas to Thammarat, Tak, Chiang Rai, Phitsanulok, and Khon Kaen. floods RCP 8.5 Surat Thani, Chiang Mai, Bangkok, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Trat, Tak, Phang-nga, Prachuap Khiri Khan, Chon Buri, and Nakhon Ratchasima. RCP 4.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Bangkok, Khon Kaen, Chaiyaphum, Roi et, Chiang Risk areas to Mai, Ubon Ratchathani, Chon Buri, Udon Thani, and Nakhon Sawan. drought RCP 8.5 Nakhon Ratchasima, Bangkok, Khon Kaen, Chiang Mai, Phuket, Nakhon Sawan, Roi Et, Sakon Nakhon, Udon Thani, and Chaiyaphum. CHAPTER 3 Heat hazard Floods Drought Figure 3-4: Risk areas for the tourism sector under the RCP4.5 with the focus on heat hazard, floods, and drought areas shown in the country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted areas. Source: Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (2021). 34 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Adaptation action guidelines for tourism Climate adaptation guidelines for the tourism sector focus on risk management and the mitigation of damages on tourism caused by climate-related disasters and climate factors, development and promotion of tourism that would harmonize with the changing climate, and capacity-building for the relevant sectors to adapt to the climate impacts in the tourism destinations and in tourism policymaking. Climate adaptation guidelines for tourism were categorized based on the types of the tourism destinations and activities. The three categories were: 1) Management of natural tourism destinations, 2) Management of man-made tourism destinations, and 3) Supporting mechanisms for tourism. The details of each measure are as follows: Guidelines/Measures Output Guideline 1: Management of natural tourism destinations (1) Adjust the tourism calendar to correspond to Improved tourism calendars consistent with the the changing seasonal pattern. changing seasonal pattern in place for the tourism destinations. CHAPTER 3 (2) Develop tourism styles that take into account Tourism plans that take into account the physical the carrying capacity in relation to the changing carrying capacity developed for destinations in climatic conditions in the risk areas. risk areas, and are effectively implemented to control the number of tourists in accordance with the carrying capacity. (3) Develop and reserve additional water sources Tourism destinations in drought risk areas have for natural tourism destinations in drought risk water reserve systems to ensure service during areas by taking into account ecosystem-based drought. approaches. (4) Additional measures to manage marine Marine tourism destinations in areas at risk tourism destinations impacted by climate of ocean temperature rise have ef fective change. measures for response and for natural recovery of the tourism destinations. (5) Develop natural disaster response plans. Disaster response plans that cover refuge, evacuation, food and water reserves, and back-up power are developed. 35 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output Guideline 2: Management of art and culture tourism destinations (1) Develop tourism infrastructure and flood Art and culture tourism destinations in flood risk prevention systems of art and culture tourism areas have effective infrastructure and flood destinations in risk areas. prevention systems. (2) Develop additional measures to prevent the Measures to protect valuable art structures and decay of valuable art structures and architecture architecture from the impacts of temperature from temperature change, humidity, and change, humidity, and atmospheric CO2 are atmospheric CO2 levels. implemented at tourism destinations in at-risk areas. (3) Develop additional measures to prevent Measures to protect valuable art structures and structural damage of valuable art structures and architecture from the impacts of climate-related architecture at risk from climate-related damage d i s a s t e r s a r e i m p l e m e n t e d at t o u r i s m and disasters. destinations in at-risk areas. Guideline 3: Supporting mechanisms for tourism (1) Produce a risk and impact assessment of Risk and impact data are presented to the tourism climate change on tourism destinations, as well destinations with climate change risk maps being CHAPTER 3 as risk maps. available. (2) Develop or improve the infrastructure of Tourism destinations at risk of extreme heat have tourism destinations to alleviate and mitigate sufficient resting points and relevant measures the impacts of extreme heat as appropriate for are implemented. that area. (3) Integrate tourism climate change adaptation Localities in risk areas have climate change plans into the community and LAO plans. adaptation plans for tourism that are integrated into local plans with appropriate tourism models for the local context and can effectively respond to climate change. (4) Develop and diversify activities in tourism The number of tourists choosing alternative destinations with high potential in order to build options, which reduce the pressures on natural resilience and minimize the impacts of climate resources and climatic conditions specific to the change. areas is increased, and the economic value of climate-resilient tourism increases. (5) Strengthen communities’ and LAOs’ capacity Tourism entrepreneurs, communities, and LAOs to manage diverse climate resilient tourism in risk areas have the capacity to respond to activities. climate risks for tourism, and identify climate resilient tourism activities that are appropriate for the local context. 36 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (6) Support tourism business entrepreneurs in Tourism entrepreneur s have a BCP that developing business continuity plans (BCP). incorporates climate risk assessment. (7) Build tourism-related disaster surveillance and A tourism-based warning and reporting system early warning systems that are fully connected that fully integrates and connects to other relevant and integrated with other warning systems and warning systems is fully operational. Local create networks in response to climate change. tourism entrepreneurs have appropriate climate change tourism plans, and tourists are updated on the situation of each tourism destination to help them make their decisions. (8) Raise awareness and educate tourists about A manual and bodies of knowledge for tourists climate risks and the vulnerabilities of tourism are developed and publicized to tourists. destinations. Responsible agencies of the tourism sector: MOTS, MOI, and MNRE. CHAPTER 3 37 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS 4) Public Health Ecosystems change as a result of climate change that could lead to direct and indirect health impacts, such as respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, food-and-water-borne diseases, heat-related illnesses, malnutrition, and mental health issues. The scenarios of illness and death caused by climate change in CHAPTER 3 Thailand have been described as follows: 1) Injuries and deaths from natural disasters - Climate change is a cause of many natural disasters, includ- ing floods, storms, and drought. These natural disasters have become more extreme, thus causing damag- es to life (injuries and deaths) and property. Moreover, they affect the economy, society, and environment, as well as public utilities and public health services. In 2015, over 15 public health facilities in drought areas experienced water shortages, consequently negatively impacting the services provided to the people in the area. Furthermore, climate change causes a rise in the sea level, which can affect public health services, especially in flood areas, areas below sea level, and areas facing coastal erosion. It is estimated that more than 2.5 million Thais would be affected annually by the rise of the sea level in 2030 if business proceeds as usual. 2) Impacts of high temperature - With temperatures increasing every year, the heat situation in Thailand from past to present is on an upward trend. During 2016-2023, the average maximum temperature was 43.5ºC (Thai Meteorological Department, 2023). Heat-related illness cases usually peak in the summer from March to May affecting the working-age population the most as a result of outdoor work. Professions with the highest morbidity were farmers followed by labor for hire, and military draftees. Although heat-re- lated illness cases in Thailand have shown a decreasing trend during 2013-2022, morbidity was 2.43-0.2 (Health Data Center, Ministry of Public Health, 2023), and mortality rates during 2018-2022 also declined (Department of Disease Control, 2023). Future risk estimates show that if GHG emissions continue to rise, the mortality rates in the elderly would be within 14,000 persons in 2050 and 2080, respectively when com- pared to the number of deaths in 1961 (WHO, 2015). 38 THAILAND’S THAILAND’S NATIONAL NATIONAL ADAPTATION ADAPTATION PLAN PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS 3) Vector-borne diseases - Vector-borne diseases in Thailand from 2012-2021 showed that the morbidity and mortality from dengue fever had decreased, peaking in 2013 and the highest death toll from dengue fever was in the Northern region, followed by the Central Plain (excluding Bangkok), the Northeastern region, and the Southern region, respectively. The morbidity and mortality from malaria decreased from 2012-2021. Most cases of malaria were found in the Northern region, followed by the Central Plain (ex- cluding Bangkok), and Southern region (Strategy and Planning Division, Ministry of Public Health, 2023). 4) Food- and water-borne diseases - Regarding food- and water-borne diseases, such as diarrhea, in a 10-year period (2012-2021), it was found that the morbidity of these diseases had decreased but peaking in 2015, with the exception of diarrhea which had increased during 2012-2015, but decreased in 2015-2021. The mortality rate of diarrhea increased during 2012-2021, and most cases of diarrhea were in the Northeastern region, Central Plain (excluding Bangkok), and Northern region, respectively (Strategy and Planning Division, Ministry of Public Health, 2023). 5) Respiratory diseases - The morbidity rate of respiratory diseases between 2012-2021 decreased, while the mortality rate of respiratory diseases from 2012-2021 had increased (Strategy and Planning Division, CHAPTER 3 Ministry of Public Health, 2023). 6) Malnutrition - The morbidity rate for malnutrition between 2012-2015 peaked in 2015 and decreased during 2015-2018 and increased again during 2018-2021, while death from malnutrition increased from 2012-2023, peaking in 2019, and stabilized during 2019-2021 (Strategy and Planning Division, Ministry of Public Health, 2023). From the data above, illnesses and deaths from all six key diseases were related to climate change either directly or indirectly. This could result in increased costs to public health, healthcare, and economic loss. Thailand currently has one of the highest overall health costs in Asia with 19.82% of household health expenses and 20.18% of government health expenditure. Many agencies at the national, regional, and global levels are thus working to develop policies and measures to mitigate and prevent future climate impacts in relation to health. Areas that have been identified as having high health risks and vulnerabilities from floods are Bangkok, the Upper Central Plain, Northeastern region, and the Southern region. In the case of drought, it was found that areas with high health risks and vulnerabilities were Bangkok, the Northern region, Central Plain, the Western region, as well as most areas in the Northeastern region. National level climate modeling was done by the ONEP and its consultants, in which heat stress, drought, and floods were modeled under the RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. Several provinces in Thailand were listed vulnerable to a different degree under the model as shown in Table 3-4 and Figure 3-5 below. 39 THAILAND’S THAILAND’S NATIONAL NATIONAL ADAPTATION ADAPTATION PLAN PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Table 3-4: Top 10 risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for the public health sector. Risk for the Public Health Sector Areas RCP 4.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Buri Ram, Khon Risk areas to Kaen, Si Sa Ket, Surin, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Roi Et, and Kalasin. heat stress RCP 8.5 Bangkok, Ubon Ratchathani, Nakhon Ratchasima, Buri Ram, Si Sa Ket, Khon Kaen, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Surin, Songkhla, and Roi Et. RCP 4.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Nakhon Sawan, Chiang Mai, Khon Kaen, Chiang Rai, Chaiyaphum, Buri Ram, and Phitsanulok. Risk areas to floods RCP 8.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Nakhon Sawan, Buri Ram, Chiang Mai, Khon Kaen, Chaiyaphum, Kalasin, and Nakhon Si Thammarat. RCP 4.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Khon Kaen, Buri Risk areas to Ram, Si Sa Ket, Roi Et, Surin, Maha Sarakham, and Chaiyaphum. drought RCP 8.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Khon Kaen, Roi Et, Buri Ram, Maha Sarakham, Udon Thani, Si Sa Ket, and Surin. CHAPTER 3 Heat hazard Floods Drought Figure 3-5: Risk areas for the public health sector under the RCP4.5 with a focus on Heat hazard, floods, and drought areas shown in the country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted areas. Source: Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (2021). 40 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines and measures for public health Climate adaptation guidelines for public health were based on the principles of categorizing direct and indirect climate change related health risks in key diseases consisting of respiratory diseases, vector-borne diseases (dengue fever and malaria), heat-related diseases, illnesses from flood and drought, and health impacts caused by the lack of water and food. This would focus on health- risk populations; namely, children, the elderly, pregnant women, patients with chronic conditions, farmers and laborers, and the underprivileged. The guidelines can be categorized and detailed as follows: Guidelines/Measures Output Guideline 1: Preventing climate change health impacts (1) Strengthen the capacity to protect and Healthcare facilities at all levels comply to the provide healthcare to health-risk groups. healthcare standard. Reduce the morbidity rate in climate change related health-risk groups. (2) Improve the standard of medical and public Healthcare facilities at all levels comply to the CHAPTER 3 health services in response to climate change. healthcare standard. Establishment/enhancement of healthcare systems to cover both care and protection from climate change related health impacts. (3) Strengthen the capacity of the general public The public has knowledge, health literacy, and by creating knowledge, understanding, and can prevent and practice self-care for climate awareness on climate change related health change related diseases. impacts, and promote public par ticipation in proper climate change adaptation and management. Guideline 2: Supporting mechanisms for public health (1) Develop surveillance and forecast systems National, regional, and provincial climate for climate change related health impacts. change related sur veillance and forecast systems, health-risk maps, and war ning mechanisms to report the situation and provide health information regarding morbidity and mortality as a result of climate change and how to resolve such issues are developed. 41 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (2) Improve the quality and effectiveness of the Improved criteria of the health insurance system health insurance system to cover all groups of to cover people with climate-related risks and the population with climate-related risks and sensitivity, and effective access to public health sensitivity. services for these groups of people. (3) Develop research, knowledge, technology, Medical innovation and products. which can be and innovation to reduce and manage health- used to reduce and manage health risks from related risks from climate change. climate change have increased. (4) Develop model hospitals on reducing and Model hospitals in risk areas are able to manage managing health risks related to climate change health risks related to climate change effectively at the local level. and according to the standard. (5) Develop standards for emergency responses Healthcare facilities at all levels comply to in the event of climate change related public emergency response standards to prevent health problems. climate change related health impacts, referrals, and transfers. (6) Strengthen the capacity of public health The capacity of public health officials at all officials at all levels on pro-active responses to levels, including public health volunteers, are CHAPTER 3 climate change. strengthened with the skills to pro-actively address health problems related to climate change. (7) Develop cooperation mechanisms among Cooperation networks among government all sectors inside and outside the public health agencies, academic institutions, local authorities, system to prevent and reduce health impacts and the public that are integrated with exchanges from climate change. of information on surveillance and preparedness for health risks related to climate change are established. (8) Improve the public health station infrastructure Healthcare facilities in climate change risk areas to respond to climate change, especially in are designed to be more resilient to climate risk-areas. change. Responsible agencies of the public health sector: MOPH, MHESI, and MOI. 42 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS 5) Natural Resources Management Climate change heavily impacts the natural resource management sector in Thailand. Climate is a key factor in the life cycle of flora and fauna ranging from their ability to reproduce, and their migratory pattern to parameters that allow them to live and flourish at different locations, ecosystems, and elevations. Changes in CHAPTER 3 the climate, such as temperature, and rainfall pattern and availability affect all organisms in the ecosystem. The changes may cause a decrease in certain species or push some species to extinction if they cannot adapt to the changes. Climate change could also act as a catalyst that could intensify other existing pressures, such as overharvesting or habitat loss. Moreover, climate change could affect the biogeochemical cycle that would produce and transfer energy within the ecosystem by creating the potential for feedback that would alter both the warming and cooling processes in the future. For example, as soils warm, the rate of decomposition would increase, thus adding more CO2 to the atmosphere. In addition, both climate and biogeochemistry interact strongly with environmental and ecological concerns, such as biodiversity loss, freshwater and marine eutrophication, air pollution, human health, food security, and water resources. Biodiversity in natural ecosystems is essential to the environment, economy, livelihood, and culture in the Thai context. This would be rapidly threatened by temperature increases between 1.0-3.5ºC and in the next 100 years would change the current climate parameters in each climate zone, which would also include zones covering Thailand. The composition and distribution of organisms in the natural ecosystems would change in response to new conditions. Climate change along with other existing pressures, such as deforestation, other environmental and human pressures, change of humidity, and loss of the groundwater table would affect the types and growth of various flora and fauna. Plant and animal species that failed to adapt in time could become extinct, consequently resulting in an irreversible loss to biodiversity. Each species has a different capacity to adapt to the changing environment. These different capacities could lead to loss of species and changes in ecosystem dynamics. National level climate modeling was done by the ONEP and its consultants in which heat stress, drought, and floods were modeled under the RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. Several provinces in Thailand were listed vulnerable to a different degree under the model in terms of its natural resource management as shown in Table 3-5 and Figure 3-6 below. 43 THAILAND’S THAILAND’S NATIONAL NATIONAL ADAPTATION ADAPTATION PLAN PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Table 3.5: Top 10 risk areas divided by the climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for the natural resources management sector. Risk for the Natural Resource Management Sector Areas RCP 4.5 Ubon Ratchathani, Chiang Mai, Tak, Lampang, Kanchanaburi, Chiang Risk areas to Rai, Mae Hong Son, Nakhon Ratchasima, Nan, and Phrae. heat stress RCP 8.5 Ubon Ratchathani, Chiang Mai, Tak, Kanchanaburi, Lampang, Chiang Rai, Mae Hong Son, Nakhon Ratchasima, Nan, and Phrae. RCP 4.5 Ubon Ratchathani, Nakhon Ratchasima, Udon Thani, Chiang Mai, Chaiyaphum, Khon Kaen, Si Sa Ket, Lampang, Sakon Nakhon, and Risk areas to Kanchanaburi. floods RCP 8.5 Ubon Ratchathani, Nakhon Ratchasima, Udon Thani, Chiang Mai, Sakon Nakhon, Lampang, Chaiyaphum, Khon Kaen, Kanchanaburi, and Si Sa Ket. RCP 4.5 Chiang Mai, Tak, Mae Hong Son, Nan, Chiang Rai, Lampang, Risk areas to Kanchanaburi, Ubon Ratchathani, Phrae, and Uttaradit. drought RCP 8.5 Chiang Mai, Tak, Mae Hong Son, Kanchanaburi, Nan, Lampang, Chiang Rai, Ubon Ratchathani, Phrae, and Phetchaburi. CHAPTER 3 Heat hazard Floods Drought Figure 3-6: Risk areas for the natural resources sector under the RCP4.5 with a focus on Heat hazard, floods, and drought areas shown in the country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted areas. Source: Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (2021). 44 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS For the natural resources management sector, the impacts would be direct physical ones from the climate change on the natural resources as well as nonphysical impacts described as follows: 1) Impacts on plant species distribution: Plants in tropical rainforests have shallow root systems and leaves that are less resistant to drought than mixed deciduous forests. Therefore, changes in rainfall and rain distribution that result in heavy rain over a short period followed by prolonged drought and even a slight increase in temperature would cause rainforest plant species to be replaced by deciduous species. Deciduous plants, such as teak and ironwood, would spread further. However, it was found that future climate change would not have much of an impact on plant distribution in Southern Thailand because of its geography being a peninsula under the influences from both the Indian Ocean and Gulf of Thailand. 2) Impacts on wildlife: Climate change would have an impact on all groups of animals. For example, birds are sensitive to the effects of climate change, and this could be used as an indicator of changes in the climate by observing different behavior, such as migration, nesting, mating, singing, or suitable home range, for instance. Impacts on terrestrial wildlife would also be observed in amphibians as well as altitudinal distribution range shifts from changing climate causing some area to be not suitable for these species as habitat. 3) Impacts on wetland ecosystems - Changes in the climate factors could result in higher temperatures, increased or decreased rainfalls, greater chance of forest fires, and a rise in the sea level, which would af- fect the risks or vulnerability of wetland ecosystems that could change its structure and roles and species CHAPTER 3 within such ecosystem, thus leading to biodiversity loss. 4) Impacts on marine and coastal resources: A rise in the sea level and increase in ocean temperature would be the relevant impacts of climate change on the oceans and coastal seas, consequently negatively impacting humans and coastal ecosystems. This would include changes in long-term averages or slow onset chang- es; for example, increased average sea level, ocean acidification, increased average ocean temperature, and short-term changes that would be usually related to meteorological phenomena. The interactions between the natural resources, biodiversity, and climate change could occur in both directions. While natural resources and biodiversity could be threatened by climate change, proper management of natural resources and biodiversity could also create resilience to the impacts of climate change. Guidelines and measures for the natural resources management sector Guidelines for adaptation to climate change in the natural resources management sector would be divided according to the main ecosystems: 1) Terrestrial ecosystem management, 2) wetland ecosystem management, 3) marine and coastal ecosystem management, and 4) supporting mechanisms for the management of natural resources and biodiversity. The guidelines can be categorized and detailed as follows: 45 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output Guideline 1: Management of terrestrial ecosystems (1) Conserve pristine protected areas through Buffer zone forests along the boundary of an ecosystem-based approach by creating protected areas and ecological corridors in key ecological corridors and developing buffer zone forest clusters with increased significance of management. high biodiversity. (2) Promote reforestation and afforestation with Encroached and degraded forests as well as appropriate incentives, such as carbon credits vacant land outside the forests, including private in encroached areas, degraded watersheds, or forests, are rehabilitated to pristine conditions. vacant land outside natural forests, including The rehabilitation would increase the ecosystem’s private forests. resilience to impact from climate change, while providing ecosystem services for adjacent communities. (3) Establish criteria for coexistence between Encroachment of highland communities and humans and forests using EbA and/or NbS. areas surrounding forests for monoculture farming decreases, and reciprocal farming and animal husbandry practices that promote sustainable coexistence with forest ecosystems CHAPTER 3 are implemented. (4) Support the conservation of endemic and Research on breeding rare or endangered endangered species in terrestrial ecosystems, species are available, and regulations and especially carnivores, affected by climate measures for conser ving and protecting change, as well as prevent invasive alien species, biodiversity resources in terrestrial ecosystems, which could become widespread due to the especially threatened species, are in place. changing climatic conditions. (5) Establish forest fire prevention networks in Forest fire prevention networks are established risk areas with communities’ participation by with the capacity to manage and address the increasing their capacity on the prevention and problem of forest fires and with surveillance, control of forest fires. follow-up, and forecasting tools to manage risks at the local level. Guideline 2: Management of wetlands (1) Expedite the designation of the environmentally Areas with fragile ecosystems and threats to protected areas (EPAs) in areas with fragile biodiversity resources are designated as EPAs. ecosystems and threats to biodiversity resources, which are outside the protected areas (PA). (2) Develop management plans for wetlands of Management plans for wetlands of international, international, national, and/or local significance. national, and/or local significance are developed. 46 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (3) Develop and rehabilitate wetlands as water Wetlands are developed and rehabilitated into banks to slow and prevent flooding by using both water banks to slow and prevent flooding. natural and man-made wetlands without impacting the ecosystem and ecosystem services. (4) Strengthen the capacity for bog fire risk Bog fire surveillance and prevention plan are management. created through a participatory approach with the cooperation of all sectors. (5) Promote a cooperative network for the Cooperative networks for the conservation, conservation, rehabilitation, and appropriate and rehabilitation, and appropriate and sustainable sustainable use of wetlands. use of wetlands are established. (6) Advocate the proposal of Thailand’s significant Wetlands are proposed as Ramsar sites and wetlands. migratory bird network areas. Guideline 3: Management of marine and coastal ecosystems (1) Conserve and protect marine and coastal Specific measures for the conservation and resources, including increasing and rehabilitating rehabilitation of marine and coastal resources CHAPTER 3 mangrove areas for an ecological balance in each marine and coastal community are through a participatory approach. developed with public participation, and integrated into the strategic plan of the area with effective implementation. (2) Support the conservation of endemic and Research on breeding rare or endangered endangered species in marine and coastal species are available, and regulations and ecosystems affected by climate change, as measures for conser ving and protecting well as prevent invasive alien species, which biodiversity resources in marine and coastal could become widespread due to the changing ecosystems, especially threatened species, are climatic conditions. in place. (3) Expedite the designation of the EPAs in Marine and coastal areas with fragile ecosystems marine and coastal areas with fragile ecosystems and threats to biodiversity resources are and threats to biodiversity resources, which are designated as EPAs. outside the PAs. (4) Assessment of Thailand’s Ocean Health Surveillance and monitoring systems for changes Index and development of surveillance and to seawater as a result of climate change factors monitoring systems for changes to seawater as are developed. a result of climate change factors. 47 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (5) Prepare an integrated plan for coastal zone Integrated plans for coastal zone management management across the country to reduce the are developed comprising protection, restoration, impact of coastal erosion through a participatory or rehabilitation measures of coastal areas approach. across the country, and mainstreamed into the area-based strategic plan in each locality with effective implementation. (6) Strengthen the capacity of coastal areas Plans to mitigate the impact, establish evacuation to respond to and prevent the impact of storm routes in the event of storm surges in coastal surges. areas are developed, and response manuals and drills are produced and conducted. (7) Enable networks of people organizations, Networks of people organizations, community- community-based organizations, and LAOs based organizations, and LAOs collaborate to along the coastal zones to conser ve and develop measures on nature-based coastal rehabilitate marine and coastal resources. restoration and participate in regulating the utilization of mangrove areas. Guideline 4: Supporting mechanisms for natural resources management and biodiversity CHAPTER 3 (1) Develop biological indicators of different Biological indicators of different ecosystems ecosystems to cover all risk areas across the are developed to cover all risk areas across the country. country. (2) Develop a complete version of Thailand’s Thailand’s Red List Index is completed. Red List Index. (3) Build networks for the monitoring and Local communities have the capacity to apply the evaluation of biological indicators. monitoring and evaluation system of biological indicators of different ecosystems as part of their daily life. (4) Increase the designated protected areas More areas are designated as protected areas to support the migration of migratory species to increase the capacity for supporting migratory vulnerable to climate change. species vulnerable to climate change. (5) Promote research on the impact of climate Research and bodies of knowledge on change on different ecosystems, including plant climate-related impacts on ecosystems, including and animal species. plants and animal species are developed. (6) Develop mechanisms to promote the role of Suitable mechanisms are developed to promote ecologically friendly communities in preserving the role of ecologically friendly communities in and conser ving natural resources and risk areas in the preservation and conservation of ecosystems. natural resources, ecosystems, and biodiversity. 48 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (7) Promote and enable communities with Communities in risk areas have mechanisms to ecologically friendly livelihoods or “eco-villages” utilize natural resources sustainably, which are to be able to maintain their way of life in harmony based on local beliefs, wisdom, and practices with nature, and support communities’ roles in with the capacity to protect the natural resources natural resource protection. and to live in harmony with nature. (8) Encourage collaboration with the private The roles of the private sector and general sector and the general public on preserving and public in preserving and conserving natural conserving natural resources and biodiversity resources and biodiversity in collaboration with through corporate social responsibility (CSR). the government agencies or local authorities are augmented. (9) Build knowledge and understanding on the Training modules to build knowledge and impact of climate change and enhance the develop the capacity of all stakeholders in adaptive capacity of all stakeholders through natural resources management under climate EbA and/or Nbs in natural resources management change conditions by using the EbA and/or Nbs and sustainable use of biodiversity and approach are developed and implemented. ecosystem services approaches. Responsible agencies of the natural resources management sector: MNRE, MHESI, and MOI. CHAPTER 3 49 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS 6) Human Settlements and Security Human settlements in the past took great consideration of the climatic and natural imperatives. The settlements needed to synchronize with the geographical, climatic, and ecological characteristics of each location. Differences in the physical locations also contributed to different ways of life and cultural practices CHAPTER 3 with diverse learning processes to manage and adapt to the changing climatic conditions. However, as social and economic systems changed, technological developments and economic activities have made human societies and settlements more secure. This has resulted in the climate-conscious settlement considerations used in the past have become less of a priority with modern engineering and management methods that have allowed communities to continue while managing the risks. As climate change would have an increasingly severe impact on human settlements in the future, climate factors would need to be taken more into account in the development policies and planning related to human settlements. Bangkok and its surrounding environs are the center of national development with the highest population density and the most important economic clusters (besides agricultural activities). The settlements and development direction of Bangkok and its surrounding environs have been expanding to connect with the eastern part of the country, which is in accordance with the direction of the industrial and tourism expansion. Other major cities in the provinces with a population of about one million up are distributed in different regions of Thailand. Most of these large cities are located along the major rivers of the country. Overall, areas with key development and significant functions in Thailand are clustered in the flood plains, along the major rivers, and along the coasts, especially in Greater Bangkok and the connecting coastal zones in the provinces in the East, as well as in the main cities in other regions. These areas are exposed to high disaster risks from the changing climatic conditions, including floods caused by the changing patterns and intensity of rainfall, rise of the sea level, drought, and the increasing heat index. According to a study by the ONEP in 2016, the impact of climate change on human settlements in Thailand are projected as follows: 50 THAILAND’S THAILAND’S NATIONAL NATIONAL ADAPTATION ADAPTATION PLAN PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Flood disasters or flood situations: The projection under the two scenarios have indicated that areas with high flood risks are most of the areas in the Central Plain and the flood plains in the Lower North, especially along the Yom, Nan, and Chao Phraya Rivers. Areas with moderate flood risks are scattered along the major CHAPTER 3 rivers, particularly in the East and some parts of the North, and in the coastal areas, especially on the Gulf of Thailand side in the South and the East. The changing amount and intensity of rainfall as well as the rise in the sea level would expose these areas to increasing flood situations, stagnant floods in low-lying areas from continuous heavy rain, and coastal erosion. Areas with settlement density in Thailand are along the rivers and the coasts; hence, all of them face high flood risks due to climate change. Simultaneously, the flood situations in Bangkok and its surrounding environs as well as in the eastern and the southern coasts would be more intense coupled with the impact from the rise in the sea level. Heat situations: It is projected that, overall, most of the areas in the country would be moderately hotter, while the mountainous areas would have lower heat risks. When examining in more detail at the provincial level, it was found that the heat situations tended to become more intensified in the future in the areas in the Central Plains and in the North, which already have a high heat index at the present time. The analysis also showed that there would be a wider expansion of areas with a high heat index covering almost all areas in the Central Plains and the South, as well as most of the areas in the North and some areas in the East. In addition, it indicated that the difference between the current heat index in the North and its future heat index was very high, which means that the North would likely be critically impacted by climate change in terms of heat. National level climate modeling was done by the ONEP and its consultants in which heat stress, drought, and floods were modeled under the RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. Several provinces in Thailand were listed vulnerable to a different degree under the model as shown in Table 3-6 and Figure 3-7below. 51 THAILAND’S THAILAND’S NATIONAL NATIONAL ADAPTATION ADAPTATION PLAN PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Table 3-6: Top 10 risk areas divided by climate scenarios during 2016-2035 for the human settlement and security sector. Risk for Human Settlement and Security Sector Areas RCP 4.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Samut Prakan, Buri Ram, Chon Buri, Risk areas to Ubon Ratchathani, Songkhla, Nonthaburi, Surin, and Phuket. heat stress RCP 8.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Samut Prakan, Buri Ram, Chon Buri, Ubon Ratchathani, Songkhla, Surin, Phuket, and Nonthaburi. RCP 4.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Chiang Mai, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Chiang Rai, Nakhon Sawan, Kamphaeng Phet, Phitsanulok, Khon Kaen, Risk areas to and Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya. floods RCP 8.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Chiang Mai, Samut Prakan, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya, Kamphaeng Phet, Songkhla, Nakhon Sawan, and Nakhon Nayok. RCP 4.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Samut Prakan, Ubon Risk areas to Ratchathani, Roi Et, Buri Ram, Surin, Chaiyaphum, and Udon Thani. drought RCP 8.5 Bangkok, Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Roi Et, Samut Prakan, Ubon Ratchathani, Udon Thani, Buri Ram, Maha Sarakham, and Surin. CHAPTER 3 Heat hazard Floods Drought Figure 3-7: Risk areas for the human settlements and security sector under the RCP4.5 with a focus on heat hazard, floods, and drought areas shown in the country map during 2016-2035. The darker color indicates more severely impacted areas. Source: Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (2021). 52 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines and measures for human settlement and security Climate adaptation guidelines for human settlements and security would focus on mitigating risks and damages from climate-related disasters, as well as strengthening the preparedness and adaptive capacity of individuals, communities, and cities. The guidelines can be categorized and detailed as follows: Guidelines/Measures Output Guideline 1: Management of metropolitan and large cities (1) Develop the essential infrastructure with Metropolitan and large cities have the essential alternatives to prepare for emergencies caused infrastructure and risk reduction plans to respond by natural disasters, and develop emergency to emergencies caused by climate change response plans through a participatory approach related natural disasters. in all risk areas, as well as disseminate the information to the general public, so that they would be aware and able to take action. CHAPTER 3 (2) Advocate for town planning regulations or Metropolitan and large cities have regulations for building control laws in potential climate change specific town planning or building control laws impact areas to ensure that built structures are that integrate climate resilience criteria. stable, secure, and appropriately designed to enhance climate resilience. (3) Support mixed use developments to encourage Metropolitan and large cities have regulations non-reliance on long-distance transport. for mixed used development plans. (4) Develop additional green multi-use spaces Metropolitan and large cities have sufficient that are connected within the city as well as to green multi-use spaces for their urban nearby areas to mitigate the climate-related population. impact. (5) Coordinate and prepare backup plans for Backup plans for systems essential for survival systems essential for survival during climate- at the local level during climate-related related emergencies or crises. emergencies or crises are developed. (6) Strengthen the capacity of the business and Adaptation options are assessed to find those industrial sectors in preparing for and managing suitable for each business and industry through the climate change impact and risks through a participatory approach. a participatory approach for evaluating the effectiveness of various adaptation options to suit the context of the respective business and industry. 53 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (7) Set guidelines for responding to the impact Guidelines for responding to the impact on urban of increased temperature or urban heat islands, heat islands in large cities are developed. especially in large cities. Guideline 2: Management of medium and small cities and communities (1) Expedite the integration of climate change Climate change adaptation issues are integrated adaptation issues into development plans and into development plans and strategies for cities, strategies for cities, communities, and local communities, and local areas in all risk areas. authorities by taking into consideration the climate change conditions and providing adaptation options, which would combine nature-based solutions, local wisdom, and modern technology, and correspond with the communities’ way of life in each locality. (2) Develop specific town plans with the objective of Regulations and/or building control laws for climate change adaptation, including regulations specific town plans in potential climate change for specific town plans and/or building control impact areas are established. laws in potential climate change impact areas. CHAPTER 3 (3) Adapt land use to be aligned with climate Cities, communities, and localities integrate change, and determine the appropriate direction climate change responses and adaptation into for urban and infrastructure development, such land use plans and infrastructure development. as polycentric cities in cases where existing development is in climate change risk-areas. (4) Develop land use plans that preserve areas of Cities, communities, and localities have land high environmental/ecosystem value, including use plans that preserve valuable environmental/ agricultural land, water resources, and green ecosystem areas, agricultural land, water spaces to sustain ecosystems and address resources, and green spaces. floods and drought. (5) Develop local disaster prevention and Cities, communities, and localities have local mitigation plans that are connected to national disaster prevention and mitigation plans level disaster prevention and mitigation plans, connected to national level disaster prevention including coordination of government agencies and mitigation plans. in disaster prevention and mitigation, as well as strengthening the adaptive capacity through exchanging lessons learned between local agencies facing similar issues, for instance. 54 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (6) Strengthen the capacity of coastal urban Integrated plan for coastal urban area and areas and communities in the prevention and community management, and prevention surveillance of the rise in the sea level through measures and surveillance are developed to a participatory approach with all the relevant cover all of Thailand’s coastal areas. sectors by designating and categorizing areas impacted by the rise in the sea level by severity and urgency or future trends to be used as a guideline for prevention measures or rehabilitation of each type of area. (7) Create up-to-date information networks, and Networks of climate change related disaster establish clear roles and practices for quick and communication and warning to the public and efficient community warning and communication risk groups are established. reaching all populations, especially risk groups, such as the elderly, low-income groups, and rural communities, for instance. (8) Develop backup systems for households and Backup plans for survival during climate-related communities in risk areas during seasons of risk, emergencies or crises are developed for such as reserves of food and water sources, households and communities. CHAPTER 3 backup power, for instance. Guideline 3: Supporting mechanisms for human settlements and security (1) Develop criteria and indicators to measure the Criteria and indicators are developed for urban progress of the adaptive capacity and climate climate resilience and adaptive capacity. resilience in the urban context. (2) Develop accurate, accessible, and up-to-date Disaster warning systems and situation report disaster war ning and situation repor ting mechanisms are established that cover all mechanisms covering all types of cities to be types of cities and enhance accessibility by all comprehensively connected to other warning population groups. systems with full accessibility by all population groups. (3) Expedite the integration of a climate-resilient A climate-resilient building approach is building approach into the standards and integrated into the standards and regulations of regulations of building designs in the Building building designs in the Building Control Act 1979. Control Act 1979 to be consistent with the changing climatic conditions and degrees of the severity of natural disasters in each area. 55 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS Guidelines/Measures Output (4) Promote buildings with climate-resilient Research and development of buildings with architecture and adaptive designs to create the climate-resilient architecture and adaptive flexibility of buildings to accommodate climate design are disseminated to the general public uncertainties and to enable communities to for their application. respond to natural disasters and climate change with approaches, which are more appropriate to the local context. (5) Advocate for the regulation to undertake CCBA is conducted for all mega projects receiving climate change benefit analysis (CCBA) in all public investment. mega projects under public investment to ensure that they are consistent with the present and future climatic conditions. (6) Encourage the roles of the private sector in the Criteria and guidelines on financial mechanisms responses and management of climate change to support the private sector to have roles in the related risks through financial mechanisms, responses and management of climate change such as supporting climate insurance businesses related risks are developed. as an option for risk management by emphasizing the fairness, accessibility, and benefits for the CHAPTER 3 groups of the population at risk; and providing low-interest loans or tax exemptions for projects related to climate change adaptation. (7) Strengthen the capacity and awareness of The general public has knowledge and the public by mainstreaming the knowledge under standing of climate change risk and understanding of climate change risk management and responses. management and responses in basic education. (8) Enable low-income population and population Low-income population and population at-risk at-risk to have fair access to various forms of can get access to various forms of support support, such as funding for climate change mechanisms that are fair when affected by adaptation and climate risk insurance systems, climate change. when affected by climate change. Responsible agencies of the human settlement and security sector: MOI, MNRE, MSDHS and MHESI. 56 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 3 ADAPTATION ACTIONS CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION 57 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION

4.1 Cross-cutting Issues To achieve the goals of the Thailand’s NAP, not only sectoral measures are to be implemented, but various cross-cutting measures are also required to ensure synergistic and integrated planning approaches. These measures would include the development of databases, research, and technology on climate change adaptation, development of supporting mechanisms, such as regulations, finance, capacity building and incentives, and enhancement of the capacity, knowledge, and awareness of the officials and relevant stakeholders in all sectors, such as youth and the business community to understand the risk and impact of climate change and be capable of undertaking adaptation actions. OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES AND MEASURES Guidelines/Measures Outputs/Targets Guideline 1: Databases, research, and technology development and transfer (1) Under take research related to climate Availability and applicability of research change adaptation in the six key sectors and on climate change adaptation to effectively sub-sectors, in areas, such as climate change suppor t the development of guidelines/ impact assessment, identification of risk areas, measures on climate change adaptation loss and damage assessment, and monitoring management and impact assessment. and evaluation of climate change adaptation actions by the sector and cross-sector. (2) Harmonize the standard of all climate Harmonized and coordinated climate change change research databases and promote the research databases among domestic and exchanges of data and information among international agencies. domestic and international agencies, including through establishing coordination mechanisms. (3) Promote networking of academia to exchange Networks of academia and sectoral agencies and develop knowledge on climate change and working on climate change adaptation and CHAPTER 4 between academic communities and sectoral research-supported climate change adaptation agencies to ensure a translation and commu- policy development. nication of research knowledge into policy development and practices and vice versa. (4) Establish additional meteorological and Meteorological and climate station networks climate stations to ensure a network coverage are established in all provinces, particularly of vulnerable areas in all provinces to monitor in vulnerable and highland areas. weather conditions and link the data with existing stations, including meteorological stations in highland areas of mountain ranges to obtain climate data and information for highland agricultural development and temperate fruit and vegetable crop cultivation, as well as, for early warnings on flash floods and landslides. 58 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION Guidelines/Measures Outputs/Targets (5) Developing climate services for sectors and Numbers of climate services and sectoral sub-sectors as well as define suitable climate dataset. and non-climate dataset for sectoral stakeholder. (6) Establish an integrated sectoral-based Improved integrated system of climate climate risk and vulnerability database system database and sectoral war ning system, and enhance its linkage with sectoral warning instruments, and mechanisms. system, instruments, and mechanisms. (7) Develop a national action plan on climate A national action plan on climate change change technology development and a human technology and a human resource capacity resource capacity development plan to support development plan are developed. relevant technological advancement. (8) Improve the accuracy and precision of More accurate and precise climate change climate change projection and model simulation, projection and model simulation to enhance including the forecast of extreme weather events, the efficiency of early warning systems. such as tropical cyclones and climate fluctuation leading to severe floods and droughts in order to improve the efficiency of early warning systems. Responsible Agencies: ONEP, MNRE, MHESI, and MOI. Guideline 2: Development of supporting mechanisms for climate change adaptation actions (1) Amend and/or develop laws and legislation Improved or new laws and legislation to to support climate change adaptation actions, support climate change adaptation actions such as the new Climate Change Act, and the are established. amendment of the Town and Country Planning CHAPTER 4 Act 1975, the Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007, and the Agricultural Economics Act 1979. (2) Ensure sufficient budgetary support to the Relevant gover nment agencies receive relevant government agencies in taking climate suf ficient budget to take climate change change adaptation actions by developing an adaptation actions. integrated budget for climate change and intro- ducing budget codes on climate change actions in the annual budget appropriation document. (3) Adopt financial mechanisms to support Financial mechanisms are established to climate change adaptation in various aspects, support climate change adaptation actions. such as rehabilitation and reparation funds for disaster and climate change impacts, climate insurance systems, and payment for ecosystem services (PES). 59 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION Guidelines/Measures Outputs/Targets (4) Develop a business model in the areas of Insurance business covering climate-induced climate insurance or disaster insurance for disasters or climate change impacts are disasters due to climate change as an option for accessible by farmers, the private sector, and risk management in all sectors, especially the populations groups that are at risk. agricultural sector, private sector, and popula- tions groups that are at risk. (5) Add all dimension climate change impact Assessment of dimensions of the impact of assessment into the Strategic Environmental climate change is required under the SEA Assessment (SEA) to understand its impacts process. on the carrying capacity of natural resources and ecosystems in area-based development planning. (6) Establish a coordinating mechanism to A coordinating mechanism is established enable access of national agencies and to enable access of national agencies and institutions to financial, academic, and techno- institutions to financial, academic, and techno- logical support on climate change adaptation logical support on climate change adaptation from international agencies and funds, such from international agencies and funds. as International Climate Initiative (IKI), Global Environment Facility (GEF), Green Climate Fund (GCF), Adaptation Fund (AF) and Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF). (7) Develop mechanisms to incentivize the Mechanisms are established to enhance the private sector to take action or provide support role of the private sector’s action and support on climate change adaptation, such as on climate change adaptation. economic instruments in the forms of tax or business incentives or establish funds on climate CHAPTER 4 change adaptation or encourage using social measures, such as CSR. (8) Strengthen the capacity of local governments Target group based knowledge materials on and communities in accessing public-private adaptation finance. partnership finance as well as international finance on adaptation. 60 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION Guidelines/Measures Outputs/Targets Guideline 3: Enhancement of the capacity and awareness of the official and relevant stakeholders in all sectors (1) Develop and integrate climate change and Availability and applicability of research natural disasters in the school curricula and on climate change adaptation to effectively activities in the primary to ter tiary levels, suppor t the development of guidelines/ including inside/outside classroom learning measures on climate change adaptation and informal educational systems in order to management and impact assessment. build knowledge, understanding, and capacity of youth in climate change adaptation. (2) Enhance the human resource capacity in all Harmonized and coordinated climate change sectors on climate change risk management by research databases among domestic and focusing on awareness and knowledge build- international agencies. ing on climate change situations, trends, and adaptation approaches, and enhancing the skills and ability to collaborate with domestic and international agencies on technical cooperation, human resource development, and financial access to international funds. (3) Build knowledge and awareness of Networks of academia and sectoral agencies communities and related stakeholders on working on climate change adaptation and climate change risks, impact, and adaptation research-supported climate change adaptation options. policy development. (4) Enhance the knowledge and awareness of the private sector on climate change to facilitate the development of area-based Hydrometeorological and climate station business disaster management plans and networks are established in all provinces, BCP to raise awareness on public safety, and particularly in vulnerable and highland areas. CHAPTER 4 promote the roles of the private sector and local communities in providing financial support and collaboration on addressing climate change impacts. Responsible Agencies: ONEP, MNRE, MOI, MOPH, MOAC, MOTS, MHESI, and FTI. 61 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION

4.2 Thailand’s Needs for Support To effectively undertaking the NAP process and successfully implement the adaptation measures and action to achieve climate resilient growth, international support in terms of financing, capacity building, and technological development and transfer is the key to providing the necessary means. International support and partnership would assist Thailand to meet its current and future adaptation challenges, particularly in the following key areas: Table 4-1: Thailand’s needs for support in terms of financing, capacity building, and technological development and transfer for the NAP process and implementation. Sectors Support Needs • Mainstreaming adaptation in the application of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). • Enhancement of the IWRM database and assessment system: Water resources Water management database center, Thai Water Plan (TWP), water management management budget planning, and Thai Water Assessment (TWA). • Guidelines and pilot implementation of EbA practices, nature-based solutions (NbS) and green infrastructure approaches for climate-resilient water resource management. • Climate-smart agriculture technologies and techniques, including smart farming, precision farming, digitalization, drought-resistant/flood- Agriculture and resistant crop varieties, heat-resistant livestock, improved livestock feed food security and manure management, sustainable soil management practices, etc. • Early warning/detection systems for plantation management, such as changing crop calendars, water management strategies, etc. • Research on the projection of the rise in the sea level in the Gulf of Thailand with the aim to develop appropriate adaptation measures in CHAPTER 4 response to the rise in the sea level scenarios/seawater intrusion in risk areas, such as the Lower Central Plains. • Knowledge and technology for tracking and managing changes in the sea temperature, coral bleaching, coral diseases, coral reef immunity, and ocean acidification. Natural resources • Preparation of integrated planning for coastal management across the management country covering the management of critical and urgent areas, such as coastal erosion and investments to prevent the rise in the sea level. • Database development for predictions of the impact of climate change on the ecosystem and forest tree species. • Development of a forest map indicating climate vulnerabilities. • Establishment of a market mechanism to incentivize the implementation of community enterprises based on sustainable forest resources. • Sustainable community forest management/sustainable forest management practices. 62 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION Sectors Support Needs • Climate-related health surveillance and early warning system. • Guidelines for climate-resilient health infrastructure. Public health • Awareness raising and capacity building of health professionals and relevant networks to monitor climate-related health issues and implement preventive measures. • Strengthening the health system in case of emerging diseases. • Development of climate-integrated sustainable tourism strategies. • Guidelines and capacity building for climate-integrated sustainable tourism management and practices by taking into account ecosystem-based approaches. Tourism • Awareness raising and capacity building for local governments and tourism stakeholders on the potential climate impact to the tourism value chain and possible adaptation options. • Development of sustainable tourism destinations, tourist route plans, and smart tourism village design guidelines. • Climate-resilient tourism infrastructure, including preservation of cultural heritage sites. • Guidelines to climate-resilient architecture and adaptive design buildings. • Guidelines to adapt to the impact of increased temperature or urban CHAPTER 4 heat islands. Human settlement • Guidelines and capacity building for local governments to develop and security and implement climate-integrated emergency development plans. • Sur veillance and emergency response systems and capacity development for cities, municipalities, and communities. • Climate-resilient urban infrastructure, including urban planning and building code standards, and critical urban infrastructure. • Urban ecosystem-based adaptation. 63 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION Sectors Support Needs • Development of a risk map and/or risk profile displaying the areas at risk of the impact of climate change by considering extreme weather Enabling events and slow onset events at the local level. conditions • Tools for climate change vulnerability assessment in six sectors of the NAP. • Enhancement of a climate data/information center to provide various climate models and sector-based and user-based climate information services. This includes the enhancement of data in terms of quality, availability, facilities, management, etc., and the uptake/utilization of such data in terms of the capacity to interpret and analyze climate data for planning, programming, and decision-making across the key adaptation sectors. • Assessment of the loss and damage and socio-economic impact of climate change. • Development of Thailand’s Climate Resilient Index. • Capacity-building on climate proofing tools and analyses for infrastructure/investments. • Enhancement of adaptation technology, including climate modeling technology. • Enhancement of climate risk insurance. • Enhancement of the capacity of both finance- and climate-related agencies to initiate innovative financing measures to sustainably support future adaptation investments. • Exchange of knowledge and experiences on the integration of climate change adaptation into the national budget system. • Capacity building of national and subnational actors to develop CHAPTER 4 proposals in seeking international support to implement adaptation measures under the NAP. • Development of a national database on climate change adaptation covering different spatial scales and sectors that is reliable, up-to date, publicly available, and accessible by both national and sub-national government and non-government agencies. • Technical support for designing and establishing a national M&E system for climate change adaptation that is in line with the NAP. • Development of the national M&E system of climate finance-related policies. 64 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 4 ENABLING CONDITION CHAPTER 5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION 65 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION Thailand has recognized that M&E is a crucial part of the adaptation planning process, as it assists the decision makers and planners in keeping track of the benefits of the adaptation interventions by aiming at building a resilient and adaptive society. Therefore, it is important to define the specific objectives of the adaptation of M&E at different stages of the adaptation planning process. This chapter outlines Thailand’s monitoring, evaluation, and reporting system of the NAP, as well as the development of the country’s climate resilient indicators.

5.1 Adaptation Monitoring and Evaluation Framework Adaptation Planning Adaptation Implementation Adaptation Outcome Goal for Adaptation M&E Concrete adaptation plan Adaptation actions Sectors and and long-term/sectoral and mechanisms to socio- economic system plans with mainstreamed enhance deployed resilience to climate adaptation. climate resilience. change. Approach for M&E Quantity and coverage Short-term • Vulnerability to climate of long term/sectoral plans • Adaptation project hazards (short term) and with mainstreamed progress as planned, climate change (long term) and output/target reached. reduced . adaptation. • Mechanisms to enhance • Adaptive capacity to resilience in place. climate change increased. • Resilience to climate Long-term change increased. • Effectiveness and efficiency of the adaptation project. • Sustainability of the adaptation project. • Cross sectors effect impact. • Mitigation co-benefits CHAPTER 5 Figure 5-1: Thailand’s adaptation monitoring and evaluation framework. 66 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION To monitor and evaluate the results of the adaptation process effectively and coherently, Thailand has conducted a study to define the M&E framework by considering three aspects of adaptation: Adaptation planning, mobilization of the adaptation implementation, and outcome of adaptation (Figure 4-1). In parallel, Thailand has also initiated a process and system to monitor and evaluate the adaptation outcome of the country. The process of the climate resilience indicators development was initiated in 2020, to define sector-based indicators to monitor the resilience of the country to climate impacts in the medium and long term. Climate Resilience Indicators Following Thailand’s adaptation of the M&E framework (Figure 4-2), the country is in the process of developing sector-based Climate Resilience Indicators with the aim to understand how resilience and robust the sector is to the weather and climate hazards by considering the vulnerability and the vulnerability trend in each sector. In the development of the sector-based Climate Resilience Indicators, the following three aspects were considered: 1. The exposure of the sectors to climate hazards - The exposure indicators focus on the meteorological factors with the assumption that these factors have a high influence on how the sectors would be exposed to weather and climate hazards. 2. The sensitivity of the sectors to climate risk - To indicate the magnitude of the impacts and risks, caused by weather and climate hazards, to the sector. 3. The coping and adaptative capacity of the sector to climate hazards - To indicate how well the mechanisms and the capacities are in place to confront and recover from climate risk in the short term and build resilience in the long term to continue economic activities. To evaluate the resilience status in each sector in the long term, the identified indicators in the three aspects would be analyzed and evaluated to understand the yearly vulnerability index. Over the years, the policy makers would understand the vulnerability trend in each sector and be able to evaluate the sector’s climate resilience status whether it lacked resilience, or had low, medium, and/or high resilience. Monitoring Evaluation Exposure indicators Analysis of Evaluate analysis the indicators of the indicators Sensitivity indicators Yearly Trend of the Climate Coping/adaptive capacity vulnerability vulnerability Resilience index index index CHAPTER 5 indicators Figure 5-2: Framework to monitor and evaluate Thailand’s resilience. 67 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION Water resources and agriculture were the first two pilot sectors that Thailand initiated the process to develop the climate resilience indicators. In each sector, the indicators were defined to reflect its vulnerability in different aspects. For water resources, the stability and the disaster caused from a lack or excess of water were considered. For the agricultural sector, agricultural productivity, farmers, and food security were considered. Table 5-1: Example of Thailand’s Climate resillience indicators. Example of the Indicators Sectors Exposure Sensitivity Adaptive Capacity Water resource - An average annual - Total water demand -Total amount of water management maximum temperature compared to the total reserved compared to compared to the average amount of water. the water demand. of the baseline year. - Number of total surface -Trends of economic loss - Total annual rainfall water sources with lower in 10 years. compared to the baseline t h a n a ve r a g e w a t e r year. quality compared to the total surface water - The frequency of storms sources. in 30 years compared to the baseline year. - Ten-year percentile rank of the total economic loss from floods and drought. Agriculture - An average annual - The annual yield - The agricultural areas and maximum temperature compared to the average that have a water food security compared to the average of the 10-year yield. management system of the baseline year. compared to the total - Far mer’s household agricultural areas. - An average annual income from the agricultural minimum temperature sector compared to the - Far mer’s household compared to the average total farmer’s household pending outside the of the baseline year. income. agricultural sector compared to the farmer’s - Total annual rainfall - Rice production per household income compared to the baseline person per year compared outside the agricultural year. to the rice consumption sector. per person per year. CHAPTER 5 - The frequency of storms - Excess rice productivity in 30 years compared to the baseline year. compared to the total consumption per year. 68 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION

5.2 Adaptation Reporting To ensure the effectiveness and consistency of the M&E system, the adaptation data collection and reporting structure was established, and the new DCCE has, since August 2023, taken over this mandate instead of the ONEP. The DCCE would collaborate with the focal agencies in the six key sectors to report on the M&E results of the adaptation planning, implementation, as well as the resilience status in each sector. Adaptation Planning Indicators Focal point for adaptation Department of Climate Change and Environment (DCCE) M&E Office of Office of Office of the Dept. of Office of Dept. of Public National Agricultural Permanent Health Natural Works and Water Economics Secretary, Resources Town and Resources Ministry of and Country Touris and Environmental Planning Sector focal Sports Policy and points Planning Dept. of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Water Agriculture Tourism Public Natural Human Resources and Food Health Resources Settlement Security Manaegment and Security Sector Adaptation Implementation and Climate Resilience Indicators Figure 5-3: Sectoral focal point for Thailand’s M&E adaptation actions. Lastly, the revision process of Thailand’s NAP would be planned every five years to monitor and evaluate the results of the adaptation planning, the deployment of the adaptation measures and mechanisms, as well as the outcome of the adaptation efforts. In the first Thailand’s NAP, the planning stage of adaptation would be monitored and evaluated. CHAPTER 5 69 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP) CHAPTER 5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION Acknowledgement Published by: Department of Climate Change and Environment Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment www.dcce.go.th Copyright reserved 2023 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the publisher, addressed “Attention: Permissions Coordinator,” at the address below. Climate Change Adaptation Division Department of Climate Change and Environment 49 Soi 30, Rama VI Road, Phaya Thai, Bangkok 10400 THAILAND Tel.: +66-2278-8400, Fax: +66-2298-5606 THE KINGDOM OF THAILAND MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT DEPARTMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENVIRONMENT CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION DIVISION HONORARY ADVISOR Police General Patcharawat Wongsuwan Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Natural Resources and Environment Mr. Jatuporn Buruspat Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Dr. Phirun Saiyasitpanich Director General, Department of Climate Change and Environment Mr. Pavich Kasavawong Deputy Director General, Department of Climate Change and Environment Mr. Jiravat Ratisoontorn Deputy Secretary-General, Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning Ms. Nareerat Panmanee Director of Strategy and International Cooperation Division Dr. Chongrak Thinagul Dissemination Technical officer, Expert Level Acting, Director of Climate Change Adaptation Division 70 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN DEVELOPMENT TEAM Ms. Katanchalee Thammakul Dr. Angkana Chalermpong Mr. Teerapong Laopongpith Ms. Pimkarn Kattiyavong Mr. Eakaraj Khummano Ms. Chayathorn Thanawattanadamrong Ms. Chompunut Songkhao Mr. Supachok Chittapisan Dr. Anuporn Wanwisede Mr. Shindanai Tansakool Dr. Ruchirek Ratchaburi Ms. Netnapa Saelim Mr. Suphat Phengphan Ms. Wasana Thepsanga Ms. Benjiraya Boonyapatsirikul CONTRIBUTORS • Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning • Budget Bureau • Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council • Office of the National Water Resources • The Thailand Research Fund • Department of Tourism • Office of Agricultural Economics • Department of Marine and Coastal Resources • Department of Climate Change and Environment • Department of National parks Wildlife and Plant Conservation • Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation • Department of Public Works and Town & Country Planning • Department of Local Administration • National Science Technology and Innovation Policy Office • Bureau of Policy and Strategy, Ministry of Education • Department of Health • National Research Council of Thailand • Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization (Public Organization) • The Joint Standing Committee on Commerce, Industry and Banking • Good Governance for Social Development and the. Environment Foundation • Biodiversity Management Division, Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning • Assoc. Prof. Dr. Noppanan Tapananon • Mr. Boonlert Archevarahuprok • Mr. Suppakorn Chinvanno • Dr. Kannika Thampanichvong SUPPORTED BY Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) 71 THAILAND’S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN