South Sudan's Second Nationally Determined Contribution

3.4 Socio-economic characteristics 40 FOREWORD 9 4. MATERIAL FLOW ANALYSIS (METABOLIC PREFACE 11 ASSESSMENT) 45

4.1 National trends and development 47 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 12 4.2 Historical trends of resource use and emissions 49 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 13 4.3 Waste processing and recycling 50 4.4 Mapping resource flows, stocks 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 15 and outputs 50

4.5 Circular opportunities for South Sudan 53 2. ABOUT THIS DOCUMENT 29 5. SECTOR PRIORITIZATION 61 3. NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES 33

3.1 Geographic profile 33 6. NDC SECTOR LINKAGES WITH IPCC

3.2 Climate and climate change impacts 35 CLASSIFICATION 67 3 7. SECTORAL STRATEGIES 69 8. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS 131

7.1 Agriculture, livestock and fisheries 70 8.1 The policy environment 131

7.2 Infrastructure (construction and 8.2 Major stakeholders 135 buildings) 79 8.3 Institutional framework for NDC

7.3 Forestry 83 implementation 139

7.4 Biodiversity, ecosystem and sustainable 9. CAPACITY-BUILDING AND TECHNOLOGY wetland management 89 TRANSFER 145

7.5 Electricity 94

7.6 Water 99 10. NDC GENDER-RESPONSIVENESS 147

7.7 Waste 103

7.8 Tourism and recreation 108 11. NDC FINANCING REQUIREMENTS 151

7.9 Mining and quarrying 112

11.1 Proposed finance required 151

7.10 Transport 116 11.2 Financial instruments for NDC

7.11 Industry 119 implementation 155

7.12 Petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products 123 12. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 159

7.13 Health 126

7.14 Disaster risk management 128 REFERENCES 160 4 Second Nationally Determined Contribution TABLES Table 1: Leading causes of death in South Sudan 41 Table 2: SCP-HAT parameters 46 Table 3: Biomass consumption, 2015 51 Table 4: Fossil fuel consumption, 2015 51 Table 5: Metal ore consumption, 2015 52 Table 6: Non-metallic minerals consumption, 2015 52 Table 7: Circular opportunities for South Sudan 57 Table 8: Scores for sector prioritization 62 Table 9: NDC prioritization matrix 65 Table 10: Mitigation strategies for the agriculture sector 72 Table 11: Adaptation strategies for agriculture and fisheries 74 Table 12: Mitigation strategies for the infrastructure sector 81 Table 13: Adaptation strategies for the infrastructure sector 82 Table 14: Mitigation strategies for the forestry sector 85 Table 15: Adaptation strategies for the forestry sector 88 Table 16: Mitigation strategies for biodiversity, ecosystem and sustainable wetland management 90 Table 17: Adaptation strategies for biodiversity, ecosystem and sustainable wetland management 91 Table 18: Mitigation strategies for the electricity sector 97 Table 19: Mitigation strategies for the water sector 100 Table 20: Adaptation strategies for the water sector 101 Table 21: Mitigation strategies for the waste sector 105 Table 22: Adaptation strategies for the waste sector 107 Table 23: Mitigation strategies for the tourism and recreation sector 110 Table 24: Adaptation strategies for the tourism and recreation sector 111 Table 25: Mitigation strategies for the mining and quarrying sector 114 Table 26: Adaptation strategies for the mining and quarrying sector 114 Table 27: Mitigation strategies for the transport sector 118 Table 28: Mitigation strategies for the industrial sector 121 Table 29: Mitigation strategies for petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products 124 Table 30: Adaptation strategies for petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products 125 Table 31: Status of the health sector in South Sudan 126 Table 32: Adaptation strategies for the health sector 127  5 Table 33: Adaptation strategies for the disaster risk management sector 129 Table 34: Climate change strategies outlined in the Fisheries Policy 134 Table 35: Major administrative bodies for climate change 135 Table 36: Stakeholders active in climate change 139 Table 37: NDC implementing entities 140 Table 38: Implementing entities across sectors 141 Table 39: Strategies for gender inclusion in the NDC 149 Table 40: Financing requirements for NDC adaptation strategies 152 Table 41: Financing requirement for NDC mitigation strategies 154 Table 42: Climate funds supporting sub-Saharan Africa 157 FIGURES Figure 1: Map of South Sudan 34 Figure 2: Average monthly temperature and rainfall in South Sudan, 1901–2016 35 Figure 3: Projected change in precipitation in South Sudan, 1960–2039 36 Figure 4: Projected change in temperature in South Sudan, 1960–2039 37 Figure 5: Reduction in tree cover, 2001–2009 37 Figure 6: Climate Change Vulnerability Index, 2017 38 Figure 7: Population growth of South Sudan 40 Figure 8: Sector briefs 47 Figure 9: Social, economic and environmental parameters 48 Figure 10: Material use decoupling trend, 2012–2015 49 Figure 11: GHG emissions decoupling trend, 2012–2015 49 Figure 12: Land use and biodiversity loss decoupling trend, 2012–2015 49 Figure 13: Resource consumption in South Sudan 50 Figure 14: Resource consumption by sector, 2015 51 Figure 15: GHG emissions trends, 2012–2015 52 Figure 16: GHG emissions by sector, 2015 53 Figure 17: Resource flows, stocks and outputs 55 Figure 18: The DISRUPT framework 56 Figure 19: GHG emissions from domestic production in the agriculture sector, 2012–2015 70 6 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Figure 20: GHG emissions from domestic production in the fishing sector, 2012–2015 71 Figure 21: Emission reduction scenarios for the agriculture sector, 2012–2030 71 Figure 22: Employment in the agriculture sector, 2012–2015 78 Figure 23: Employment in the fishing sector, 2012–2015 78 Figure 24: GHG emissions consumption footprint for the infrastructure sector, 2012–2015 79 Figure 25: GHG emissions domestic footprint for the infrastructure sector, 2012–2015 79 Figure 26: GHG emission scenarios for the infrastructure sector, 2016–2030 80 Figure 27: Employment in the construction sector, 2012–2015 83 Figure 28: GHG emissions and sinks in land use, land-use change and forestry, 2015 83 Figure 29: GHG emission sequestration scenarios for the forestry sector, 2018–2030 84 Figure 30: Installed electricity generation capacity (MW) in South Sudan, 2018 95 Figure 31: GHG emissions from domestic production of electricity, gas and water, 2012–2015 95 Figure 32: GHG emission scenarios for electricity generation, 2018–2030 95 Figure 33: Employment in the electricity, gas and water sectors, 2012–2015 99 Figure 34: Composition of municipal solid waste in Juba 103 Figure 35: Sources of solid waste in Juba 103 Figure 36: GHG emissions from the waste sector, 2012–2015 103 Figure 37: Domestic production of GHG emissions from recycling, 2012–2015 104 Figure 38: GHG emission scenarios for the waste sector, 2012–2030 104 Figure 39: Employment in recycling, 2012–2015 108 Figure 40: Hotel and restaurant sector GHG emissions from domestic production, 2012–2015 109 Figure 41: GHG emission reduction scenarios for the hotel and restaurant sector, 2010–2030 109 Figure 42: Employment in hotels and restaurants, 2012–2015 111 Figure 43: Mining and quarrying sector GHG emissions from domestic production, 2012–2015 113 Figure 44: Employment in the mining and quarrying sector, 2012–2015 115 Figure 45: GHG emissions from the transport sector, 2012–2015 116 Figure 46: GHG emission scenarios for the transport sector, 2012–2030 117 Figure 47: Employment in the transport sector, 2012–2015 119 Figure 48: GHG emissions of the industrial sector from domestic production, 2012–2015 120 Figure 49: Share of industry sub-sectors to GHG emissions from domestic production, 2012–2015 120 Figure 50: Employment in the industrial sector, 2012–2015 122 Figure 51: GHG emissions in the petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products sector from domestic production, 2012–2015 123 Figure 52: Employment in the petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products sector, 2012–2015 125 Figure 53: Institutional framework for NDC implementation 138 Figures 7 8 Second Nationally Determined Contribution FOREWORD This document present s Sou t h Sudan’s Thus, recognizing the importance of this document second Nationally Determined Contribution in ascer taining South Sudan’s sustainable (NDC); it updates the first NDC to include economic future, it covers energy- and emission- t he count r y ’s changing climate and i t s intensive sectors such as petroleum and mining, development considerations. South Sudan which are key economic drivers for the country. has come a long way since it published its In this regard, a detailed exercise was carried first NDC with the development of its detailed out to identify and prioritize the top 14 sectors greenhouse gas inventory (published in its that would have a significant impact on South National Communication to the United Nations Sudan’s economic and low-carbon future. This Framework Convention on Climate Change), second NDC explores each sector in granular the establishment of its National Adaptation detail, providing an in-depth assessment of its Programme of Action, and the development of individual adaptive or mitigative potential together other climate-related sectoral plans and policies. with the strategies required to meet that potential. In addition to these elements, South Sudan, Furthermore, addressing the need to view climate- as part of this NDC revision process, has also related activities through a holistic lens, it goes carried out a detailed science-based metabolic beyond the element of emission reductions; this and circularity assessment to inform its revised second NDC also accounts for impacts on various climate-related strategies. All of this progress is social aspects, such as gender responsiveness and presented in detail in this document. employment opportunities, for each NDC sector. South Sudan, through this second NDC, reiterates This document has been developed through its commitment to the Paris Agreement goal of an extensive participatory process wherein limiting global temperature rise to well below stakeholders representing government institutions, 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and developmental and financing mechanisms while making efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 throughout every level of governance, and those degrees Celsius. It details how South Sudan has representing civil society, have incorporated significantly increased its climate ambition of their views and aspirations within it. Thus, South reducing emissions across its sectors by 109.87 Sudan’s second NDC document is a truly national million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent while document that will govern South Sudan’s future in sequestering an additional 45.06 million tonnes an economically and environmentally sustainable by 2030. manner. As part of South Sudan’s increased ambition, this second NDC has also increased the country’s sectoral coverage, and instituted additional mitigation and adaptation measures in sectors that were included in the first NDC. These strategies have been designed to ensure that South Sudan adopts a sustainable and low-carbon growth H.E. Gen. Salva Kiir Mayardit pathway while also supporting the country’s vision President of the Republic of South Sudan to ‘transition from a least developed country to a middle-income country by 2030 supported by inclusive, stable and sustainable economic growth whilst alleviating poverty’. Foreword 9 10 Second Nationally Determined Contribution PREFACE South Sudan is a least-developed country located these measures and policies will achieve a low- in East-Central Africa. It is the world’s newest carbon development pathway while reducing the country, having gained independence from vulnerability of its population, environment and Sudan in July 2011 after a prolonged civil war. economy, thereby building resilience and ensuring In addition to the negative impacts of long-term national ownership and commitment. conflict, communities in South Sudan are facing the The NDC should be mainstreamed in the development negative effects of a changing climate. In general, planning process across different government the country is experiencing substantially warmer sectors to ensure climate-centric development for and drier weather, and more droughts. In addition, long-term resilience and to interrupt the poverty rainfall is becoming more erratic, and the frequency cycle. The processes followed in implementing the and severity of floods is increasing. These effects NDC will allow South Sudan to tackle the impacts of of climate change, in turn, decrease agricultural climate change that threaten humankind. productivity, upon which the majority of the population depends for their livelihoods. Unless Lastly, it has been my honour and pleasure to communities adapt, climate change will hinder write these introductory remarks and endorse socio-economic development and contribute the Republic of South Sudan’s second NDC. This to existing tensions and conflicts over natural document, and the process that it represents, is resources in South Sudan. the first step on the road to a prosperous and climate-resilient future for all South Sudanese. Therefore, in response to the negative impacts of climate change, the Republic of South Sudan, in its second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), has identified key sectors, climate actions (mitigation and adaptation), strategies and plans that are aimed at contributing to ambitious international long-term goals of limiting global warming and building resilience to climate impacts in the context of sustainable development. In addition, South Sudan has developed strategies to Hon. Josephine Napwon Cosmas mobilize resources and for communication to help Minister of Environment and Forestry achieve the climate-change actions and strategies Republic of South Sudan identified under the NDC. Implementation of Preface 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We extend our sincere gratitude to His Excellency Tsutsumi of Japan, Jelta van Wieren of The Taban Deng Gai, the Vice President of the Netherlands, S.D. Moorthy of India and Jonny Republic of South Sudan, for his support and Baxter of the United Kingdom for their precious encouragement throughout the process of time and inputs based on their NDC experiences revising the country’s Nationally Determined in their respective countries. Contribution (NDC). Sincere thanks and appreciation to all the UNDP We would also like to thank Mr John Payai Manyok, team members, including Ms Alexandra Soezer, the Deputy Director and United Nations Framework Mr Daniel Kiir and Mr Jose Manzano, who led the Convention on Climate Change National Focal development of this new, comprehensive NDC Point for South Sudan, and his supporting staff document. from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry for Finally, special thanks go to UNDP’s Climate their continual guidance and support during the Promise for funding the revision of South Sudan’s preparation and validation of this NDC. NDC, and to KPMG for producing South Sudan’s As representatives of the Ministry of Environment second NDC. and Forestry, we would like to express our gratitude and appreciation to all stakeholders who shared their valuable time and provided valuable input and information during consultations and the NDC validation workshop, even during the COVID-19 pandemic. This includes government line ministries; the local governments of Central and Eastern Equatoria states; academic and research institutions; non-governmental and community- Hon. Joseph Africano Bartel based organizations; representatives of women, Undersecretary of Environment, youth and the general public of South Sudan; and Ministry of Environment and Forestry the media. Republic of South Sudan We extend special gratitude to Ambassadors to South Sudan Marc Trouyet of France, Naohiro 12 Second Nationally Determined Contribution ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AfDB African Development Bank CAMP Comprehensive Agriculture Master Plan CH4 methane CO2 carbon dioxide ER emission reduction ESIA environmental and social impact assessment EV electric vehicle FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FY financial year GDP gross domestic product GHG greenhouse gas JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change LULUCF land use, land use change and forestry m2 square metre MW megawatt N2 O nitrous oxide NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action NATCOM Initial National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change NDC Nationally Determined Contribution NDS National Development Strategy °C degree Celsius Ramsar Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation SCP-HAT Sustainable Consumption and Production Hotspot Analysis Tool SDG Sustainable Development Goal t tonne (metric ton) tCO2e tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization USAID United States Agency for International Development WHO World Health Organization $ United States dollar % percent Abbreviations and acronyms 13 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 14 Second Nationally Determined Contribution EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Republic of South Sudan became a new nation after more than 50 years of civil war that took over 3 million lives and displaced over a million people. South Sudan gained its independence from Sudan on 9 July 2011 as the outcome of a 2005 agreement and became the 55th country in Africa. The protracted conflict destroyed the limited infrastructure and governance structures that existed before the conflict. In December 2013 and July 2016, renewed conflicts undermined the development gains made since independence and exacerbated the humanitarian crisis. The gradual implementation of the peace agreement of September 2018, which included establishing a unity government in February 2020 and an agreement on the number of states, gave a positive economic outlook in early 2020. Along with the negative impacts of long-term conflicts, the adverse effects of changing climate are also being faced by the inhabitants of South Sudan. The country is experiencing an increasingly warm and dry climate with erratic rainfall. This is resulting in degradation of ecosystems and decreased agricultural productivity that is negatively impacting the livelihoods of a majority of the population. Political and economic instability, including limited access to capital, markets, South Sudan aims infrastructure and technology, along with changing climate, are hindering the growth of the country. to transition from Recognizing this, and to achieve sustainable a least developed economic development, South Sudan aims to country to a middle- transition from a least developed country to a middle-income country by 2030, supported income country by inclusive, stable and sustainable economic by 2030. growth, while alleviating poverty. Promoting environmental sustainability, climate-resilient communities and appropriate land use has been identified as a critical enabler that will complement the eight strategic priorities of the National Development Strategy (NDS) 2018–2021 (South Sudan Ministry of Finance and Planning, Executive summary 15 2018). To accomplish these goals, South Sudan • Resource flows: Biomass is the most consumed has developed multiple sectoral policies and resource (57 percent) in the country. The plans. This report presents the country’s second majority of biomass is consumed by the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), putting industrial sector, followed by agriculture and forward the next generation of targets with the public services (education, health and public overarching goal of transitioning to a low-carbon administration). Fossil fuel is the second most economy by 2030. consumed (41 percent) resource in the country and is primarily used in the construction and MATERIAL FLOW ANALYSIS (METABOLIC industrial sectors, followed by public services ASSESSMENT) (education, health and public administration) and the petroleum sector itself. Decoupling economic growth from environmental pressures requires a combination of low-carbon • Stocks: All materials that flow in an economy development and efficiency in the use of resources. have an origin and a destination and interact To achieve this efficiency, it is important to with various stocks in the process. Since the understand how these resources flow within an infrastructure base (physical stock) in the economy to produce requisite goods and services. country is currently underdeveloped, the most Mapping out the flows and stocks1 of a country used stocks in the country are its natural assets, helps bring efficiency in resource and energy use i.e., arable land and forests. Both arable land into the overall economic system. under agriculture and physical infrastructure stock are likely to increase in the future. South Sudan’s history of economic growth trends However, given the current annual rate of against its resource consumption and emissions deforestation (2 percent), land under forestry profile were studied as part of this assessment. is likely to reduce. It was found that South Sudan consumes fewer material resources than other countries. Given • GHG emissions: A gradual increase of GHG that it has a low rate of material consumption, emissions has been observed over the years in South Sudan is likely to regenerate or renew its South Sudan, from both a domestic production resources at a comparatively high rate. However, and resource consumption perspective. with increased economic growth and development Emissions due to domestic production and this scenario could change. resource consumption have been increasing at rates of 1.22 percent and 1.14 percent per Growth and development in South Sudan are annum, respectively. The slow rise in GHG currently significantly dependent on primary emissions over the years parallels South material consumption, i.e., biomass, fossil fuel, Sudan’s slow economic and population growth. metal ores and non-metallic minerals. There is GHG emissions from domestic production minimal decoupling between material use and the are mostly from the agriculture and livestock wider economy. Similarly, in the case of greenhouse sector, followed by the petroleum and service gas (GHG) emissions, minimal decoupling is seen sectors. In terms of resource consumption, between South Sudan’s economic growth and industry and hotels, restaurants and other its GHG emissions. A summary of South Sudan’s service sectors account for the greatest amount resource flows within sectors, likely change in of GHG emissions, along with the agriculture stock, and outputs (GHG emissions) has been and livestock sector. provided below: 1 Stocks refer to any natural and/or physical asset of a country. 16 Second Nationally Determined Contribution While the population in South Sudan is increasing, construction and waste. These strategies will help the intensity of use of materials, carbon emissions South Sudan move towards establishing a more and land use are observed to be decreasing. circular economy. This signifies that South Sudan’s environmental resources are increasingly being placed under SECTOR PRIORITIZATION pressure due to an increasing population. A sector prioritization exercise was conducted Furthermore, with the lack of decoupling between to identify sectors for further assessment and its environmental resources and economic growth, inclusion in the NDC. Sectors were prioritized it is imperative that the country increasingly adopt based on economic, environmental and socio- a sustainable and circular lifestyle when it comes economic parameters that are key for South to utilizing its resources. This will have the dual Sudan’s development. The sectors were scored impact of helping South Sudan decouple its against each parameter and, based on their overall economic growth from its resource use, while at the scores, were prioritized. Based on the final scores same time reducing the pressure of an increasing and their individual significance to South Sudan’s population on its resources. development, eight sectors were identified. In The output of this assessment was used to identify addition to these sectors, additional sectors were circular opportunities for South Sudan in key included, based on the inputs of all relevant South economic sectors that include agriculture and Sudanese stakeholders, making a total of 14 livestock, forestry, energy, industry, infrastructure sectors. These are as follows: Executive summary 17 SECTORAL STRATEGIES 1. Agriculture, livestock and fisheries After finalizing the sectors to be included in the 2. Infrastructure (construction and buildings) NDC, a detailed assessment of each sector was conducted. This assessment, along with the 3. Forestry outputs of the material flow analysis, was used to 4. Biodiversity, ecosystem and sustainable develop mitigation and adaptation strategies for wetland management each individual sector. The timeframe that will be 5. Electricity required for implementation of NDC strategies was also determined. 6. Water The proposed sectoral strategies, if implemented, 7. Waste will move South Sudan onto an ambitious decarbonization pathway compatible with 8. Tourism and recreation the Paris Agreement’s goal of holding global 9. Mining and quarrying temperature rise to well below 2°C, with efforts to limit temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre- 10. Transport industrial levels. The table below summarizes the emission reduction pathway and estimated 11. Industry potential of emission reduction for each of the 12. Petroleum, chemicals and non-metallic 10 mitigation sectors. In total, by implementing mineral products these strategies South Sudan can reduce an 13. Health estimated 109.87 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) and sequester 45.06 million 14. Disaster risk management tCO2e by 2030. Potential emission Potential emission Emission reduction pathway reduction (million sequestration Sector (till 2030) tCO2e) (million tCO2e) Agriculture, livestock and 18% reduction in GHG emissions compared to fisheries 2017 level 75.08 – Infrastructure (construction Procurement of green cement and buildings) 9.50 – Forestry 70% reduction in deforested area – 45.06 Electricity Installation of 2,729.5 MW of renewable energy- based power plants (including hydropower) 11.90 – Waste 30% reduction in GHG emissions compared to baseline 10.94 – Tourism and recreation 66% reduction in GHG emissions related to hotels and restaurants compared to baseline 0.02 – Mining and quarrying – – – Transport 44% reduction in GHG emissions compared to baseline 2.43 – Industry – – – Petroleum, chemical and – non-metallic mineral products – – Total 109.87 45.06 18 Second Nationally Determined Contribution A summary of NDC sectoral strategies that will The second NDC will also focus on strategies for be implemented to achieved emission reduction proper management of livestock, since enteric targets is provided below. fermentation contributes significantly to overall agricultural emissions. From a climate change Agriculture, livestock and fisheries adaptation standpoint, promotion of climate- resilient agricultural and livestock management Agriculture and livestock practices, water harvesting and diversification The agriculture sector is one of the largest emitters of livelihoods of pastoralists and communities of GHG emissions in South Sudan, with around 74 dependent on agriculture will be key aspects of percent of the emissions coming from the sector the second NDC. in 2015. On the other hand, this sector is also highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Fisheries The majority of the population in South Sudan is As is the case with agriculture and livestock, dependent on agriculture and livestock for their fisheries are depended on by a large proportion livelihoods, yet agricultural productivity remains low of South Sudan’s population for their livelihood. in the country. Currently, a large proportion of the Employment in the sector has been steadily population of South Sudan is food insecure and with increasing, but overall there is a decreasing trend changes in the climatic pattern, this problem is likely in fish production, which is indicative of inefficient to intensify. Therefore, growth of the agriculture harvesting practices and lack of infrastructure (e.g., sector and enhancing food security are key priority cold storage). With climate change, the negative areas for both climate-related and development impact on fish production is likely to intensify. The policies of South Sudan. However, most plans and Government of South Sudan, through its current projects are either in the implementation stage or NDC, Fisheries Policy and National Adaptation are yet to be implemented. Programme of Action (NAPA) (South Sudan Given the current status of the sector, agriculture Ministry of Environment, 2016) therefore aims to will be considered to be a priority from both enhance productivity through community-based the climate change mitigation and adaptation adaptation strategies, while promoting alternate standpoints in the second NDC. South Sudan aims livelihood options. The sector is also considered to cumulatively reduce agricultural emissions by to fall under other development policies, such 23 percent by 2030 compared to baseline levels. as the Vision 2040 (South Sudan, 2011) and the To reduce its emissions footprint, South Sudan NDS. The sector seems to be lagging in meeting will focus on promotion and implementation its targets and utilizing the country’s annual fish of activities like crop rotation, reduced tillage, production potential. zero grazing and rotational grazing to allow The second NDC will continue to focus on carbon to remain in the soil, thereby reducing enhancing climate-resilient fish production GHG emissions. by promoting activities like the cultivation South Sudan will use its high agricultural production of indigenous fish species, fish farming and potential to create targeted agricultural hubs2 restoration of fishery habitats. It will also aim promoting closed agricultural loops. This will not at enhancing the supply chain of the fisheries only allow for efficient growth in the sector but also industry (e.g., supporting transport activities and enable waste management and recycling, resulting cold storage). Furthermore, the second NDC will in a reduction in GHG emissions. consider enhancing the capacity of communities 2 Agricultural hubs are interconnected agricultural market spaces that are established in close proximity to agricultural land allowing for quicker and more efficient transportation of agricultural produce and waste between the field and the market. Executive summary 19 on climate change and promote aquaculture as Forestry an alternate livelihood option. The majority of the population in South Sudan is dependent on forest products for their Infrastructure (construction and energy needs and livelihood. With a growing buildings) population and increasing developmental Currently, South Sudan lacks access to activities, the natural forests are increasingly basic infrastructure (e.g., roads, water supply under pressure from human activities, such and sewerage). Therefore, development of as over-extraction and deforestation. The infrastructure is currently a high priority area for the current rate of deforestation is estimated to be Government of South Sudan. The NDS provides 2 percent. The Government of South Sudan has three-year targets for infrastructure development developed various policies, such as the National (e.g., construction of transport, water and sanitation Forest Policy, the current NDC and the NAPA, to facilities) while the current NDC aims to consider prevent deforestation and manage natural forest climate change criteria in any new construction reserves. However, there seems to be lack of activity and promote development of climate- action in this area. Currently only 3 percent of resilient infrastructure. the total forest area is gazetted as forest reserve, while the government’s target is 30 percent. The The second NDC will continue to promote the rapid conversion of forest areas is also resulting development of climate-resilient infrastructure for in the net emission of GHGs. reducing South Sudan’s vulnerability to climatic changes in future. It will also promote the adoption To address this issue, the second NDC will support of national building codes to incorporate climate initiatives to improve forest management activities, change criteria in the construction of new buildings. including implementing policies and plans to reduce Since South Sudan is largely dependent on imported deforestation; encouraging regular monitoring construction materials, the second NDC includes of forest cover; and sustainable management of the development of sustainable and low-carbon forest through community involvement. It will also procurement policies to regulate the importation encourage increased participation in international of high-carbon construction materials to reduce frameworks, such as the REDD+ programme, to their embedded emissions. By implementing such gain access to international climate finance by policies, South Sudan could achieve cumulative reducing GHG emissions. The second NDC also emission reduction of 9.5 million tCO2e (26 percent focuses on introducing a community-based forest lower than the baseline) by 2030. management approach for conserving forests and providing alternate livelihood options to Furthermore, South Sudan will promote the reuse communities. By implementing these initiatives, of construction waste, such as debris, wood South Sudan aims to reduce the total deforested or furniture. In the long term, this will reduce area by 70 percent by 2030 compared to 2018 accumulation of construction waste and promote levels. Reducing deforestation will increase the the use of secondary sources in construction, country’s emission sequestration potential by such as tiles made of recycled plastics. From 45 million tCO2e compared to the baseline by 2030. an adaptation standpoint, South Sudan will encourage the development of climate-resilient Biodiversity, ecosystems and infrastructure and develop regulations around sustainable wetland management conducting mandatory environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA), ensuring that large South Sudan is home to a wide variety of animal and infrastructure projects have minimal environmental plant species and globally important ecosystems. and social impact. The diversity of these ecosystems is threatened 20 Second Nationally Determined Contribution by the growing number of people, expansion of of wetlands for improved carbon sequestration. It urban areas, high human dependence on natural will also support conservation and management ecosystems and increasing industrial activities of biodiversity and ecosystems by promoting such pollution and over-extraction of resources. As biodiversity mapping; implementing measures a result, the number of wildlife species has reduced to reduce the deforestation rate by introducing significantly, and many wetlands have started alternate sources of energy and livelihood; degrading. Moreover, due to changes in water and developing policies for effective waste influx in the Sudd wetland, it is considered to be management to prevent discharge of untreated a major contributor of methane emissions globally. waste into water bodies. To address these concerns, the Government of South Sudan has developed various strategies, Electricity including the Wildlife Conservation and Protected Access to grid electricity is very limited in South Area Policy, current NDC and NAPA for protection Sudan, with installed capacity being much of biodiversity, natural ecosystems and wetlands. lower than the demand. As a result, people Despite the sector being a priority, there is are dependent on diesel power generators currently a lack of studies and baseline data to for electricity. Although South Sudan has high assess the status of biodiversity and to validate potential for renewable energy-based electricity the results of a study on methane emissions from generation, currently it is completely dependent the Sudd wetlands. on thermal power production. The government Climate variability with increased deforestation will has identified and is carrying out feasibility further intensify negative impacts on biodiversity, studies for installation of various solar energy and wildlife and wetlands. Therefore, the second NDC hydropower-based projects as part of its NDC will support the development of wetland inventory, and other developmental policies. Moreover, the carry out ground research to monitor changes and government has also started investing in multiple promote measures for sustainable management projects, which on completion are expected Executive summary 21 to increase the share of renewable energy by diseases and negative health impacts. The 8 percent in total. problem is likely to be exacerbated by the impact of climate change on water availability South Sudan will continue to focus on increasing and reliability. the share of renewable energy in the total energy mix. By increasing the share of solar, wind, hydro Although South Sudan’s climate-related and and biomass, South Sudan aims at achieving development policies focus on improving access to cumulative emission reduction of 69 percent by drinking water and restoration of natural resources, 2030 compared to the baseline. South Sudan given the current status, there seems to be a will also promote the use of energy-efficient severe lack of action in the sector. technologies and decentralized renewable energy South Sudan will continue to focus on restoring grids, which can be both time- and cost-effective, its natural water resources, such as rivers and to increase electricity access in rural areas. In wetlands, which also provide a source of livelihood addition to its other benefits, increasing the to a large number of people. To maintain water contribution of renewable energy will enable quality and reduce the transmission of water- South Sudan to gain access to international climate borne diseases, the country will also consider finance through carbon markets. the development of wastewater and effluent treatment plants; installing proper water supply Water infrastructure; and promoting the reuse and South Sudan does not have efficient water recycling of wastewater. It will also support supply systems and wastewater management development of water harvesting measures, infrastructure. As a result, half the population does rehabilitation of irrigation schemes and integrated not have access to safe drinking water and access water catchment management for ensuring to sanitation facilities is even lower. This makes adequate availability of water, especially in sectors communities highly vulnerable to water-borne such as agriculture and livestock. 22 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Waste primary sources to catalyse adoption of waste recycling. With a reduction in supply of primary Most of the waste that is generated in South resources, demand for recycled or reused Sudan is either illegally dumped or openly burned. resources will increase. Moreover, the wastewater treatment facilities and sewer systems in the country are very Tourism and recreation underdeveloped. Due to growing population, lack of infrastructure and inefficient policies, waste The tourism and recreation sector in South Sudan management in South Sudan is becoming a serious is currently in a phase of development. The environmental concern. The waste sector is also government has developed a tourism policy that one of the highest contributors of GHG emissions. aims to promote tourism based on a variety of While the Government of South Sudan, through attractions in the country, such as natural forests its current NDC and NAPA, focuses on enhancing and wildlife. The Vision 2040 and NDS documents solid and liquid waste management infrastructure, also emphasize developing the tourism industry, there seems to be a lack of on-ground action in particularly wildlife tourism facilities. While tourism the area. is not a priority sector in the current NDC or NAPA, these plans do consider the development South Sudan therefore considers waste a priority of climate-resilient tourism infrastructure and sector from both climate change mitigation and promotion of ecotourism. However, there seems adaptation standpoints. The government aims to be a lack of action on the ground in the sector due cumulatively reduce 19 percent of waste emissions to a lack of finance and other resources. by 2030 compared to the baseline level. For this the country will develop and implement a national South Sudan aims to ensure that the development level policy/plan for waste management. For of the tourism and recreation industry occurs this, South Sudan aims at utilizing the mitigation in a low-carbon and sustainable manner. It opportunities provided by the waste sector, also targets cumulative emission reduction of which include composting, utilisation of methane 40 percent by 2030 compared to the baseline. from landfill, recycling and energy generation Since most of the tourist spots in South Sudan are from waste. The second NDC will continue to of environmental importance, the second NDC promote the development of solid and liquid waste will promote sustainable nature-based tourism treatment facilities (effluent treatment plants in to protect biodiversity and provide livelihood industry) to reduce the vulnerability of communities opportunities to local communities. As the sector to negative health impacts by providing proper grows, the second NDC will also promote efficient sanitation facilities and hygienic surroundings. waste management (e.g., composting), increasing the share of renewable energy and improving South Sudan will also promote waste prevention, energy efficiency in hotels and restaurants to minimization, recycling and reuse in different reduce GHG emissions. sectors, such as agriculture, hotels and restaurants, construction and industry (e.g., urban waste Fur thermore, South Sudan will promote can be made into briquettes; crop residue can collaboration between the local tourism industry be composted; plastic waste can generate and sustainable food producers to improve the refuse-derived fuels, which can be used in livelihoods of local communities, as well to reduce industry; methane captured during flaring or biogas emissions from food production. South Sudan plants can be used to generate electricity; and will also ensure that development of recreational construction material, such as wood, bricks and infrastructure occurs in a sustainable manner iron, can be recycled and reused). In addition, with no negative impacts on the ecosystems and South Sudan will regulate extraction and use of biodiversity of the region. Executive summary 23 Mining and quarrying Therefore, the government is currently focusing on development of transport infrastructure, which is While South Sudan has abundant mineral wealth, a priority in most of South Sudan’s development commercial exploration activities are limited due policies. The NDS provides three-year targets for to a lack of investment, minimal domestic industrial development of road infrastructure and the current activity and a dearth of trained human resources. NDC focuses on the development of vehicular With a decline in oil production in recent years, the emission standards and exhaust testing centres government is now promoting mining and quarrying to regulate the importation of old and inefficient activities, which are focused on in the Vision 2040 vehicles. This will be supplemented by ambient document. Mining is increasingly becoming a air pollution standards and/or vehicular emission source of employment, with people in South Sudan standards developed under the ambit of the moving from agriculture to mining, and with illegal second NDC. small-scale mining for minerals like gold on the rise. This proliferation of illegal mining, which is not Since the sector is expected to grow in the future, governed by limiting regulations or policies, could the second NDC will support sustainable growth result in significant negative environmental impacts by promoting the use of low-carbon transport from increased, uncontrolled deforestation, soil technologies, such as electric vehicles (EVs). erosion and open dumping of waste. While the South Sudan will also focus on the development government has developed a mining policy and of policies to restrict the importation of inefficient mining act to regulate the growth of the sector vehicles to reduce GHG emissions and air pollution. and to minimize the harmful impacts of mining, this Implementing these initiatives will help South sector does not currently feature in the country’s Sudan reduce its transport emissions by 31 percent climate change policies. by 2030 compared to the baseline level. With a push for growth in mining, emissions from Industry the sector are likely to increase. This sector, if unchecked, will also have adverse impacts on Most manufacturing industries in South Sudan land and water resources. Therefore, the second are small scale. The country is largely dependent NDC will ensure that activities in the sector are on imported goods and services and has minimal controlled and regulated by the development of local manufacturing. Therefore, the majority of ESIA frameworks, environmental management emissions from the industrial sector are embedded plans and sustainable mining closure plans. They emissions from imported goods, with the maximum will also focus on developing efficient institutional emissions being from the food and beverage and governance mechanisms to restrict illegal industry. Emissions from industry are likely to rise mining. Another important aspect of the NDC will in the future, with an increase in industrial activity be the development of environmental regulations as the country develops. However, as far as the and standards for air quality, water management, current NDC and other policies are concerned, and effluent and hazardous waste management no consideration has been given to green growth at mining sites. of the sector. Since industry is currently at a nascent stage Transport in South Sudan, there is room for sustainable The transport infrastructure in South Sudan and green growth. Therefore, in its second NDC is underdeveloped, with most roads being South Sudan will focus on implementation of GHG inaccessible during the rainy season. This not only mitigation strategies to promote sustainable growth increases the cost of transportation but also has of the sector. These include developing policies to an impact on the economic growth of the country. regulate the importation of energy-efficient goods 24 Second Nationally Determined Contribution to reduce the share of embedded emissions, calls for environmental protection in the petroleum promoting composting of organic waste in the industry. food and beverage industry and promoting As it plays an important role in the economic the use of alternate sources of energy, such development of the country, the second NDC will as biofuels and refuse-derived fuel, in energy- ensure implementation of low-carbon measures intensive industries. As the sector develops, in the sector to enable its sustainable growth. To South Sudan will steadily increase the adoption this end, South Sudan will target maintaining its of energy-efficient technologies to reduce energy current emission intensity of 8.4 grams of carbon requirements in industrial processes, as well dioxide per megajoule (which is 58 percent lower as increase the share of renewable energy in than the International Energy Agency projection for industrial office and building operations. 2050 with the 2°C scenario). This will be achieved by reducing emissions from flaring (burning) and Petroleum, chemical and non-metallic venting of gas by developing measures to either products capture it or reduce the amount of gas flared. South Sudan’s economy is largely dependent In the long term, South Sudan will consider on oil production, which contributes around gradually phasing out the use of petroleum 60–80 percent of the country’s revenue. However, products in favour of alternative sources of energy. oil production has declined in recent years as a result of a natural decline in oil reserves and global Health macroeconomic challenges. Since the sector is of major economic importance, significant efforts Currently, access to health care facilities in South are being made by the government to improve its Sudan is poor, with a shortage of medical facilities current status. Such efforts include plans to carry and skilled health workers and limited supplies out studies to select the best oil wells for increasing of medical equipment and drugs. Malnutrition; oil production. While this sector is not governed water-borne diseases; vector-borne diseases, by climate-related policies, the petroleum policy such as malaria; and acute respiratory infections Executive summary 25 are common in the country. Increased incidence of for building the requisite infrastructure. Means water- and vector-borne diseases resulting from of educating and raising awareness among climate variability can have severe implications on stakeholders regarding climate risks and response the already poor health status of the country. The action will also be developed. The second NDC will current NDC focuses on strengthening climate- also focus on building the capacity of communities resilient health systems and highlights the need on response preparedness, especially among for conducting vulnerability assessments related women. Furthermore, development of climate- to human health with future climatic scenarios. The resilient infrastructure will be a key aspect of the NDS has three-year targets aimed at improving second NDC. accessibility to health facilities, but it is evident from the current status of the health sector that INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS the country is lagging behind in meeting these South Sudan has established various policies targets. and plans to ensure sustainable development The second NDC will continue to focus on and management of its natural resources. It conducting research to understand the has laid down various frameworks to cater for relationships between health and climate change. development of the economy while taking into Developing adequate health systems, enhancing account sustainable development objectives. early warning systems and developing awareness These policies include the National Environment and capacities of local communities about likely Policy, Environmental Protection Bill, NAPA, South health risks and adequate response measures will Sudan National Electricity Policy and Forest Policy, also be key aspects of the second NDC. amongst others. Government organizations that play a lead role in Disaster risk management implementing climate change and environment South Sudan faces serious risks of floods and policies in South Sudan include the Ministry of droughts, which damage infrastructure and cause Environment and Forestry, Ministry of Electricity food and water shortages. Erratic rainfall, floods and Dams, Ministry of Water Resources and and droughts can lead to significant losses of Irrigation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of crops and livestock, making communities that Finance and Economic Planning and Ministry are dependent on agriculture and livestock of Humanitarian Affairs, amongst others. Apart highly vulnerable. The government therefore from the regulatory bodies and ministries, the considers this sector a priority in South Sudan’s implementation of the NDC will also need to Vision 2040, NAPA and current NDC. Both the involve international donor agencies and regional NDC and NAPA focus on strengthening drought stakeholders (e.g., educational institutions, non- and flood early warning systems. The disaster governmental organizations and private players, management policy of South Sudan also focuses such as in industries). on implementing preventive measures while A domestic institutional arrangement has been strengthening adequate response mechanisms. developed for South Sudan’s NDC implementation, While the sector is a priority, there seems to be describing the roles and responsibilities of all a lack of action in this area, primarily due to a relevant stakeholders, such as ministries, non- lack of capacity and unavailability of funds in governmental organizations, research institutions the sector. and private players, in the implementation The second NDC will continue to focus on process. The framework also assigns roles for developing and enhancing early warning systems organizations in key entities (e.g., the National by gaining access to international climate finance NDC Focal Point, NDC implementing entities, 26 Second Nationally Determined Contribution NDC executing entities, technical assistance policies and strategies. South Sudan will target and capacity-building agencies, and financing 35 percent representation of women in climate- bodies) that will be required to be set up for NDC change decision-making. The second NDC will implementation. encourage increased participation of women in climate action, particularly when it comes to CAPACITY-BUILDING AND TECHNOLOGY adaptation planning in sectors such as agriculture, TRANSFER fisheries and forestry. The second NDC will also ensure that the burden of climate change The Government of South Sudan has identified and opportunities created by climate-change capacity-building and technology transfer needs mitigation and adaptation interventions are that will be required for implementing NDC distributed amongst all genders in an equitable interventions. As part of capacity-building, South and unbiased manner. Sudan will need to increase the awareness of individuals, government institutions, communities FINANCING REQUIREMENTS and other stakeholders on climate change. To this end, the second NDC will support the Access to new and sustained sources of climate development of the institutional and technical finance will play a crucial role in achieving the goals capacities of government institutions. Moreover, of the Paris Agreement and implementing NDC key aspects of the second NDC will include mitigation and adaptation activities in South Sudan. utilizing the capacities of existing research To enable implementation of interventions that are institutions and universities for carrying out identified in this NDC document, it is important climate-related research; developing and that South Sudan be provided with opportunities implementing awareness raising programmes; to access technical and financial support from the and incorporating climate change and topics international community. related to environmental management in school It is estimated that South Sudan will require a curricula to increase awareness among youth. total of US$100 billion for the implementation Areas where technology transfer will be required of all NDC interventions and strategies over in South Sudan include renewable energy; access a period of 10 years. Of this, international to climate information systems and technologies investments of $93.5–93 billion will be required, to set up hydrometeorological and early warning while $6.5–7 billion will be financed domestically systems; methodologies and tools for assessing by the Government of South Sudan. These are sector-specific climate-related risks; and advanced preliminary estimates and full-scale assessment technologies that support water treatment, of international climate finance needs must still recycling and development of climate-resilient be carried out. infrastructure, amongst others. In addition to the support of multi- and bilateral organizations, South Sudan envisages accessing GENDER RESPONSIVENESS OF THE NDC financial, technical and capacity-building support While women play a crucial role in addressing from international climate funds, such as the climate change, they are also disproportionately Green Climate Fund, United Nations Adaptation affected by the adverse impacts of climate Fund, Least Developed Country Fund, Global change. To reduce the vulnerability of women and Environment Facility, Clean Technology Fund and to ensure that implementation of climate strategies Pilot Program for Climate Resilience, amongst occurs in a gender-responsive manner, the others, and financing instruments, such as grants, second NDC will support the integration of gender concessional/non-concessional loans and regional/ perspectives into national-level climate-change international carbon markets, amongst others. Executive summary 27 2 ABOUT THIS DOCUMENT 28 Second Nationally Determined Contribution ABOUT THIS DOCUMENT This document, the Republic of South Sudan Second Nationally Determined Contribution, describes the groundwork done for the development of South Sudan’s Nationally Determined Contribution. This document contains the following: • National circumstances (Chapter 3) is a detailed review of the current socio-economic, environmental, geographic, administrative and political situation of the country. • Metabolic assessment (Chapter 4) shows how flows of biomass, fuels, metals, minerals, and water in the country’s assets and socio- economic activities interact to support its development. The assessment identifies key sectors that have the potential for supporting the development of a circular and green economy. Key hotspots within each sector are identified for future strategic development. The outputs were used to identify circular opportunities for South Sudan to ensure sustainable extraction of materials, manage existing and future stocks, reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and air pollution and increase levels of end-of use processing and recycling. • Sector prioritization (Chapter 5) identifies key sectors that should be included in the second NDC document. This exercise was conducted using the results of the metabolic assessment along with a few additional parameters. Based on this exercise, as well as on inputs received from key stakeholders in South Sudan, 14 sectors were identified for inclusion in the NDC. These are: 1. Agriculture, livestock and fisheries 2. Infrastructure (construction and buildings) 3. Forestry About this document 29 4. Biodiversity, ecosystems and sustainable • NDC sector linkages with Intergovernmental wetland management Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) classification (Chapter 6) is given for the benefit of the 5. Electricity reader. 6. Water • Sectoral strategies (Chapter 7) evaluates 7. Waste progress by sector with respect to the 8. Tourism and recreation current NDC, strategies and other policies, along with their expected growth trajectory 9. Mining and quarrying (where possible). This chapter provides 10. Transport sectoral mitigation and adaptation strategies 11. Industry (incorporating circular opportunities identified as part of the metabolic assessment) along 12. Petroleum, chemicals and non-metallic with opportunities for each sector to contribute mineral products to the development of a circular economy 13. Health in South Sudan. The timeframe that will be required for their implementation is also 14. Disaster risk management. included. 30 Second Nationally Determined Contribution • Institutional arrangements (Chapter 8) equality are embodied in climate mitigation and provides a detailed overview of the supporting adaptation interventions. policies and stakeholders responsible for • NDC financing requirements (Chapter 11) implementation of policies and programmes details investments, by sector, required for related to the environment and climate implementation of proposed NDC mitigation change. A detailed institutional framework for and adaptation strategies (using the financing implementation of the second NDC is included. estimates of the Government of South Sudan • Capacity-building and technology transfer for implementation). Financing requirements (Chapter 9) provides details of the capacity- for additional strategies proposed have also building needs and technologies that been provided, along with the assumptions South Sudan will require to implement the and estimation methodology used. interventions and measures included in the • International cooperation (Chapter 12) gives an second NDC. estimation of the finances that will be required • Gender responsiveness of the NDC (Chapter through international cooperation. These are 10) provides details of strategies that will be preliminary estimates that will need further implemented by the Government of South detailed analysis and assessment in the years Sudan to ensure that the principles of gender ahead. About this document 31 3 NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES 32 Second Nationally Determined Contribution NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES The Republic of South Sudan became a new nation after more than 50 years of civil war that took over three million lives and displaced over a million people. South Sudan gained its independence from Sudan on 9 July 2011 as the outcome of a 2005 agreement and became the 55th country in Africa. The protracted conflict destroyed what little infrastructure and governance structures had existed before the conflict. In December 2013 and July 2016, renewed conflicts undermined the development gains made since independence and exacerbated the humanitarian situation. The gradual implementation of the peace agreement of September 2018, which included establishing a unity government in February 2020 and an agreement on the number of states, gave a positive economic outlook in early 2020 (World Bank, 2020a). The inhabitants of South Sudan are having to face not only the negative impacts of long-term conflicts, but also the adverse effects of changing climate. The country is facing an increasingly warmer and drier climate with erratic rainfall, resulting in the degradation of ecosystems and decreased agricultural productivity, threatening the livelihoods of a majority of the population. Political and The inhabitants of economic instability and limited access to capital, markets, infrastructure and technology, along with South Sudan are changing climate, are hindering the growth of having to face not only the country. the negative impacts

3.1 GEOGRAPHIC PROFILE of long-term conflicts, South Sudan covers an area of around 619,745 but also the adverse square kilometres and is situated at 7.863 degrees effects of changing north and 29.695 degrees east (WorldAtlas, 2020). climate. South Sudan is located in eastern central Africa, landlocked by six countries, Sudan to the north, Ethiopia to the east, Kenya to the southeast, Uganda to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south-west and the Central African Republic to the west (Figure 1). National circumstances 33 Figure 1: Map of South Sudan 26°E 30°E 34°E 12°N 12°N SUDAN UPPER NILE ABYEI REGION White Ni Machar Bentiu/Rubkona le Malakal Marches NORTHERN s BAHR EL R. Loll mp R. F ul WESTERN GHAZAL Swa s UNITY (Bah u r el-Z BAHR EL Aweil Sudd e r af ) ETHIOPIA R. J GHAZAL ur R. Ge WARRAP l R. Phow 8°N o 8°N ng Po JONGLEI R. Wau IR O NS LAKES Mo ch TO R. N E CENTRAL te Rumbek Whi PL le E Ni AFRICAN AT AU Bor REPUBLIC WESTERN Lotagipi EQUATORIA Swamp Juba EASTERN EQUATORIA Yambio CENTRAL Torit IMA 4°N DEMOCRATIC EQUATORIA TO N G MTS. 4°N REPUBLIC OF KENYA THE CONGO UGANDA 26°E 30°E 34°E Disclaimer: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. The final boundary between the Republic of South Sudan and the Republic of Sudan has not yet been determined. The final status of Abyei area is not yet determined. South Sudan’s landscape includes extensive highland areas exist in the country. Along South grassland, swamps and tropical rainforest, which Sudan’s border with Uganda is the Imatong stretches along both banks of the Nile River. The Mountain Range, which includes the country’s Nile River system is the dominating physical feature highest peak, Mount Kinyeti, which is 3,187 metres of the country. It runs from south to north through (10,456 feet) above sea level. Another elevated the country joined by its major tributaries, the Bahr portion of the region, the Ironstone Plateau, el Ghazal, the Bahr al-Arab and the Sobat. The is between the clay plain and the Nile-Congo centre of the country is dominated by the Sudd watershed, to the west and south of South Sudan. wetland, a large swampy area occupying the heart With suddenly rising isolated hills called inselbergs, of South Sudan. It is one of the largest freshwater this area features relatively flat elevated land. ecosystems (wetland) in the world, incorporating The country lies entirely within the Nile River basin, an area of approximately 57,000 square kilometres. which makes its land suitable for agriculture. Around The wetland is rich in biodiversity and around one 75 per cent of the country’s land area is suitable million agropastoralists inhabit the area (United for agriculture, where an area of approximately Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural 330,000 square kilometres is estimated to be fit Organization (UNESCO), 2017). Two distinct for cultivation. In spite of more than 50 percent 34 Second Nationally Determined Contribution of its land mass being prime agricultural land, Figure 2: Average monthly temperature and rainfall in only 5 percent of this land is currently cultivated South Sudan, 1901–2016 continually or periodically. Thirty-four percent of the national cropland is located in the western 32 150 flood plains. The greenbelt and eastern flood 30 plains are the other two important crop production 100 28 regions, accounting for 18 percent and 26 percent 26 50 of national cropland, respectively. 24 0 In South Sudan, the major portion of land is under Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec forest cover. In 2012, the South Sudan Government Temperature (°C, left axis) Rainfall (mm, right axis) reported that 405,629 square kilometres of land was covered by forest, which represented 62.6 Source: World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal percent of South Sudan’s total national land area (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and peaks from May to September, leading to 2018a). The local communities use the forests to seasonal flooding (Figure 2). The rainfall regions extract timber for construction purposes, fuelwood of South Sudan stretch outside the country’s for cooking and making charcoal and non-timber border into Ethiopia to the east, Sudan to the north forest products like food, medicines, oil, gum and and Uganda to the south (African Development resin for their daily needs. With increasing popu- Bank (AfDB), 2018). Annual rainfall ranges from lation, the forests of South Sudan are degrading 200 millimetres in the southeast to 1,200–2,200 as a result of factors that include continual use of millimetres in the forested areas in Western wood for cooking, seasonal burning of forests by Equatoria and the Equatorian highlands. In the pastoralists to regenerate pastures and conversion northern states, rainfall varies between 700 of natural forest into urban or rural settlement areas. and 1,300 millimetres (United States Agency for The large-scale degradation of forest areas has International Development (USAID), 2016). resulted in soil erosion, loss of biodiversity and altered hydrological and nutrient cycles. Historical data of rainfall show that the highest rainfall occurs in the southwest and is lowest in South Sudan is vulnerable to many natural the northeast, especially in the greenbelt along disasters, the most common being weather-related the border with the Central African Republic, the disasters, such as floods, droughts, heatwaves, Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. Climate outbreaks of disease and earthquakes. In recent change has considerably impacted the rainfall years, all these threats have been exacerbated pattern in terms of temporal and spatial variation by climate change, which is increasing in terms within the same year due to bimodal and unimodal of severity, frequency, and complexity, leaving rainfall regimes (The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign behind trails of infrastructure destruction, human Affairs, 2018). The country has been experiencing suffering and loss of livelihoods (ReliefWeb, 2017). a 10–20 percent decrease in long rains since the mid-1970s. As a result, the area of regions

3.2 CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS receiving adequate rainfall of over 500 millimetres The climate of South Sudan is predominantly to support the livelihoods of agropastoralists has tropical savannah, although there is a warm been reduced by 18 percent (ibid.). Furthermore, semi-arid climate in the far northern and south- future rainfall projections for the years 2010–2039 eastern areas. The country has a high rainfall show reductions of over 150 millimetres in rainfall season, followed by a drier season. The single between June and September in some parts of long rainy season lasts from March to November, the country (Figure 3) (The Netherlands Ministry National circumstances 35 Figure 3: Projected change in precipitation in South Sudan, 1960–2039 Legend +50 mm to -50 mm 50 mm to -100 mm decrease 100 mm to 150 mm decrease 150 mm or more decrease SUDAN UPPER NILE NORTHERN UNITY BAHR EL GHAZAL ETHIOPIA WARRAP WESTERN BAHR EL GHAZAL JONGLEI CENTRAL LAKES AFRICAN REPUBLIC WESTERN EQUATORIA Juba EASTERN EQUATORIA CENTRAL DEMOCRATIC EQUATORIA REPUBLIC OF KENYA THE CONGO UGANDA Source: UNEP, 2018a of Foreign Affairs, 2018; UNEP, 2018a). This will increased evaporation, which would further reduce exacerbate negative impacts on communities the availability of water (The Netherlands Ministry dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as of Foreign Affairs, 2018). People are distressed agriculture and fishing for their livelihoods. by both droughts and floods, which respectively affected approximately 7,900,000 and 1,140,000 In the last 30 years, South Sudan has been among people during the period 1996–2016 (AfDB, the most rapidly warming countries globally, with an 2018). If current rainfall trends continue, the drying increase in temperature of as much as 0.4 degrees impacts could extend into Western and Northern Celsius (°C) per decade, especially in the central Bahr al Ghazal, Warrap, Unity, Al Buhairat (Lakes) and southern regions (Figure 4) (South Sudan and Central Equatoria by 2025 (Niang et al., 2014; Ministry of Environment, 2018). General circulation Funk et al., 2011). model projections indicate that temperatures may increase by 0.6–1.7°C by 2030 and by 1.1–3.1°C by Most of the agriculture in South Sudan is rainfed and 2060 relative to the baseline period of 1961–1990 therefore depends on seasonal rainfall for optimal (ibid.). A simultaneous decrease in precipitation and crop production, making the sector vulnerable to increase in temperature will amplify the impact of climate variability. Extended dry seasons (droughts) droughts; warming of more than 1°C is equivalent to and increasing precipitation variability negatively another 10–20 percent reduction in rainfall through impact the economy and the nutrition status 36 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Figure 4: Projected change in temperature in South Sudan, 1960–2039 Legend < +0.7° C < +0.9° C < +1.1° C < +1.3° C SUDAN ABYEI UPPER NILE REGION NORTHERN UNITY BAHR EL GHAZAL ETHIOPIA WARRAP WESTERN BAHR EL GHAZAL JONGLEI CENTRAL LAKES AFRICAN REPUBLIC WESTERN EQUATORIA Juba EASTERN EQUATORIA CENTRAL DEMOCRATIC EQUATORIA REPUBLIC OF KENYA THE CONGO UGANDA Source: UNEP, 2018a Figure 5: Reduction in tree cover, 2001–2009 8 Thousands per hectare 6 4 2 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Source: Global Forest Watch, 2020 National circumstances 37 Figure 6: Climate Change Vulnerability Index, 2017 South Sudan Extreme risk High risk Medium risk Low risk No data Source: Verisk Maplecroft, 2017 of residents who rely on agriculture for their As South Sudan is one of the world’s newest livelihoods. According to Taha et al. (2013), there countries, there is little current and historical is likely to be a reduction in sorghum production, data available; consequently, the country is either one of the staple grains of most of the population, not included at all or is included with Sudan for by 5–25 percent between 2000 and 2050. international assessments and reports. One such assessment index is the Notre Dame Global From 2001 to 2019, South Sudan has also Adaptation (ND-Gain) Index. Sudan (including witnessed a loss of around 12.3 square South Sudan) was ranked 176th out of 181 kilometres of relative tree cover, equivalent countries, inferring it to be extremely vulnerable to an average annual decrease of 2 percent and the 14th least ready country to combat climate since 2000 (Figure 5) (UNEP, 2018a; Global Forest change effects. Watch, 2020). The major drivers for deforestation are commodity-driven deforestation, shifting In 2017, the Verisk Maplecroft Climate Change agriculture and an increase in demand for fuelwood Vulnerability Index (CCVI) (2017) included South and charcoal (UNEP, 2018b). A study by Salih et al. Sudan independently in the assessment and (2013) in South Sudan suggests that reduction in ranked it 5th out of 191 countries with regard vegetation cover significantly affects precipitation to climate change vulnerability (Figure 6). The and surface temperature. The study further CCVI evaluates the sensitivity of populations, the proposes that the impact of precipitation reduction physical exposure of nations and governmental is not only local but will also extend to central capacity to adapt to climate change over the next Sudan and neighbouring regions, suggesting that 30 years. Its rank conveys that South Sudan is deforestation has both local and wider regional likely to witness significant economic impact due climatic impacts. to climate change in the future. 38 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

3.3 ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL natural resource and could attract significant RESOURCES tourism to the country in the future. There is an abundance of water, forest and mineral Along with diverse biodiversity, South Sudan is resources in South Sudan. The Nile River is the also rich in mineral resources. The primary mineral dominant feature and includes Africa’s second- resources are (Owuor, 2019): largest wetland, the Sudd, and East Africa’s • Petroleum: Around 85 percent of Sudanese oil largest intact savannah ecosystem. The swamps, was produced by South Sudan before it became floodplains and grasslands of South Sudan contain independent from Sudan. Crude oil accounts rich biodiversity of flora and fauna (LandLinks, 2013). for 98 percent of the total revenue generated The protected areas of South Sudan include by the country and it is estimated that South wildlife, forests and Ramsar sites.3 The country has Sudan has oil reserves of 428.2 million tonnes. an extensive system of game reserves, some of In 2019, it produced 140,000 barrels per day, which date back to the 1930s, and national parks. and it is predicted to pump 350,000 barrels per In total, South Sudan’s protected area occupies day by the end of next year. The Bentiu field is approximately 87,030 square kilometres, which rich in oil, and there are potential reserves in is about 13 percent of the country’s surface. It areas such as Warrap and Jonglei. is estimated that national parks cover an area of • Marble/dolomite: There are several marble 51,760 square kilometres, game reserves cover deposits in the Kapoeta region, totalling about 34,110 square kilometres, and forest reserves 7.3 million tonnes. The largest deposit is located cover 1,160 square kilometres (South Sudan approximately 4 kilometres northeast of Kapoeta Ministry of Environment, 2015). town. Marble deposit consists of 52.6 percent The wide variety of ecosystems in the country calcium oxide, 0.8 percent magnesium oxide, supports a very diverse range of animals and potassium oxide, and nitrogen oxide. Several plant species. Some of the country’s endemic dolomite deposits were also recorded in large fauna include the Nile lechwe (Kobus megaceros), quantities in the district of Torit. These deposits Hoogstral’s striped grass mouse (Lemniscomys are suitable for processing and manufacturing barbarus), Nile sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii spekii) cement, fertilizer, glass, and flux. and Dendromus ruppi. In Africa, South Sudan is • Aluminium: The exact extent of the country’s considered to be the only country with both eland aluminium reserves is not known, but is species – the common eland (Taurotragus oryx) estimated to be significant, at approximately and the Lord Derby (or giant) eland (Taurotragus 9.1 million tonnes. Deposits are found up to the derbianus). The Imatong Forest, one of the most Democratic Republic of the Congo border in extensive intact podocarp forests in Africa, is conflict zones such as Juba, Raga-Wau-Rumbek a significant biodiversity hotspot that supports and Yambio. Weak road networks and conflicts over 2,000 vascular plants and 500 bird species. have constrained access to some of these Other endemic fauna include Barbus tongaensis, regions. Chloroselas taposana and Lepidochrysops nigritia. Aloe diolii, Aloe macleayi, Encephalartos • Iron ore: Deposits of iron ore are found in mackenziei (a cycad), Chlorophytum superpositum, a broad area stretching from Yambio to the Scilla chlorantha and Panicum bambusiculme are area bordering South Darfur. The highest amongst the vascular plant species restricted to concentration (8 percent) is found in the Wau South Sudan. Flora and fauna are an invaluable area. Deep deposits in the Wau–Raga area 3 A Ramsar site is a wetland site designated to be of international importance under the Ramsar Convention. National circumstances 39 per year). The country experiences national Figure 7: Population growth of South Sudan conflicts, communal clashes and natural disasters, 12,000 leading to internal displacement and migration of 10,000 people to other countries, like Sudan, Ethiopia, Thousands 8,000 Kenya, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo 6,000 (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 4,000 2020). Since 2014, 15 percent of the people have 2,000 been internally displaced, primarily because of 0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 natural disasters exacerbated by changing climate (Migration Data Portal, 2020). Total Urban Rural Source: World Bank, 2020 Most of the population is rural (8,860,863), and the urban population is relatively small (2,201,250) cover approximately 80,000 square kilometres, (Figure 7) (World Bank, 2020c). Approximately with iron ore concentrations varying from 22 to 95.6 percent of urban residents live in slum 90 percent. Because of the lack of adequate settlements (AfDB, 2018). facilities and disputes, the mineral ore remains mostly untapped. The gender ratio is 52 percent male to 48 percent female. The population is primarily young, with • Gold: The eastern portion of South Sudan, 72 percent of the total population being under which includes Anakanak, Nyangea, Karomi, 30 years of age (World Life Expectancy; South Lauro and Buno, has gold deposits. While Sudan National Bureau of Statistics). the principal source of income for people in the Kapoeta district is gold mining, the nation A young population can play a pivotal role in as a whole does not profit significantly from transforming societies for a climate-resilient future. it because of ongoing disputes that have Youth have an important part to play in raising impeded exploration work. environmental awareness, promoting sustainable lifestyles, adopting environment-friendly practices

3.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS and conserving nature and its resources. South Sudan can encourage its youth to work towards Around 78 percent of households earn their creating an environmentally sustainable and living from agriculture, fishing and pastoralism, climate-resilient society. or a combination of the three. Farming is mostly rainfed, and farmers use handheld tools to

3.4.2 Health cultivate their small plots. Pineapple, cotton, groundnuts, sorghum, millet, wheat, cotton, sweet South Sudan has a poor World Life Expectancy potatoes, mangoes, pawpaw, sugarcane, cassava ranking of 173, with the life expectancy of and sesame are some of the commonly-grown males and females being 57.7 and 59.6 years, agricultural products. Around eight million cattle respectively. As per World Life Expectancy 2020 are owned by pastoralists, and there are millions data (World Bank, 2020c), the predominant reasons of chickens, goats, pigs, horses, donkeys and for death in South Sudan are HIV/AIDS, influenza sheep (UNEP, 2019). and pneumonia, and diarrhoeal diseases (Table 1). Gradual climate changes that affect the quality

3.4.1 Population of water, food and air also have a negative effect In 2019, the total population of South Sudan was on human health across the globe (World Bank 11,062,113. Over the past five years, the rate of Climate Change Knowledge Portal). The human population growth rate has been slow (1 percent health sector has strong ties to climate change, 40 Second Nationally Determined Contribution by means of both direct exposure and indirect Table 1: Leading causes of death in South Sudan pathways. Extreme climate events, such as heat waves, hurricanes and storms, floods and droughts, Historical average Cause of death (until December 1, 2020) have direct detrimental health impacts, whereas climate change and global warming have indirect HIV/AIDS 12,141 effects on infectious and vector-borne diseases. Influenza and pneumonia 11,674 Diarrhoea and malaria are among the top five causes of deaths in South Sudan (Table 1), and Diarrhoeal diseases 9,623 these are likely to increase under the influence of climate change. Birth trauma 5,371 South Sudan also has the world’s highest maternal Malaria 4,821 mortality rate; 1 in 7 women die from childbirth or pregnancy. Infant mortality rates are also Low birthweight 4,634 exceptionally high, with 75 children per 1,000 Coronary heart disease 4,621 dying before their first birthday (CARE, 2020). It is believed that climate change will further increase Stroke 3,803 infant and maternal mortality and birth complications Road traffic accidents 3,524 and exacerbate poor reproductive health in tropical developing countries. In particular, the effect Maternal conditions 3,034 of infectious diseases, extreme environmental conditions, malnutrition and heat exposure will lead Meningitis 2,733 to serious health risks for mothers and children Tuberculosis 2,645 (Rylander et al., 2013). Thus, the overall impact of climate change on the population of South Sudan Leishmaniasis 2,472 will be detrimental as it will lead to extreme weather Malnutrition 2,467 events, increased infectious diseases and poor maternal and child health. Syphilis 2,196

3.4.3 Education Tetanus 1,755 South Sudan has one of the lowest literacy rates War 1,608 in the world. The education system consists of Diabetes mellitus 1,504 around 8,000 primary schools (Grades 1–8), about 120 secondary schools (Grades 9–12) and only Lung disease 1,018 one university (Global Partnership for Education, 2020). According to USAID, although the number of Hypertension 826 school enrolments has increased to 1.4 million from Alzheimer’s disease and 750 300,000 in the year 2000 there are still 1 million dementia children out of school. The same source highlights Cervical cancer 715 an acute shortage of trained qualified teachers, with the ratio of pupil to qualified teachers being 100 to 1. Drowning 702 It is estimated that only around 8 percent of women Breast cancer 657 are literate, possibly the lowest female literacy rate in the world (USAID, 2012). Women in poor and COVID-19 61 developing countries are affected by the adverse Source: World Life Expectancy National circumstances 41 effects of climate change because of their limited inadequate numbers of qualified teachers, capacity to adapt. For various reasons, women inadequate school infrastructure and gaps are more vulnerable to climate change than men, between policy formulation and implementation. including illiteracy, few socio-economic skills, poor The World Bank’s education status report (2012) access to assets, social isolation, limited access highlights the demand for education among to decision-making and few economic assets people, which would require more educated (United Nations WomenWatch, 2009). Similarly, citizens to support these efforts in the country. women in South Sudan are at the bottom of the social hierarchy, which creates imbalances that

3.4.4 Economy leave them highly exposed to climate change disasters. They are less resilient, rely more Petroleum is the lifeblood of the South Sudanese on natural resources, and have a high rate of economy, followed in importance by services illiteracy, few skills and inadequate access to and agriculture (AfDB, 2020). Oil alone accounts professional employment. This makes them more for more than half of the total gross domestic vulnerable than men to climate change disasters, product (GDP), 95 percent of exports, 90 percent and households headed by women are more of government revenues and a significant share of susceptible (Mai et al., 2018). However, women can private sector employment (Food and Agriculture make a significant contribution to climate change Organization (FAO), 2020b). Although South adaptation and mitigation if empowered. Sudan engages in primary fossil fuel production, it does not have an active refinery to manufacture Education services are also impacted by climate secondary petroleum products, and the majority change. Flooding in South Sudan impacts around of the produced crude oil is exported. 60 percent of the country and persists for half a year (South Sudan Ministry of General Education The country’s GDP per capita dropped from and Instruction, 2018), and seasonal flooding $1,111 in 2014 to less than $200 in 2017 (World severely impacts the functioning of the schools and Bank, 2020a). In 2019, GDP growth was estimated colleges. The South Sudanese education system to be 5.8 percent compared to 0.5 percent in faces several challenges, which include limited 2018; recovery of the economy was driven by government funding, low teacher remuneration, the reopening of oil fields and resumption of 42 Second Nationally Determined Contribution production after the peace agreement was signed change, reducing capacity to adapt and mitigate in September 2018. These statistics highlight its consequences. Poor people have limited access the dependence of South Sudan’s economy on to water, food, infrastructure, health, housing, its output of petroleum. However, adoption of livelihood and services, and their situation is climate change mitigation measures will influence predicted to worsen under future climate change the global energy consumption pattern, which will scenarios. Therefore, limited resources and poverty affect the economy of the nation. Climate policies are likely to increase local conflicts for sustenance and measures supported by the Kyoto Protocol and among the population. subsequent negotiations will see a reduction in the Thus, South Sudan’s economy is exposed to consumption of crude oil in developed countries, various climate change challenges, including leading to a decline in global oil demand. The changing weather, fluctuating oil prices and local combination of demand shocks driven by energy conflicts for resources. Recognizing this, and to efficiency, substitution effects driven by renewable achieve sustainable economic development, energy subsidies and market distortion driven South Sudan aims to transition from a least by carbon tax may affect oil prices in the long developed country to a middle-income country term. With such uncertainties linked to the crude by 2040, supported by inclusive, stable and oil market, the oil-dependent economy of South sustainable economic growth, while alleviating Sudan is particularly at risk. poverty. The promotion of environmental Livelihoods outside the oil sector are concentrated sustainability, climate-resilient communities and in unpaid agriculture and pastoralism with low appropriate land use has been identified as a productivity. The nation also has about 38 million critical enabler that will complement the eight cattle, goats and sheep, which provide livelihoods strategic priorities of the NDS 2018–2021. To to around 80 percent of the inhabitants (USAID, accomplish this goal, South Sudan has developed 2016). Based on the international poverty line multiple sectoral policies and plans. In addition, of $1.90 a day in 2011 purchasing power parity, through this report, it now presents its second approximately 82 percent of the population in NDC, setting out the next generation of targets South Sudan is poor (World Bank, 2020a). Poverty with the overarching goal of transitioning to a is intricately related to vulnerability to climate low-carbon economy by 2030. National circumstances 43 4 MATERIAL FLOW ANALYSIS (METABOLIC ASSESSMENT) 44 Second Nationally Determined Contribution MATERIAL FLOW ANALYSIS (METABOLIC ASSESSMENT) Decoupling economic growth from environmental pressures requires a combination of low-carbon development and resource-use efficiency. To achieve resource-use efficiency, it is important to understand how resources flow within an economy to produce goods and services (Circle Economy, 2020). Mapping the flows and stocks of a country helps us understand and identify resource- and energy-intensive hotspots that can be transformed to increase efficiency and improve the performance of the overall economic system. The metabolic assessment (i.e., material flow analysis) detailed in this report is intended to help the reader understand how flows of biomass, fuels, metals, minerals and water in South Sudan’s assets and socio-economic activities interact to support the development of the country. To carry out the assessment, various public data sources were used, particularly the United Nations’ Sustainable Consumption and Production Hotspot Analysis Tool (SCP-HAT). The tool uses national-level environmental and social data, along with trade information, to provide information on environmental pressure and impact indicators. The metabolic assessment was conducted using the following steps: To carry out the 1. Extraction of data on South Sudan’s economy assessment, from SCP-HAT • various public data Perspectives: The tool provides data on numerous socio-economic and environmental sources were used, parameters, such as raw material consumption, particularly the GHG emissions, air pollution, land and biodiversity, from two different perspectives. SCP-HAT. These are: º Domestic production, which helps in understanding the pressures and impacts from production of material for the purpose of domestic consumption and export. Material flow analysis 45 º Consumption footprint, which helps in The International Standard Industrial Classification understanding the pressures and impacts of All Economic Activities Revision 3 was studied from consumption of material (domestic and to provide an understanding of the components imported). within each sector (e.g., understanding whether petroleum extraction has been classified under • Key terminologies: Key parameters used for mining and quarrying, or petroleum, chemical and input-output analysis for each sector were non-metallic mineral products). understood to assess their usage for the purpose of sector assessment and prioritization. • Data: Datasets for all sectors were extracted These terminologies were studied through from SCP-HAT Module 2 for further analysis. The resources on the SCP-HAT website, as well as parameters used under both the perspectives the sources referred to for development of the for further assessment include: SCP-HAT methodology, such as the Eurostat º raw material use Economy-wide Material Flow Accounts and º climate change short term System of Environmental-Economic Accounting º employment (men and women) 2012. These parameters have been defined for º output/final demand. further reference (Table 2). • Data sources and availability: All data sources • Sector classifications: All 24 economic sectors referred to in the SCP-HAT were further in SCP-HAT were studied to understand what explored to assess availability of the latest has been included under each sector. These information. It was found that the most recent sectors include agriculture and livestock; information was for 2015. fishing; mining and quarrying; food and 2. Review of the current status of South Sudan’s beverages; textiles and wearing apparel; economy from the perspective of climate wood and paper; petroleum, chemical and change. A detailed review of all sectors was non-metallic mineral products; metal products; conducted to gain an understanding of their electrical and machinery; transport equipment; status, vulnerability to climate change, GHG other manufacturing; recycling; electricity, emissions profile, current NDC alignment, existing gas and water; construction; maintenance policies and strategies and key stakeholders and repair; wholesale trade; retail trade; involved in the sector. hotels and restaurants; transport; post and telecommunications; financial intermediation Sector briefs were developed for each individual and business activities; public administration; sector (Figure 8). The sector briefs include an education, health and other services; and information gap analysis that lists the datasets private households. that are currently not available publicly. The Table 2: SCP-HAT parameters Parameter Definition Climate change Shorter-term environmental and human health consequences from the rate of temperature change with short term – global warming potential within 100 years (SCP-HAT, 2019). GHG emissions This information has been used to understand the key hotspots within each sector and sector efficiency, as well as substitutes for assessing growth of the sector (where trends are unavailable). Output Value produced by sectors in the national economy (United Nations, 2014) Final demand Value of products consumed (produced domestically and/or exported) within South Sudan (ibid.) 46 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Figure 8: Sector briefs Agriculture Fishing Petroleum, Chemical 1. Overview • Area: Out of the 30 million hectares of arable land, only less than 5 percent is under cultivation 1. Overview Fishing provides a source of food security and livelihood for the people of South Sudan. and Non-metallic Minerals • According to FAO and WFP data, only 2.6 percent of agriculture land accounted for cereals production in 2017, with five states accounting for 70 percent of country’s cropland are Upper Nile • About 1.7 million people depend on fisheries for their livelihood, food security or income34 (19%); Warrap (15%), Jonglei (14%), Western Equatoria (11%), and Central Equatoria (11%). The livelihood zones of South Sudan are presented in the picture below: • The sector produces only 140,000 tonnes/year, however the annual potential is equivalent to 200,000 Livelihood zones of South Sudan1 tonnes. It is attributed due to inadequate infrastructure like lack of cold storage facilities which leads to a significant loss. 1. Overview • The annual consumption of fish is equivalent to 17kg/person Oil is currently the backbone of South Sudan’s economy, with wo basins, i.e., Melut and Muglad basins • There are about 220,000 fishermen in the country, with 12,000 being commercial and the remaining as accounting for most of the country’s oil reserves.62 In the Melut basin, the Great Palogue oil field has an subsistence35. estimated reserve of 900 million barrels. In addition, the oil fields i.e., Heglig and Unity, are located in the Muglad basin. • Among the livelihood zones in the country, the fishing activities are primarily carried out in Nile basin Although South Sudan engages in Production of crude oil in South Sudan2 area, Sobat basin, Sudd swamps in Jonglei, and in the bordering areas of Central Equatoria, Lakes, primary fossil fuel production (i.e., of Unity and Upper Nile states.2,36 crude oil), it does not have an active Livelihood zones of South Sudan1 refinery to manufacture secondary petroleum products like diesel, gasoline, liquid petroleum gas, as a result it imports these products. Furthermore, most of the crude oil produced is exported (95 percent in 2015). The figure represents the quantity of crude oil produced in the country during 2012-2016. • Key crops: With diverse soil and Quantity of key crops produced in South Sudan 2 Key materials input: About 5% of the total raw materials consumed in the country are consumed in this climatic conditions, the country sector. Fossil fuels (86%) and biomass (13%) are the two most consumed materials. The sector produces various crops including showcases a gradual decrease in the raw material consumption from 2012. However, more data beyond sorghum, maize, rice, cassava, 2015 will be required for further trend assessment. sesame, beans, fruits and Key material inputs from resource consumption side (million tonne): vegetables, as well as coffee, tea,

0.8 Metal Ores cotton and sugar cane1. 1% Biomass • Livestock: The total number of 0.6 13% livestock (cattle, sheeps and goats) 0.4 Fossil Fuels across various states were equivalent to 36,222,802 in 2016. It • There are about 115 different species of fish found in the Nile basin, most of which are of economic 0.2 86% Non- contributes to GHG emissions importance. The most important species inlcude Tilapia, Nile Perch, Gymnarchus niloticus, Heterotus 0 metallic niloticus, Synodontis, Lates nilotica, Alestes, Hyrocynus, Labeo, Barbus, Distichodus, Citharinus, 2012 2013 2014 2015 Minerals through enteric emissions and Clarias, Protopterus, Mormyrus, Bagrus, and Shilbe. % Break-up 0% manure decomposition. Biomass Fossil Fuels in 2015 • Imports: Out of total country's imports valued at 811.4 million in 2018, value of imports of Metal Ores Non-metallic Minerals commodities (cereal flour, dried legumes, sorghum, wheat flour, corn, rice etc.) equals US$137.6 • Imports: While the country previously imported fish from Uganda at high prices, the World Vison million. Programmes have now introduced fishponds within the communities, making fish a source of income for the people. The species raised is Tilapia that grows rapidly and is easily cared for by the trained community members.37 1 62 NATCOM report, accessed on 9 October 2020 South Sudan, UNEP report, accessed on 14 Sep 2020 34 South Sudan resilience strategy 2019-21, FAO report, accessed on 10 Sep 2020 35 CAMP final report, accessed on 5 October 2020 36 Livelihoods zone map and descriptions for South Sudan, accessed on 5 October 2020 37 Fishing for a solution to hunger in South Sudan, Global Citizen website, accessed on 10 Sep 2020 country will start monitoring and reporting the people (80 percent) living in rural areas. Of the on these, enabling it to successfully track the small urban population, a majority (95 percent) live implementation of various sectoral climate in slum settlements (AfDB, 2018). The country has measures. had an annual population growth rate of 1 percent over the past five years. 3. Use of information and data gathered to map material flows within South Sudan’s economy. The country’s GDP per capita dropped from $1,111 The data for each parameter for all sectors for in 2014 to less than $200 in 2017 as a result of the year 2015 were used from SCP-HAT, along a decline in oil production. With the resumption with other publicly available data, to conduct a of oil production in 2017, the economy started to detailed metabolic assessment which provides recover, showing a GDP growth of 0.5 percent in details on national as well as sector resource 2018, which further increased to 5.8 percent in use and GHG emissions trends. 2019 (World Bank, 2020a). The following sections provide the outcomes of In 2018, the country imported goods worth $811 the assessment. million while exports were valued at $1.71 billion, representing a trade surplus of $1.46 billion

4.1 NATIONAL TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENT (Observatory of Economic Complexity). While the country’s key suppliers are China, Uganda, Kenya, The United Nations country classification the Netherlands, Thailand, Pakistan, the United identifies South Sudan as being among the lowest States of America and Germany, it primarily exports developing countries in the world. The country goods to China, Pakistan, India, the United Arab declared its independence from Sudan in July Emirates, Uganda and Germany. 2011, following six years of autonomy and 20 years of war. Industry and infrastructure in South Sudan • Exports: The top exports of South Sudan are are currently underdeveloped and people live in crude petroleum ($1.63 billion), forage crops extreme poverty as a result of several decades ($32.1 million), raw cotton ($13.8 million), gold of civil war with Sudan. In 2019, the population of ($12.4 million) and dried legumes ($9.98 million), South Sudan was 11,062,113, with the majority of exported mainly to China ($1.59 billion), Material flow analysis 47 the United Arab Emirates ($48.3 million), generate the highest value, followed by the India ($44.4 million), Pakistan ($24.2 million) industrial sector. As far as employment is and Uganda ($3.19 million) (Observatory of concerned, the education and health service Economic Complexity). sectors employ the highest numbers of people, along with the agriculture sector. • Imports: The top imports of South Sudan are motor cars ($60.2 million), raw sugar While the industrial sector generates significant ($51.4 million), delivery trucks ($43.8 million), value with low rates of employment, it is relatively cereal flours ($36.3 million) and palm oil ($28.2 underdeveloped and inefficient. The sector currently million), importing mostly from Uganda ($301 is characterized by high emissions and a high million), the United Arab Emirates ($162 million), degree of resource consumption. Given that it is Kenya ($128 million), China ($76.7 million) and the a focal point for South Sudan’s growth plans, in its United States of America ($21.7 million) (ibid.). current state, any push for growth in the sector is Apart from oil, other sectors that are important likely to be highly resource- and emission-intensive. for South Sudan’s growth are agriculture and The situation of South Sudan’s agricultural sector livestock, industry, infrastructure, tourism, health is the opposite to that of the industrial sector, in and education. that it employs a high proportion of the workforce Petroleum and agriculture contribute the most (25 percent) but has significantly low outputs (SCP- to South Sudan’s exports, but on the domestic HAT, 2015). The sector also has a high resource front service sectors (financial, post and consumption and emissions profile, making it telecommunications, education and health) rather inefficient. Figure 9: Social, economic and environmental parameters 100% Agriculture and livestock Construction Education, health and other services 80% Electricity, gas and water Financial intermediation and business activities Fishing Industry 60% Mining and quarrying Petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products Posts and telecommunications 40% Private households Public administration Tourism (hotels and restaurants) 20% Transport Retail trade Wholesale trade Waste (recycling) 0% Output Employment Production- Consumption- Consumption- based GHG based GHG based emissions emissions resource use Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 48 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Figure 10: Material use decoupling trend, 2012–2015 Figure 11: GHG emissions decoupling trend, 2012–2015 25 15 20 Percentage change 10 Percentage change 15 10 5 5 0 0 -5 -5 2012 2013 2014 2015 2012 2013 2014 2015 Gross domestic product (GDP) Gross domestic product (GDP) Population Population Material footprint (MF) GHG emissions (GE) Material productivity (GDP/MF) GHG emissions productivity (GDP/GE) Material use intensity (MF/capita) GHG emissions intensity (GE/capita) Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 (SCP-HAT, 2015). Material use in neighbouring Figure 12: Land use and biodiversity loss decoupling trend, 2012–2015 countries such as Sudan and Kenya was also higher than in South Sudan, at 4.2 and 3.3 tonnes per capita, 15 respectively (ibid.). Given this low rate of material 10 consumption, South Sudan is likely to regenerate Percentage change 5 or renew its resources at a comparatively higher 0 rate. However, with increased economic growth and -5 development this scenario could change. 2012 2013 2014 2015 Figure 10 illustrates how growth and development in South Sudan is significantly dependent on its Gross domestic product (GDP) material consumption. This is evident from South Population Land footprint (LF) Sudan’s material footprint which observes a trend Land use productivity (GDP/LF) in line with the trend in the GDP. Thus, there is Land use intensity (LF/capita) minimal decoupling between material use and the Species loss wider economy. Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Similarly, in the case of GHG emissions, the change in

4.2 HISTORICAL TRENDS OF RESOURCE GHG emissions productivity follows the same trend USE AND EMISSIONS as the GDP. With the growth in the economy, GHG emissions are also likely to continue to increase in South Sudan’s historical trends of economic growth the future. Thus, there is minimal decoupling between against its resource consumption and emissions South Sudan’s economic growth and GHG emissions. profile were studied as part of this assessment. It was found that the country consumes relatively fewer As with material use and GHG emissions, there material resources than other countries. In the year is minimal decoupling when it comes to South 2015, its raw material use per capita was 1.32 tonnes Sudan’s economic growth and its corresponding against the global average of 11.9 tonnes per capita land use footprint.4 Decreasing land use intensity, 4 The ‘land footprint’ accounts for the total land area used to produce the goods and services consumed in a country. In South Sudan, the land is used mainly for agriculture and forestry. Material flow analysis 49 signifying greater stressors on South Sudan’s land included cast iron (29.6 percent), stainless steel due to increasing population, is also leading to a (0.7 percent) and tinned iron or steel (69.7 percent) gradual loss of biodiversity. (Atlas of Economic Complexity, 2018). Overall, while the population in South Sudan is

4.4 MAPPING RESOURCE FLOWS, STOCKS increasing, the intensity of material use, carbon AND OUTPUTS emissions and land use are observed to be decreasing. This signifies that South Sudan’s

4.4.1 Resource flows environmental resources are increasingly being placed under pressure as a result of the increasing Materials consumed have been mapped for all key population. With the lack of decoupling between economic sectors in South Sudan. The material its environmental resources and economic growth, flows mapped are discussed below. it is imperative that the country increasingly Biomass includes crops, crop residue, fish and adopts a sustainable and circular lifestyle when it wood, which are used to make food products, comes to utilizing its resources. This will have the animal products and wood products (e.g., dual impact of helping South Sudan decouple its furniture, construction materials and packaging). economic growth from its resource use, while at the same time reducing the pressure of an increasing Biomass is the most consumed resource in the population on its resources. country (Figure 13). The majority is consumed by the industrial sector, followed by agriculture

4.3 WASTE PROCESSING AND RECYCLING and public services (education, health and public administration) (Figure 14). South Sudan has an underdeveloped waste management system wherein most of the waste All crops, crop residue and fish produced in the that is generated either goes to a landfill site or is country are consumed within the country itself, openly burnt. There are very limited formal waste demonstrating the existence of a circular economy management systems or waste reprocessing for this material (International Resource Panel, facilities in South Sudan. However, there is a 2020). Some of the wood produced in the country growing informal waste recycling market in the is exported to Uganda, Jordan, Pakistan and China. country. Informal waste pickers collect recyclable Wood is also imported from Sweden, Uganda, materials from dumping sites, such as plastics, China and Japan (Atlas of Economic Complexity, metal scrap and tyres, which they sell to private 2018). Table 3 shows biomass consumed in South companies. Around 15 private companies Sudan in 2015. operate in the city of Juba. They deal with four different types of waste, which they export to the Figure 13: Resource consumption in South Sudan neighbouring countries of Uganda and Kenya. These are: • scrap metals (collected and exported) • hard plastic (shredded and sold) • plastic bottles (defective bottles are exported) • aluminium (either melted and converted into decorative items or exported). In 2018, South Sudan exported plastic waste worth $5,230, used clothes and textiles worth Metal Non-metallic Fossil fuel Biomass ores (1%) minerals (41%) (57%) $1,667 and ferrous scrap worth $2.34 million to (1%) Uganda. Of the ferrous scrap, materials exported 50 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Figure 14: Resource consumption by sector, 2015 100% Agriculture and livestock Construction Education, health and other services Electricity, gas and water 80% Financial intermediation and business activities Fishing Hotels and restraurants 60% Industry Mining and quarrying Others Petroleum, chemical and non-metallic 40% mineral products Posts and telecommunications Private households Public administration 20% Recycling Re-export and re-import Retail trade 0% Transport Biomass Fossil fuel Metal ores Non-metallic minerals Wholesale trade Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Fossil fuels include petroleum and its products. of the crude oil extracted in the country is exported They are primarily used in the construction and to China while petroleum products like heavy oil, industrial sectors, followed by public services diesel oil and petrol are imported from countries (education, health and public administration) and that include Sudan, Uganda, China, Canada, Russia the petroleum sector itself (Figure 14). The majority and Ukraine (Atlas of Economic Complexity, 2018). Metal ores include raw and processed metals, as Table 3: Biomass consumption, 2015 well as products made from them. These range from iron plates and copper wiring to vehicles, Domestic Domestic extraction consumption machinery and metal building structures. Metal Category (kilotonnes) (kilotonnes) Table 4: Fossil fuel consumption, 2015 Crop 4,443.9 4,443.9 Crop residue 2,183.8 2,183.8 Domestic Domestic extraction consumption Category (kilotonnes) (kilotonnes) Fish (wild catch and harvest) 37.0 37.0 Petroleum, crude 7,424 – Wood 2,980.4 2,980.6 Petroleum, refined – 6,394 Total 9,645.1 9,645.3 Source: International Resource Panel, 2020; SCP-HAT, 2015; Atlas of Economic Source: International Resource Panel, 2020 Complexity Material flow analysis 51 ores are used primarily in the industrial, mining 4.4.2 Stocks and quarrying sectors, followed by public services All materials that flow in an economy have an (education, health and public administration) and origin and a destination and interact with various construction (Figure 14). Metal ores are imported stocks in the process. Stocks refer to any natural from countries like Uganda, China, Pakistan, Japan, and/or physical asset within a country. Since the Saudi Arabia and Sweden. Some of these ores are infrastructure base in South Sudan is currently passed through and further exported to Uganda underdeveloped, the most used stocks in the and Algeria (ibid.). country are its natural assets (land and forests). Table 5: Metal ore consumption, 2015 The material that is most used in the country, biomass, is primarily domestically produced Domestic Domestic extraction consumption from agricultural land and forests. While South Category (kilotonnes) (kilotonnes) Sudan has around 300,000 square kilometres of arable land, less than 5 percent is currently being Metal ore – 105.81 cultivated (UNEP, 2018a). As a large proportion Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 of the population is dependent on agriculture and livestock, there is likely to be an increase in Non-metallic minerals include salt, sulphur, this percentage in the future. By contrast, forest limestone, cement, quartz and clay construction areas in South Sudan are reducing at an annual materials (e.g., cement and lime). They also rate of 2 percent, as a result of changes in land include products like chemicals, fertilizers and use for development purposes, or deforestation bitumen, which is used in road construction. for firewood or other wood products (ibid.). With Non-metallic minerals are used primarily in the this continual decline in forest area, availability industrial sector, followed by public services of biomass from forest stocks is also likely to (education, health and public administration) decrease in the future. and construction (Figure 14). These materials are mostly imported from the neighbouring Petroleum products are the second most consumed countries of Uganda, Ethiopia and Sudan. Other material in the country and mostly used by physical countries from which they are imported include stocks, such as industry, buildings (commercial and China, Ukraine, Pakistan and Sweden (Atlas of residential) and infrastructure. Given the current Economic Complexity, 2018). push for economic growth and development in the country, these physical stocks are likely to increase Table 6: Non-metallic minerals consumption, 2015 by 2030. This could also lead to an increase in the Domestic Domestic extraction consumption Figure 15: GHG emissions trends, 2012–2015 Category (kilotonnes) (kilotonnes) Non-metallic – 154.34 minerals 66 64 Million tCO₂e Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 62 60 58 2012 2013 2014 2015 Domestic production Consumption footprint Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 52 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Figure 16: GHG emissions by sector, 2015 100% Agriculture and livestock Construction Education, health and other services Electricity, gas and water 80% Financial intermediation and business activities Fishing Hotels and restraurants 60% Industry Mining and quarrying Petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products 40% Post and telecommunications Private households Public administration Recycling 20% Retail trade Transport Wholesale trade 0% Domestic Consumption production (Gg) footprint (Gg) Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 consumption of petroleum and petroleum-related illustrates that while the agricultural sector is the products. biggest contributor to South Sudan’s territorial emissions (emissions from domestic processes),

4.4.3 GHG emissions other economic sectors have significant amounts of embedded emissions (emissions that occur in A gradual increase in GHG emissions in South other countries and are associated with imported Sudan has been observed over the years, goods), which contribute to South Sudan’s overall from both a domestic production and resource GHG emissions footprint. consumption perspective. Emissions resulting from domestic production and resource consumption have been increasing at rates of 1.22 percent and 4.5 CIRCULAR OPPORTUNITIES FOR SOUTH 1.14 percent per annum, respectively (SCP-HAT, SUDAN 2015). The slow rise in GHG emissions over the Making an economy circular is key if the world is years parallels South Sudan’s slow economic and to achieve the Paris Agreement’s goal of limiting population growth. global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial GHG emissions from domestic production are levels. In this regard, the agendas of circular and mostly from agriculture and livestock, followed low-carbon economies are complementary in by the petroleum and service sectors. In terms nature and mutually supportive. Making economies of resource consumption, industry, hotels and circular helps reduce high rates of material restaurants and other service sectors account for extraction, manage existing and future stocks, the maximum amount of GHG emissions, along and increase levels of end-of-use processing and with the agriculture and livestock sector. This recycling (Circle Economy, 2020). Material flow analysis 53 54 Second Nationally Determined Contribution SOURCE RESOURCE TYPE SECTOR WASTE END-OF- MANAGEMENT LIFE Agriculture and livestock Construction Education, health and other services Electricity, gas and water Vented Biomass Financial intermediation CO2 emissions and business activities Infrastructure Extracted Fossil fuel Fishing Long term use Source: SCP-HAT, 2015; International Resource Panel, 2020 Manure Figure 17: Resource flows, stocks and outputs Metal ores Industry Enteric fermentation Cycled Imported Mining and quarrying Minerals Dumped Petroleum, chemical and Solid waste non-metallic mineral products Burned Water Post and telecommunications Discharged Wastewater Private households Public administration Export Export Tourism Transport Retail trade Wholesale trade Material flow analysis Waste 55 South Sudan is a developing nation with a low • Design circularity into new stocks: Given that material footprint compared to other low and South Sudan presently has minimal physical middle income economies; about 57 percent of stock levels, green and circular strategies (e.g., the material being consumed in the country is green construction) should be integrated at the renewable or regenerative in nature (biomass as of onset of development to enable a transition 2015) (SCP-HAT, 2015). Additionally, South Sudan’s towards an asset base that is green, sustainable growing industrial and infrastructure base provides and cost effective in the long term. tremendous potential for incorporating circular • Empower the informal economy: A large part elements within its low-carbon growth plans. of South Sudan’s economy is decentralized Integrating circular interventions at the onset will and informal. One example is seen in the help the country achieve its NDC targets without handling of waste. There are no formal systems compromising its developmental needs. When for waste collection in the country, but the considering the integration of circularity into its informal sector actively collects and sells used economy, South Sudan needs to deliberate on the material, such as plastic and metals, to the following factors (Circle Economy, 2020): private sector, which resells it to neighbouring Figure 18: The DISRUPT framework 7 key elements of a circular economy Design for the future Adopt a systemic perspective during the design process, to employ the right materials for appropriate lifetime and extended future use and optimal recovery. Incorporate digital Track and optimize resource use and strengthen connections between technology supply-chain actors through digital, online platforms and technologies. Sustain and extend Maintain, repair and upgrade resources in use to maximize their lifetime and what’s already there give them a second life through take-back strategies, where applicable. Rethink the business Consider opportunities to create greater value and align incentives through model business models that build on the interaction between products and services. Use waste as resource Utilize waste streams as a source of secondary resources and recover waste for reuse and recycling. Prioritize regenerative Ensure renewable, reusable, non-toxic resources are utilized as materials and resources energy in an efficient way. Team up to create joint Work together throughout the supply chain, internally within organizations value and with the public sector, to increase transparency and create shared value. Source: Circularity Gap Report 2020 56 Second Nationally Determined Contribution countries. This potential of the informal sector The aforementioned factors can be crystalized needs to be harnessed. into the seven distinct elements that comprise the DISRUPT framework, as defined in the • Build and maintain a sizeable, sustainable Circularity Gap Report (2020). The proposed bioeconomy: South Sudan should focus on circular strategies in Table 7 were developed using maintaining its current biodiversity, particularly this framework and, on incorporation, will help its forests, while increasing the use and/or South Sudan move towards establishing a more recycling of wastes and/or residues from its vast circular economy. The strategies are proposed for existing bioeconomy (i.e., the agricultural and sectors that have high resource consumption and agroforestry industry). GHG emission footprints. They have also been incorporated into the NDC strategies (Chapter 7). Table 7: Circular opportunities for South Sudan Sector Circular opportunities Element coverage Agriculture, livestock • Given that there is tremendous potential for growth and and fisheries development in the agriculture sector, with only 5 percent of total arable land currently being under use, South Sudan should use this opportunity to create targeted agricultural hubs5 promoting closed Design for the future agricultural loops. This would not only allow for efficient growth in the sector but also enable waste management and recycling, resulting in a reduction in GHG emissions (Circle Economy, 2020; Louis Dreyfus Foundation, 2020). Incorporate digital • Creating such hubs will also help South Sudan cope with the technology impacts of inefficient markets which, because of wastage, lead to significant post-harvest loss. In addition to bringing markets closer to reduce these losses, South Sudan should focus on preservation by establishing adequate transport and cold-storage solutions. Sustain and extend what However, given the costly nature of these interventions, this will is already there have to be achieved by exploring innovative business models encouraging increased private sector participation. This will not only help reduce the waste created due to post-harvest losses but also increase the sector’s contribution to the country’s growth (Circle Economy, 2020; Louis Dreyfus Foundation, 2020). Rethink the business model • South Sudan should focus on development and adoption of digital solutions to help farmers stay informed about agricultural markets, including their locations, along with price information. Digital platforms will also help keep farmers informed about climatic Use waste as resource conditions that could impact their crops. Use of digital technology will thus enable optimization of resource use and actively contribute to reducing wastage. • South Sudan can also collaborate with non-governmental Prioritize regenerative organizations and donor agencies such as the World Food resources Programme that are already working towards reducing post-harvest losses, as well as educating farmers (Louis Dreyfus Foundation, 2020). • Developing infrastructure and exploiting the potential of agriculture Team up to create joint in the country will need to go hand in hand to ensure that resource value extraction happens within the regeneration limit, that minimum waste is produced by the sector and that maximum economic benefit is achieved. 5 Agricultural hubs are interconnected agricultural market spaces that are established in close proximity to agricultural land, allowing for quicker and more efficient transportation of agriculture produce and waste between the field and the market. Material flow analysis 57 Sector Circular opportunities Element coverage Agriculture, livestock • The agriculture sector is the highest consumer of raw materials and and fisheries the largest emitter of GHG emissions in South Sudan. This indicates (continued) that the sector is currently highly inefficient (SCP-HAT, 2015). The sector is also vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as floods and droughts. Integrating circular interventions in the sector will help it not only become efficient but also reduce the impacts of climate change and strengthen the livelihoods of communities. These interventions could include: º Promoting water conservation strategies; º Replacing diesel generators with renewable energy technology (e.g., solar pumps); º Promoting use of agricultural residue and livestock waste as fertilizer; and º Designing seed distribution programmes to ensure high quality and drought-sensitive seeds. Forestry • With the growing demand for fuelwood, the rate of deforestation in South Sudan has been observed to be increasing (UNEP, 2018a). Changes in land use for economic activities is also adding to deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Sustain and extend what is already there • It is therefore important for South Sudan to understand the patterns of deforestation and biodiversity loss that are currently affecting the country and build conservation strategies to counteract them. Team up to create joint • Furthermore, it is imperative that these strategies and actions are value embedded into the policy and regulatory framework of the country, ensuring that they are viewed and used as long-term, country-wide interventions. • South Sudan should also leverage international programmes, such as the REDD+ programme and Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, that focus on implementing measures for conserving forest cover and reducing emissions from deforestation. Energy • Currently, South Sudan’s electricity grid, which is minimal, is run completely on fossil fuel. Decentralized diesel generators are the most widely used source of electricity in the country. Given these circumstances, the country should focus on utilizing its Rethink the business significant stock of renewable and regenerative sources of energy, model such as hydro, solar and wind power, for future centralized and/or decentralized electricity solutions. • South Sudan should also explore options like biomethanization and the use of agricultural residues, and/or natural gas produced and Use waste as resource collected at the time of flaring. • Growing demand for firewood is leading to an increase in the rate of deforestation in the country. Given that firewood is a critical source of energy in the country, South Sudan needs to focus on developing Prioritize regenerative highly energy-efficient technologies, such as energy efficient resources cooking stoves, that can extract more energy from less material. This will actively contribute to decreasing deforestation resulting from the need for firewood. • All the aforementioned measures can be used to leverage climate finance from international carbon markets through the generation and sale of carbon offsets arising from these projects. 58 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Sector Circular opportunities Element coverage Industry • A significant proportion of fossil fuel is consumed by the industrial sector (SCP-HAT, 2015). The currently underdeveloped industrial base provides an opportunity for development of policies to encourage energy efficiency (e.g., waste heat recovery from boilers) and Use waste as resource replacement of fossil fuel with renewable fuels such as biofuels and refuse-derived fuel. • In addition to energy-related measures, South Sudan should establish policies around efficient resource management that enable Prioritize regenerative optimal use of material resources like water, while also encouraging resources reuse and/or recycling of waste. Infrastructure • Given that the majority of GHG emissions from the construction sector construction result from the use of imported goods like cement, clay and limestone (SCP-HAT, 2015), South Sudan should develop policies encouraging sustainable procurement. For example, instead of procuring regular Use waste as resource cement, South Sudan can incentivize the procurement of cement mixed with fly ash, which will have a smaller emissions footprint. • South Sudan should focus on the development of productive physical stocks (i.e., stocks that last and provide value for many Prioritize regenerative years), such as buildings and infrastructure. This will help reduce resources short-term construction waste accumulation (Circle Economy, 2020). • At the same time, promoting reuse of construction materials like waste, wood and furniture would further reduce accumulation of construction waste in the long term (Circle Economy, 2020). Design for the future • South Sudan should update its building regulations and design practices to incorporate green construction norms and standards (e.g., directives for use of sustainable and recycled construction material, installation of water harvesting structures, recycling and reuse of waste outputs and installation of renewable energy). • South Sudan should promote the use of secondary sources in construction of new stocks, such as recycling plastics into tiles. Waste • The most common way for an economy to become circular is to use waste as a resource and increase its recycling rate. This helps an economy reduce its primary material extraction and increase use of secondary sources. To achieve this, South Sudan will need to create Rethink the business the requisite infrastructure and policy environment to enable a high model rate of material recovery and reuse. • Furthermore, South Sudan will need to assess and set up a market for reuse of recovered material. This may require interventions such as regulating reduced costs of recycled material, tax incentives or Use waste as resource subsidy schemes (Circle Economy, 2020). • Another intervention for moving faster towards recycling would be regulating extraction and use of primary resources. With a reduction in supply of primary resources, demand for recycled or reused Incorporate digital resources will increase. technology • Recycling is a labour-intensive exercise (Circle Economy, 2020). Apart from policies and infrastructure, South Sudan’s public entities (e.g., urban local bodies and municipalities) will need to explore Team up to create joint business models to team up with the informal sector and private value recyclers to facilitate the process of recycling and reuse (e.g., improving digital access of the informal sector could help bring supply and demand together). • Additionally, efforts will be required from the government to up-skill Prioritize regenerative and organize the informal sector, as well as improve their working resources conditions. Material flow analysis 59 5 SECTOR PRIORITIZATION 60 Second Nationally Determined Contribution SECTOR PRIORITIZATION The sector prioritization exercise was conducted to identify and finalize sectors for further assessment and inclusion in the NDC. The steps for sector prioritization are detailed below. 1. Finalizing sectors for prioritization: Of the 24 sectors evaluated during the metabolic assessment, the following eight were included under ‘Industry’, leaving a total of 17 sectors for assessment: • Electrical and machinery • Metal products • Wood and paper • Food and beverages • Transport equipment • Maintenance and repair • Textiles and wearing apparel • Other manufacturing. 2. Finalizing parameters for prioritization: Because South Sudan aims to transition to a middle-income economy and has been experiencing significant growth in some economic sectors, it is essential to consider socio-economic parameters in addition to climate change parameters for assessment. Therefore, the following parameters were finalized for prioritization of sectors: • It is essential to Economic (output and final demand): Since GDP information was not available for all consider socio- sectors, output and final demand values economic parameters from SCP-HAT data were used. • Environment (GHG emissions): Since in addition to climate sector classification in South Sudan’s Initial change parameters National Communication to the United Nations for assessment. Framework Convention on Climate Change (NATCOM) (South Sudan Ministry of Envi- ronment, 2018)and SCP-HAT was different and detailed sector breakdowns were not available in the NATCOM, SCP-HAT data on GHG emissions from domestic production and resource consumption were used. Sector prioritization 61 • Socio-economic (employment): Since 3. Normalization of datasets for each parameter: employment information for all sectors was Given that all data were available in different not publicly available for all sectors, SCP-HAT units, the data were normalized to make them data were used for this assessment. comparable with other parameters. • NDC alignment: The inclusion of each 4. Finalizing weights and scoring methods for sector in the current NDC was assessed to each parameter: Weights were assigned to understand the importance it holds for the parameters based on their importance with second NDC. respect to the NDC and the country’s growth. A scoring method was devised based on the • Potential for green growth: Each sector’s datasets for each parameter and was assigned possible future growth trajectory with to each sector. Sectors with higher GHG respect to low-carbon development emissions were allocated higher scores as was assessed. For this, each sector was developing strategies for reducing emissions classified as follows: in these sectors should be a priority for the º Green: A sector that will allow for green country. Similarly, sectors with high potential for development; green growth were given higher scores as they º Non-green: A sector that is important for will enable South Sudan’s progress towards a the country’s development but will not low-carbon economy. contribute to green development; and º Neutral: A sector that is important for 5. Estimating the final score and sector the country’s development and is likely prioritization: The final score for each sector to become green as a result of initiatives was estimated by adding the scores of all in green sectors. parameters. The eight sectors with the highest scores were prioritized for further assessment. Table 8: Scores for sector prioritization They are: • Industry GHG emissions • Agriculture, including livestock (agriculture) • Tourism (hotels and restaurants) % of emissions Score • Construction 0–20 1 • Transport • Waste (recycling) 21–40 2 • Electricity, gas and water 41–60 3 • Fishing. 61–80 4 The sector prioritization matrix is shown in Table 9, page 65. 81–100 5 The results were discussed with South Potential for green growth Sudan’s key stakeholders, the United Nations Category Score Development Programme (UNDP) and the Ministry of Environment, for finalization of prioritized Green growth 2 sectors for further assessment and inclusion in Non-green growth 0 the NDC. Based on inputs from the stakeholders, the following changes were made to the final list Neutral 1 of sectors: 62 Second Nationally Determined Contribution • Two sectors, mining and quarrying and petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products, were included in the list. Even if they do not have potential for greening the economy, they are extremely important from the country’s development standpoint. It is also important to ensure that they are in sync with the country’s low-carbon pathways. • Other cross-cutting sectors that do not directly contribute to the development of the country but hold equal importance from the standpoint of the environment and communities were included. These three sectors were forestry, biodiversity and ecosystems; health; and disaster risk management. • The names of some sectors, such as hotels and restaurants, agriculture and recycling were changed to tourism, agriculture and livestock, and waste, respectively, to make them consistent with the country’s urban sector classification, as well as with IPCC classification, which has also been used in the current NDC. Five sectors were added to the above-mentioned eight priority sectors as a result of stakeholders’ input, making a total of 13 sectors to be prioritized for detailed assessment. The detailed assessments of each of the 13 sectors were then discussed with relevant stakeholders in South Sudan, such as national-level ministries, research institutions, universities and non-governmental organizations • The electricity, gas and water sector was active in the climate change space. Based on disaggregated into two sectors, electricity and the inputs received from these stakeholders, the water. following changes were made in the prioritized sector classification: • The tourism sector was renamed as tourism and recreation. • The agriculture and livestock sector was A final total of 14 sectors was arrived at; these combined with the fishing sector to form a single were assessed to understand the status of each sector, agriculture, livestock and fisheries. sector, set emission reduction targets (wherever • The forestry, biodiversity and ecosystem sector applicable) and develop mitigation and adaptation was disaggregated into two sectors, forestry, strategies. These 14 sectors and their linkages to and biodiversity, ecosystem and sustainable the IPCC’s sector classification has been provided wetland management. in Chapter 6. Sector prioritization 63 64 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Table 9: NDC prioritization matrix Economic Climate change Socio-economic Others Output Demand GHG emissions GHG emissions Employment NDC (domestic (resource (domestic (resource (domestic align- production) consumption) production) consumption) production) ment Potential for green growth 2 2 3 3 2 – 1 [Green growth/ S. neutral/non-green Overall No. Sector [%]* Score [%]* Score [%]* Score [%]* Score [%]* Score [Yes/no] growth] Score Score 1 Industry 61.30 4 70.68 4 0.23 1 100.00 5 9.09 1 No Green growth 2 38 2 Agriculture 5.64 1 3.33 1 100.00 5 51.56 3 57.89 3 Yes Green growth 2 36 3 Education, health and other services 36.81 2 100.00 5 4.66 1 25.75 2 100.00 5 Yes Neutral 1 34 4 Financial intermediation and business activities 100.00 5 98.45 5 0.06 1 10.16 1 1.77 1 No Neutral 1 29 5 Public administration 24.06 2 79.07 4 0.01 1 11.13 1 11.15 1 No Neutral 1 21 6 Hotels and restaurants 9.79 1 25.48 2 0.01 1 22.56 2 1.44 1 No Green growth 2 19 7 Construction 20.55 1 49.54 3 0.08 1 10.20 1 15.85 1 Yes Green growth 2 18 8 Retail trade 13.20 1 36.92 2 0.01 1 5.87 1 6.84 1 No Neutral 1 15 9 Wholesale trade 16.52 1 21.47 2 0.01 1 2.00 1 8.87 1 No Neutral 1 15 10 Transport 13.21 1 11.42 1 1.41% 1 2.18 1 2.99 1 Yes Green growth 2 14 11 Recycling 0.49 1 1.69 1 0.12% 1 0.52 1 0.01 1 Yes Green growth 2 14 12 Electricity, gas and water 9.38 1 7.23 1 0.33% 1 0.51 1 0.55 1 Yes Green growth 2 14 13 Fishing 0.00 1 0.00 1 0.00% 1 0.00 1 12.44 1 Yes Green growth 2 14 14 Post and telecommunications 13.95 1 13.74 1 0.01% 1 1.23 1 2.92 1 No Neutral 1 13 15 Private households 0.19 1 1.09 1 0.00% 1 0.16 1 0.00 1 Yes Neutral 1 13 16 Petroleum, chemical and Sector prioritization non-metallic mineral products 18.09 1 8.42 1 4.80% 1 3.75 1 1.75 1 No Non-green growth 0 12 17 Mining and quarrying 65 2.93 1 0.54 1 0.01% 1 0.02 1 2.02 1 No Non-green growth 0 12 * Normalized values 6 NDC SECTOR LINKAGES WITH IPCC SECTOR CLASSIFICATION 66 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Second NDC sectors IPCC sector classification IPCC sector classification Agriculture, horticulture, Agriculture, livestock animal rearing, fishing, fish hatcheries and aquaculture and fisheries Agriculture, rice cultivation, livestock, Infrastructure Agriculture, soil, manure Site preparation, building forestry and management, other construction, using/renting (construction and land use agricultural sources, construction equipment buildings) land use change and forestry Forestry, logging, afforestation and Forests reforestation Biodiversity, ecosystems Flora, fauna and ecosystems and sustainable wetland Electricity and heat such as wetlands production; fossil fuel management combustion in sectors Energy such as manufacturing Production, transmission and construction; and distribution of Electricity transport and fugitive electricity emissions Collection, treatment and distribution of water Water Mitigation Solid waste and wastewater management (collection, Waste treatment, recycling and reuse) Landfills, sewage and Waste industrial effluent Tourism sites and treatment infrastructure (hotels and Tourism and recreation restaurants) Mining and extraction of fossil fuels, minerals (metallic and Mining and quarrying non-metallic, salt, stones, etc. Transportation through land, water, railways and Transport Industrial airways processes and Processes and use product use Manufacturing, processing and associated industrial Industries activities Manufacturing and processing Petroleum, chemical and of petroleum, chemical and nonmetallic mineral non-metallic products products Health services and infrastructure Health Adaptation sectors Disaster risk reduction and Disaster risk management services and management infrastructure NDC sector linkages with IPCC classification 67 7 SECTORAL STRATEGIES 68 Second Nationally Determined Contribution SECTORAL STRATEGIES After finalizing the sectors to be included in the NDC, a detailed assessment of all prioritized sectors was conducted. This assessment along with the outputs of the material flow analysis and inputs received from various stakeholders were used to develop mitigation and adaptation strategies for each individual sector. These adaptation and mitigation strategies are further classified into three types based on the time-frame that will be required for each individual strategy’s inception and countrywide deployment: • Short-term strategies (0–3 years) include interventions and/or activities that can be readily implemented in the short term, such as the establishment of policies, guidelines or regulatory frameworks and/or building the capacity of key stakeholders. • Medium-term strategies (4–7 years) include commercially viable measures and interventions that require policies and regulations for their implementation. • Long-term strategies (8–10 years) include advanced technological interventions that are likely to become more feasible with economic development, growth and increased awareness After finalizing of the population. the sectors to be Implementation of all sectoral adaptation and mitigation strategies in South Sudan will depend included in the on a strong governance and institutional framework NDC, a detailed in the country to support the execution of NDC interventions. assessment of all prioritized sectors was conducted. Sectoral strategies 69

7.1 AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK AND Figure 19: GHG emissions from domestic production FISHERIES in the agriculture sector, 2012–2015

7.1.1 Current status 30 Agriculture and livestock 25 South Sudan has about 300,000 square kilometres 20 Million tCO₂e of arable land; less than 5 percent of this is 15 currently under cultivation. With diverse soil and climatic conditions, the country produces a variety 10 of crops including sorghum, maize, rice, cassava, 5 sesame, beans, fruits and vegetables, as well as 0 coffee, tea, cotton and sugar cane (South Sudan 2012 2013 2014 2015 Ministry of Environment, 2018). Most agriculture Enteric fermentation is rain fed, and the use of chemical fertilizers and Manure management pesticides is insignificant. Agriculture soil Prescribed burning of savannahs Cultivation and livestock rearing are the main Field burning of agricultural residue livelihood activities for most households in South Sudan; about 81 percent of households cultivate Source: South Sudan Ministry of Environment, 2018 land and 74 percent owns livestock. Even though agriculture and livestock rearing employ a large together made up more than 90 percent of the number of people, agricultural productivity remains agriculture sector’s total GHG emissions (Figure 19). low because traditional and inefficient agricultural Given this scenario, the Government of the Republic practices are followed. For instance, South Sudan’s of South Sudan has implemented various policies cereal production has been declining since 2013; and plans to increase agriculture productivity and in 2017 cereal production was estimated to be address environmental impacts to improve the 765,000 tonnes, 25 percent lower than in 2013 livelihoods of its people. These policies and plans (FAO, 2017). Furthermore, more than 50 percent include, amongst others, the Comprehensive (6.5 million) of South Sudan’s population was Agriculture Master Plan (CAMP), 2015–2040; the food insecure in 2020 (Food Security Information National Policy on Food Security; the National Network, 2020). Food insecurity is likely to Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA); the exacerbate with climate change, making farmers National Development Strategy (NDS); and South and pastoralists extremely vulnerable. Increasing Sudan’s Vision 2040. climate variability and extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, impact water The CAMP (South Sudan Ministry of Agriculture, availability and make croplands and rangelands Forestry, Cooperatives and Rural Development more susceptible to degradation. This will disrupt and Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Industries, food production and contribute to food insecurity 2017) is an investment plan that aligns with and malnutrition. national policies and identifies key focus areas and associated investments required for the Agriculture is also the largest emitter of greenhouse growth of the agriculture sector. The NAPA (South gas (GHG) emissions in South Sudan. The share of Sudan Ministry of Environment, 2016) aims to emissions from the sector was about 74 percent – promote climate-smart agricultural practices and 26.8 million tCO2e – of the total emissions in 2015. enable implementation of projects identified in The majority of these emissions originated from the agriculture master plan. Both the NDS (South agricultural soils and enteric fermentation, which Sudan Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2018) and 70 Second Nationally Determined Contribution South Sudan’s Vision 2040 (2011) aim to enhance forest fires and over-extraction are responsible for agricultural productivity to increase food security in these losses. Future changes in climatic patterns, the country. The three-year target for the NDS was both long term and seasonal, will also have a to increase food security to 80 percent by 2021. detrimental effect on fisheries, since changes in temperature directly influence the reproductive Fisheries cycle of fish. These changes will have social and Fishing provides a source of food security and a economic impacts on the communities dependent livelihood to a large number of people in South on fisheries for their livelihood. The Government Sudan. Most fishing takes place in the Sudd of South Sudan has implemented various policies wetland, the (White) Nile River, other rivers and to address these issues, including the Fisheries floodplains. There are about 115 different species Policy and the NAPA. The Fisheries Policy of of fish found in the Nile basin including Nile tilapia, South Sudan highlights the need for monitoring Nile perch and African catfish, which are high-value environmental changes affecting fisheries, including target species. climate change, to develop appropriate strategies Although the fishing sector provides employment for responding to climate change and natural to a large number of people, fish production disasters. The adaptation programme promotes remained constant between 2012 and 2015 at aquaculture as an alternative livelihood option. 37,020 tonnes per year, and declined by 5 percent The fishing sector is also considered under South in 2016 to 35,020 tonnes (World Bank, 2016). Sudan’s development policies, including the NDS, These figures indicate inefficient or poor harvest Vision 2040 and CAMP to enhance fish production conditions, and a lack of facilities such as cold in the country. storage and refrigerated transport. Greenhouse gas emissions from the fishing sector (from

7.1.2 Emission reduction potential domestic production) also declined by 7 percent in 2015 compared to 2014 (Figure 20). To estimate potential emission reduction from the agriculture sector, two scenarios have been The fishing sector is highly vulnerable to the impacts developed on which projections are made for the of climate change. Over the years, South Sudan has period 2016–2030, and are illustrated in Figure 21. witnessed losses in a variety of fish species. Five of 15 fish species in the Lol River have disappeared Baseline scenario: The baseline emission scenario and fish size has also declined (UNEP, 2018a). A projects GHG emissions for the agriculture sector combination of factors, including deforestation, based only on the existing policies in South Sudan. Figure 20: GHG emissions from domestic production in Figure 21: Emission reduction scenarios for the the fishing sector, 2012–2015 agriculture sector, 2012–2030 35.6 0.173 0.178 0.166 0.166 34 0.15 32 Million tCO₂e 30 Thousand tCO₂e 0.1 28 26.5 26 0.05 24 22.6 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 Baseline scenario Emission reduction scenario Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Sectoral strategies 71 The emission trajectory does not reflect any new cumulative emission reduction by 2030 compared policies or financing that might be implemented in to the baseline scenario. the sector. Under this scenario, emissions from the The strategies that will be implemented to achieve agriculture sector rise by 34 percent to 35.6 million the emission reduction targets for the agriculture tCO2e by 2030 compared to 2012. This emission sector are detailed in the section below. trajectory has been sourced from South Sudan’s Initial National Communication to the United Key strategies Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (South Sudan Ministry of Environment, 2018). 7.1.3.1 Mitigation The majority of South Sudan’s population depends Emission reduction scenario: The emission on traditional and inefficient agriculture and reduction scenario represents the decarbonization livestock management practices, which result in pathway that South Sudan will have to follow until high GHG emissions and low crop productivity. 2030 to achieve the Paris Agreement’s goal of Agriculture accounts for the highest emissions limiting global temperature rise to 1.5ºC. This (74 percent) among all the sectors. scenario aims to reduce agriculture production emissions by 18 percent from 2017 levels by 2030, To reduce the share of agricultural emissions and in line with the World Resources Institute emission achieve the emission reduction targets, South reduction estimates for sub-Saharan Africa (Lebling Sudan aims to implement the climate mitigation et al., 2020). Under this scenario, emissions from measures described in Table 10 as priority; these the agriculture sector are estimated to be 22.6 measures focus on reducing methane (CH4) and million tCO2e by 2030, which results in 23 percent nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions in particular. Table 10: Mitigation strategies for the agriculture sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Agriculture and livestock Implement initiatives to reduce • Promote measures such as crop Yet to be Short term emissions related to agricultural soils. rotation that require less fertilizer implemented and hence reduce the risk of nitrate Agricultural soils are a major emitter of leaching into surface and subsurface GHGs, contributing more than 50% to waters. total agricultural emissions (in 2015). Thus, introducing measures for reducing soil emissions will be a key aspect for • Promote reduced tillage and modern Yet to be Long term South Sudan. grazing practices such as zero implemented grazing, to allow carbon to remain in the soil as a result of less microbial activities. Promote measures to reduce crop- • Interventions such as awareness Yet to be Short term residue burning. raising and/or incentivization will implemented be implemented to promote reuse Field burning of agricultural residue had of crop residue (as manure and/or increased by 61% in 2015 from 2012, fodder). The constant use of crop with a compound annual growth rate of residue as manure, as well as reduced 17.5%. Thus, South Sudan will introduce tillage, helps reduce emissions by measures to reduce the rate of field increasing the organic content of the burning and increase the use of crop soil, enhancing the amount of carbon residue as manure and/or fodder. sequestered, such that the soil becomes a net carbon sink. 72 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Promote sustainable and climate-smart • Disseminate the National Livestock The final draft of the Short term livestock management. Feed Guide to all the key National Livestock stakeholders (FAO, 2021). Feed Guide has Since livestock emissions are influenced been developed. by the inadequate and poor quality of feed, South Sudan will focus on improving livestock feed quality and • Increase uptake of leguminous Yet to be Medium adopt practices that reduce livestock fodder shrubs; improve grassland implemented term methane emissions. management; greater use of locally available supplements to help improve livestock feed. • Implement grazing management Yet to be Medium to strategies, such as rotational grazing, implemented long term common grazing and zero grazing, that will allow carbon to remain intact in the soil. • Carry out continuous monitoring (with Yet to be Medium regard to duration and frequency) implemented term of grazing of animals to reduce soil emissions and erosion. Create agricultural hubs with closed • Establishing markets closer to Yet to be Medium to agricultural loops. production areas will allow quicker implemented long term and more efficient transportation There is tremendous potential for growth of produce, thus helping reduce and development in the agriculture post-harvest losses. sector with only 5% of total arable land currently under use. South Sudan will use this opportunity to create targeted • Promote reuse and recycling of waste Yet to be Medium to agricultural hubs promoting closed generated within agricultural systems implemented long term agricultural loops.6 Creating such hubs to ensure efficient waste management will also help South Sudan address the and reduction in emissions. impacts of inefficient marketing, which lead to significant post-harvest loss due to wastage. • Establish adequate transport and Yet to be Long term cold-storage solutions to reduce implemented post-harvest losses. Given the costly nature of these interventions, this will have to be achieved by exploring innovative business models that encourage increased private-sector participation. This will not only help reduce the waste created due to post-harvest losses, but also increase the sector’s contribution to the country’s growth. Improve or build biogas generators in • Conduct a national feasibility study on Biogas is being used Short term slaughterhouse facilities. the generation and use of biogas in on a small scale slaughterhouse facilities. in slaughterhouse To reduce dependency on fossil fuels, facilities in Warrap South Sudan will use clean energy and Aweil states. alternatives for reducing emissions, such as biogas generation from slaughterhouse facilities. 6 Agricultural hubs are interconnected agricultural market spaces that are established in close proximity to agricultural land allowing for quicker and more efficient transportation of agriculture produce and waste between the field and the market. Sectoral strategies 73

7.1.3.2 Adaptation Considering that the impacts of climate change on the agriculture and fisheries sector are likely to exacerbate in the future, the following adaptation strategies have been proposed to strengthen the farmers’ and system’s resilience. Table 11: Adaptation strategies for agriculture and fisheries Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Agriculture and livestock Promote climate-smart agriculture and • Assessment of specific climate- Yet to be Short term livestock techniques. related risks and vulnerabilities on implemented food producing sectors. The agriculture sector is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, in terms of human and economic • Develop climate-smart projects on Few projects Short term costs, with long-lasting effects on building resilience of livestock and implemented livelihoods and food security. Therefore, pastoral communities, especially, in South Sudan will promote climate-smart rural areas. agriculture and livestock management techniques to increase productivity, reduce vulnerability to droughts and • Build the capacity of local Yet to be Short term communities on climate change. implemented other climate-related risks while reducing GHG emissions. • Implement control measures for crop Yet to be Short to pests and diseases to prevent crop implemented medium loss. term Promote the use of climate-resilient • Implement the Seed Policy that was The policy has been Short to seeds and crops. drafted in 2012 by the Ministry of enacted, but little medium Animal Resources and Fisheries progress has been term Given the climate-sensitive nature of that focuses on establishing a Seed made with respect to the agriculture sector, South Sudan will Testing and Certification Agency its implementation. particularly focus on developing seeds to control the quality of seed in the that can withstand droughts and floods country. (for example, utilizing varieties of flood- resilient rice in flood-prone areas). • Development of a seed breeding and Yet to be Medium to seed bank centre to provide climate- implemented long term resilient seed varieties to farmers across the country. Adoption of digital solutions to keep • Conduct a feasibility study for the Yet to be Medium to farmers informed about agricultural development and adoption of digital implemented long term markets. solutions to enable farmers’ access to information on agricultural hubs and Digital solutions would help inform climate-related information. farmers about agricultural markets – their locations and price information. Digital platforms would also help inform farmers on various climate conditions that might impact their crops. Use of digital technology would optimize resource use and actively contribute towards reducing wastage. 74 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Promote community-based watershed • Excavate haffirs (local rainwater Few projects Short term management. harvesting structures) in strategic implemented locations. Establishing rainwater harvesting structures and encouraging communities to participate in watershed management • Community-managed construction Short term initiatives for maintaining water quantity of boreholes and maintenance of and quality will be key aspects of the existing ones for use of livestock and second NDC. their owners. Conduct rangeland mapping to control • Disseminate the National Livestock The final draft of the Short term overgrazing. Feed Guide to all key stakeholders National Livestock and build the capacity of livestock Feed Guide has To ensure availability of fodder for owners to adopt good practices for been developed. livestock in a changing climate, South managing livestock feed. Sudan will conduct rangeland mapping and implement rangeland management plans to control overgrazing. • Reseed and introduce high-quality Yet to be Medium grass seeds in rangelands; encourage implemented term communities to produce fodder for commercial purposes. • Promote the adoption of modern Yet to be Medium to grazing techniques such as rotational implemented long term grazing, common grazing and zero grazing. Implement water management • Conduct research and develop maps Few rangeland Short term initiatives for livestock in regions prone that indicate the rangelands of South maps have been to droughts. Sudan. developed for South Sudan by FAO. To reduce vulnerability of pastoralist communities during dry seasons, South Sudan will implement water conservation • Utilize the results of studies Yet to be Short to and management initiatives ensuring to construct water harvesting implemented medium future water availability. structures and boreholes in states term prone to droughts and conflicts over natural resources. At least 10 water harvesting structures and boreholes will be constructed in each state, especially in areas with high livestock concentrations and along cattle routes. (The project is expected to benefit 20,000 households by 2030.) Establish quarantine project systems. • Establish five quarantine points along A few, disorganized Short term the national border. border quarantine The government will establish quarantine points have been project systems to reduce the risk of the established. transboundary spread of animal diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease (which can have serious socio-economic implications in terms of livestock mortality and costs related to control measures). Sectoral strategies 75 Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Focus on improving the livelihoods of • Develop a breeding policy with the A regional livestock Short term pastoralist communities and promoting aim of improving local breeds of breeding strategy sustainable livestock management livestock and improving management has been developed practices. of resources for haymaking. to guide the national-level policy. Grazing conflicts between farmers and cattle keepers, irregular movements of livestock across states and the national • Formulate a pastoral development Included in the Short term border to access pastures and water, and policy to ensure sustainable use National Livestock incidents of cattle raiding are increasing of pastoral resources for efficient Development Policy in the country. To address these issues, livestock management and South Sudan will focus on formulating improving the livelihoods of pastoral a pastoral development policy and communities. on encouraging farmers and livestock keepers to adopt efficient livestock • Develop an action plan for The action plan is Short term management practices. currently in draft implementing the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) form. Protocol on Transhumance to allow pastoralists, especially in water-scarce regions, to access pastures and water across borders of IGAD member states. Introduce an index-based livestock • Conduct a feasibility study for an Yet to be Short to insurance system in the country. index-based livestock insurance implemented medium system. term South Sudan will introduce an index- based livestock insurance system to protect livestock keepers and pastoralists in drought-prone and arid regions by providing monetary support to them for predicted livestock mortality in times of drought and severe shortages of fodder. Build traditional knowledge to support • Conduct and document a study on Few sporadic works Short term community-based adaptation. ethno-veterinary knowledge. done The government will engage with local communities to exchange knowledge • Utilize traditional knowledge of rural and Short term and use indigenous skills and knowledge local communities into modern plans to in adaptation planning. support climate adaptation in the sector. Establish herder institutions to train and • Development of institutions to train A pastoral Short term build the capacity of herders. pastoralists on climate-smart livestock livelihoods management and response measures and education South Sudan will build the capacity of for community-managed disaster risk project has been pastoralists to promote the adoption reduction. implemented in of climate-smart livestock farming and Lakes State. community-managed disaster risk reduction measures. Prioritize the diversification of • Implement a bee-keeping project for Yet to be Short to livelihoods. providing an alternative livelihood implemented medium option to communities. The project is term Given the climate-sensitive nature of likely to benefit about 3,000 farmers the sector, any changes in climatic in the Greater Upper Nile Region, conditions will negatively impact 5,000 farmers in the Bahr el Gazal large numbers of people dependent states and 6,000 farmers in the on agriculture. Therefore, promoting Equatorial states by 2030. alternative livelihood options becomes paramount to reducing the vulnerability of communities dependent on this sector. 76 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Establish early warning systems. • Develop conflict-mitigation measures Predictive livestock Medium to to address conflicts on natural early warning long term South Sudan will establish early warning resources. systems are being systems to help reduce crop losses, as piloted in Eastern well as strengthen existing livestock Equatoria State. early warning systems. Fisheries Enhance climate-resilient fish • Restore and sustainably manage fish Yet to be Medium to production. habitats, especially wetlands such as implemented long term the Sudd swamps and Nile basin. Fisheries are an important source of livelihood and provide nutritional security to large numbers of people. Therefore, South Sudan will focus on enhancing climate-resilient fish production by promoting activities such as restoring fish habitats that would contribute to protecting a large number of people dependent on fisheries for their livelihood. Promote alternative livelihood options. • Develop an action plan to The strategy is yet Short term implement the National Aquaculture to be enacted in South Sudan will promote small-scale Development Strategy. Parliament. aquaculture to improve food security by empowering 10% of the farmers across the country by 2030. Enhance the supply chain for the • Develop transport infrastructure and Yet to be Medium to fisheries industry. cold-storage facilities. implemented long term Enhancing the supply chain will support communities by minimizing losses (as currently most fish catches are kept in open spaces) due to extreme weather events and will help fishing communities to increase sales and earn more. Build the capacity of communities. • Enhance the capacity of communities Yet to be Short term on climate change through implemented Increase awareness of communities in workshops, training modules and the fisheries supply chain on climate by providing services such as early change and risk management. warning systems. Carry out research to assess the • Utilize existing academic and Yet to be Short term impacts of climate change on fisheries research institutions within the implemented and develop knowledge on this. country (e.g., Juba University, Yei Agricultural Research Centre) to As highlighted in the South Sudan carry out various studies and review Fisheries Policy, the country will conduct associated literature on the impacts research and develop a monitoring of climate change on key food- and reporting framework to assess the producing sectors such as agriculture impacts of climate change on fisheries. and fisheries. Sectoral strategies 77

7.1.4 Potential for job creation • Skilled pest management; Agriculture and livestock • Climate-smart livestock management; and A large proportion of South Sudan’s population is • Businesses involved in agricultural supply dependent on cultivation and livestock for their chains, including packaging, transportation, livelihoods. In 2015, the sector provided employ- distribution and marketing services. ment to more than 1,657,000 workers (Figure 22), In addition, investments into sectors such as 25 percent of the total working population. ecotourism, promotion of local food products Traditionally, women and girls perform most of in the tourism industry and development of the cultivation-related activities. Furthermore, transport infrastructure providing farm-to-market around 35 percent of the total female workforce accessibility could further improve employment was employed in the agriculture sector in 2015, opportunities in agriculture sector. second only after the education, health and ‘other Fisheries services’ sector (SCP-HAT, 2018). According to SCP-HAT data, 14 percent of South South Sudan has large areas of arable land and Sudan’s population is dependent on fisheries for has great potential for improving agricultural their livelihood. production. Realizing this potential by implementing As shown in Figure 23, employment in the fisheries climate-smart agricultural practices will provide sector increased by 7 percent per year between enormous potential to improve livelihoods, 2012 and 2015. Similar to cultivation and livestock, especially in rural areas. the fisheries sector also has higher female representation, with women making up 62 percent Climate-change mitigation and adaptation activities of the total workforce in 2015. in agriculture can make existing jobs more stable by enhancing productivity and profitability of the Global demand for fish is expected to increase by farmers, and also generate opportunities for new 30 percent by 2030 (World Bank, 2020b). Since jobs. Furthermore, climate-smart agriculture also South Sudan has good fish production potential, the considers gender issues, thus reducing social efficient implementation of sustainable initiatives differences and gender inequality, which would and the promotion of aquaculture could enhance in turn enhance sustainability of the measures. food security and ensure that fisheries contribute Some of the areas where jobs could potentially towards the country’s economy. Aquaculture is be created in the agriculture sector are: a source of better-paying, full-time jobs in many Figure 22: Employment in the agriculture sector, Figure 23: Employment in the fishing sector, 2012–2015 2012–2015 1,695 1,723 356 1,500 1,650 1,658 290 288 289 300 1,025 1,068 223 Thousand workers Thousand workers 1,000 200 176 178 179 669 1,021 654 1,039 133 115 110 110 500 628 619 100 0 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2012 2013 2014 2015 Men Women Total Men Women Total Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 78 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Figure 24: GHG emissions consumption footprint for Figure 25: GHG emissions domestic footprint for the the infrastructure sector, 2012–2015 infrastructure sector, 2012–2015 2.5 0.048 0.049 2.494 2.537 2.546 2.509 0.045 0.04 2 0.041 0.03 Million tCO₂e 1.5 Million tCO₂e 0.02 1 0.5 0.01 0 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2012 2013 2014 2015 Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 African countries, for example, Madagascar, imported from neighbouring countries such as Zambia and Zimbabwe (FAO, 2020a). Kenya and Uganda. Only small-scale manufacturing of construction materials, such as bricks, is carried South Sudan could create more jobs by enhancing out by local enterprises in South Sudan. As a result, its supply chain and training farmers (especially, most of the GHG emissions in the infrastructure small-scale farmers) on fish farming, as well as on sector are embedded emissions in imported seed and feed production and providing technical products. In 2015, the share of GHG emissions knowledge on sustainable farming practices. from the consumption footprint perspective was 4 percent (2.51 million tCO2e; Figure 24) of the

7.2 INFRASTRUCTURE total consumption footprint of GHG emissions (CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDINGS) (61.9 million tCO2e). Greenhouse gas emissions

7.2.1 Current status from domestic production, however, was only 0.05 million of carbon dioxide equivalent (Figure South Sudan currently lacks basic infrastructure 25), contributing 0.07 percent of the total domestic such as roads, sewer and electricity supply production GHG emissions (67.6 million tCO2e). networks. Therefore, development of basic infrastructure is one of the main priorities of the Apart from becoming a high emitter, the growth strategies of South Sudan. The government construction industry is also becoming increasingly is planning to invest a significant share of its vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. spending towards infrastructure development. The For instance, floods that hit Eastern Equatoria in budget allocated to the sector went up many fold 2019 destroyed over 440 houses and affected in the 2019/2020 financial year when government more than 10,000 households (ReliefWeb, 2019). spending increased from 3 percent of total spending The extent of damage to infrastructure is likely in 2018/2019 to 55 percent in 2019/2020 (South to increase in future, since long-term climatic Sudan Ministry of Finance and Planning and the projections for South Sudan suggest increasing United Nations Children’s Fund, 2019). Thus, with variability in rainfall and increasing frequency the implementation of planned investments and of extreme weather events such as floods and projects, the sector represents increased growth droughts. Given this scenario, the Government of opportunities along with great potential for GHG South Sudan through its adaptation plan (the NAPA) mitigation (SCP-HAT, 2018). highlights the need to construct climate-resilient Currently, most of the raw materials required for infrastructure as an adaptation to manage disaster construction, such as cement and iron sheets, are risk in the country. Sectoral strategies 79

7.2.2 Emission reduction potential Baseline scenario: The baseline scenario represents a case of no action, i.e., the government As discussed above, South Sudan currently lacks will not implement any policy or mitigation strategy basic infrastructure and is highly dependent on to reduce the share of embedded GHG emissions imports of construction material such as cement, in South Sudan. In the baseline scenario, it is iron sheets, etc. As a result, GHG emissions from assumed that only ordinary Portland cement is domestic production in the infrastructure sector imported. Ordinary Portland cement is the most are minimal. Given the marginal contribution of this commonly used cement; it contains up to 95 sector to total GHG emissions (0.07 percent) and percent clinker, while the remaining 5 percent is unavailability of data on likely growth trajectories, gypsum. it is difficult to estimate emission reduction targets for the infrastructure sector as a whole. In this scenario, embedded GHG emissions in imported cement increases to 4.9 million tCO2e in However, there is potential for reducing the 2030 from 0.9 million tonnes in 2016 (Figure 26). sector’s share of embedded GHG emissions in imported construction materials such as cement, Emission reduction scenario: The emission which is imported in large quantities (approximately reduction scenario assumes that the Government 1.8 million tonnes in 2018). To illustrate the of South Sudan will implement policies to regulate potential of reducing embedded emissions, that low-carbon cement is imported into the two scenarios have been developed based on country. It assumes that only green cement is historical cement consumption in South Sudan. imported to South Sudan, which has average Embedded GHG emission values are estimated clinker factor of 70 percent.7 In this scenario, for the period 2016–2020, and projections are embedded emissions would be 3.61 million made for 2021–2030 using a statistical model. The tCO2e in 2030 compared to 4.9 million tonnes in two scenarios that are considered for estimating the baseline scenario (Figure 26). The emission emission reduction potential are the baseline and reduction scenario achieves a cumulative emission emission reduction scenario, and are illustrated reduction of 9.5 million tCO2e by 2030, which in Figure 26. is 26 percent lower than the baseline scenario. This emission reduction scenario only assumes Figure 26: GHG emission scenarios for the the use of low-carbon cement. However, the infrastructure sector, 2016–2030 inclusion of other green construction materials 4.9 would result in even higher emission reductions for the infrastructure sector. 4 3.6 Consequently, South Sudan will implement GHG Million tCO₂e 3 mitigation strategies that will not only focus on 2 reducing domestic emissions but will also reduce 1 0.9 embedded emissions. These strategies are 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 described in the section below. 2029 2030 Baseline scenario Emission reduction scenario 7 The use of alternative materials such as fly ash in cement reduces the clinker-to-cement ratio and thereby results in lower GHG emissions and lower energy use in cement production. Emissions are avoided due to the reduced amount of clinker required for cement production. 80 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

7.2.3 Key strategies

7.2.3.1 Mitigation As South Sudan transitions from a low- to middle-income economy, it is likely that GHG emissions from the infrastructure sector will increase from domestic production and through its consumption footprint. To address these potential increases, South Sudan will implement the strategies provided in Table 12 to ensure that the sector grows in a sustainable manner. Table 12: Mitigation strategies for the infrastructure sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Regulate the importation of construction • Develop policy to ensure the Yet to be Short to material for low-carbon alternatives. importation of low-carbon implemented medium construction materials (such as term Given that most of the emissions in the mandating that imported cement has infrastructure sector are embedded a certain proportion of fly ash, which emissions in imported construction makes it greener). materials, South Sudan will regulate to ensure that green construction materials are imported, which will significantly reduce the sector’s share of embedded emissions. Adopt policies, guidelines and national • Develop policies and/or national Yet to be Short term building codes that incorporate climate- building codes that promote green implemented change adaptation criteria in any new and low-carbon buildings, for example, construction. by increasing the share of renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, Basic infrastructure in South Sudan is and developing waste-management currently under development, so South and water-harvesting structures, etc. Sudan will adopt policies to incorporate Building codes will also incorporate climate-change adaptation criteria in new regulations on using secondary stocks, buildings. such as tiles created from plastics. Promote use of low-carbon construction • The use of materials with industrial Yet to be Short to materials. by-products (such as fly ash, recycled implemented medium sand) will be promoted for the term South Sudan will promote the use of low- construction of buildings. carbon materials in construction to reduce GHG emissions of the infrastructure sector and to contribute towards efficient waste management. Sectoral strategies 81

7.2.3.2 Adaptation An increase in riverine floods in the future due to changing climate can have serious impacts on infrastructure. Therefore, the following adaptation strategies have been proposed to strengthen the sector’s resilience. Table 13: Adaptation strategies for the infrastructure sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Mainstream climate resilience in • Integrated planning of town and Included as part of Short term construction activities. cities to develop sustainable and the NDS climate-resilient urban settlements. The government will prioritize awareness creation and promote the use of climate- resilient construction materials to adapt infrastructure to expected changes in climate. Long-term climatic projections • Ensure that land-use plans and Included as part of Short term for South Sudan suggest increases in building codes reflect the expected the NDS the frequency of rainfall and floods and impacts of climate change. therefore, the focus will be on developing flood-proof infrastructure and increased planning for floods. Strengthen land-use policy. • Develop a strategic action plan for Review of National Short term the implementation of the National Land Use Policy is The government will aim to strengthen Land Use Policy. ongoing land-use policies to ensure the sustainable use of natural resources in South Sudan. Develop regulations to ensure • Carry out a comprehensive Yet to be Short term environmental and social impact environmental and social impact implemented assessments for large infrastructure assessment before the construction projects. of any new infrastructure project. Develop regulations around conducting mandatory environmental and social impact assessments to ensure that infrastructure projects have minimal negative impacts. The introduction of such policies and regulations in the infrastructure sector, will allow South Sudan to increasingly gain access to international developmental finance. Invest in water supply and wastewater • Establish wastewater treatment and Yet to be Medium to treatment infrastructure. effluent treatment plants. implemented long term South Sudan will invest in the construction of water supply and wastewater treatment systems (in urban and industrial areas) to ensure efficient water supply while maintaining water quality, thereby reducing water pollution and negative health impacts.

7.2.4 Potential for job creation Employment in the construction sector saw a compound annual growth rate of 11 percent between 2012 and 2015 (Figure 27). Given the nature of work, the sector is largely dominated by a male workforce (97 percent). 82 Second Nationally Determined Contribution for instance, for every $1 million invested in the Figure 27: Employment in the construction sector, 2012–2015 construction sector, close to 650 jobs are expected to be created in India compared to 120 jobs 435.65 453.77 424.66 in Russia (International Labour Organization, 400 438.81 325.62 411.05 421.65 2018a). Similarly, a high potential for job creation Thousand workers 300 is expected in South Sudan. 315.76 200 100 7.3 FORESTRY 9.87 13.61 14 14.97 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 7.3.1 Current status Men Women Total South Sudan has a total forest cover of 192,000 Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 square kilometres, which represents around 30 percent of the country’s total land area. This According to estimates by the International includes natural forests, hills, national parks Labour Organization, efforts implemented in and game reserves in the country. Of the total the construction sector for limiting temperature forested area, only 3.1 percent (6,400 square rise to 2ºC will have a net positive impact on kilometres) are gazetted forest reserves. These employment. Employment in the sector will be forest resources play an important role in the driven by a higher demand for labour for the economic development of the country and in construction of climate-resilient infrastructure, supporting the livelihoods of rural communities. and other necessary adaptations. For example, However, the forest cover of South Sudan has the construction of dykes, elevated roads and been severely degraded in some areas of the stronger buildings will be necessary to withstand country. This is because local communities are increasingly extreme weather events. The total heavily dependent on forest products, such as number of direct, indirect and induced employment timber, fuel wood and non-timber products (for effects of investment in adaptation infrastructure example, food and medicinal resources). Around depends on a number of factors and may vary 81 percent of the population is dependent on fuel between countries. The employment multipliers wood and 14 percent on charcoal for cooking. are generally higher in developing countries, South Sudan also witnesses extensive conversion of forests and woodlands into grasslands, pastures Figure 28: GHG emissions and sinks in land use, and agricultural lands. The current deforestation land-use change and forestry, 2015 rate is estimated to be 2 percent per year (UNEP, 2018a). As a result of continual deforestation and 20 18.91 rapid conversion of forestlands, land use, land-use 10 change and forestry was a net positive emitter of 9.20 2.76 GHG emissions between 2005 and 2015, with Million tCO₂e 0 net emissions equal to 2.76 million tCO2e in 2015 -10 -25.34 (Figure 28). -20 Apart from deforestation, other major challenges GHG emissions Net emissions to sustainable forest management in South Sudan Forest land include a lack of coordination between the state Land converted to cropland and national governments on forest management Land converted to grassland and a knowledge gap on the current status of Source: South Sudan Ministry of Environment, 2018 natural forest resources at national and regional Sectoral strategies 83 Baseline scenario: South Sudan currently has Figure 29: GHG emission sequestration scenarios for the forestry sector, 2018–2030 192,000 square kilometres of forestlands, which is declining at an average rate of 2 percent per 176.6 annum. The baseline scenario represents a case of no action, i.e., the government will not implement 170 a policy to reduce the current rate of deforestation in South Sudan. Hence, the scenario assumes that Million tCO₂e 160 149.1 2 percent of the forest area will be deforested 150 annually. Under this scenario, more than 40,000 138.6 140 square kilometres of forest area would be lost by 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2030, resulting in a loss of GHG sequestration Baseline scenario Emission sequestration potential of 38 million tCO2e (Figure 29). scenario Emission sequestration scenario: The emission reduction scenario represents a decarbonization levels. As a result, the illegal exploitation of pathway that South Sudan will have to follow till resources is common in the country. 2030 to achieve the Paris Agreement’s goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5ºC. The Given this scenario, the sustainable management emission sequestration scenario targets a 70 and conservation of forests is a priority for South percent reduction in deforested area in South Sudan. The government has developed various Sudan by 2030 compared to 2019 levels. (This is policies for enhancing forest governance and in line with the 1.5ºC-compatible target estimated for promoting sustainable forest management, by the World Resources Institute (Lebling et. al., including the National Forest Policy, the National 2020) for the forest sector globally.) Under this Environmental Policy and the NAPA. The National scenario, the deforested area is estimated to Forest Policy provides a nationwide framework reduce to 1,152 square kilometres in 2030 (63 for managing forests at all levels across the percent lower than the 2030 baseline value). The country and gives responsibility to individual state emission sequestration scenario will generate governments to implement state forest action additional sequestration potential of 45 million plans. The National Environmental Policy aims tCO2e by 2030 compared to the baseline scenario. to carry out an extensive afforestation project of planting 100 million trees over a period of 10 To achieve the potential GHG-sequestration target, years. Furthermore, the current national adaptation South Sudan will implement various strategies plan also stresses the conservation of forests which are outlined in the section below. by improving degraded forestlands, promoting agroforestry and emphasizing the need to diversify 7.3.3 Key strategies livelihoods to reduce the dependence of local

7.3.3.1 Mitigation communities on forests. The forestry sector in South Sudan has a high potential for mitigation. However, due to increased

7.3.2 Emission reduction potential land-use change, the sector became a net emitter Two GHG emission scenarios – a baseline scenario of GHG emissions in 2015. Deforestation and and emission sequestration scenario – have been land-use change will lead to a greater loss in developed for the forestry sector for estimating the country’s carbon sequestration potential. the GHG sequestration potential of natural forests Furthermore, increased depletion of forest and woodlands in South Sudan for the period cover will also increase the vulnerability of rural 2018–2030. communities to climate variability, as the goods 84 Second Nationally Determined Contribution and services provided by these ecosystems buffer wildlife in the country. In this regard, South Sudan communities against crop failures associated with will focus on promoting the initiatives described erratic rainfall, floods and droughts. Deforestation in Table 14 to reduce deforestation and improve will also have a negative impact on biodiversity and forest management. Table 14: Mitigation strategies for the forestry sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Reduce deforestation. • Delineate natural forest areas in the Survey and inventory Short term states and administrative boundaries units will map forested South Sudan aims to declare of the country for the formation of areas. approximately 30% of its natural forests protected areas. as reserve forests to reduce the high rate of deforestation. • Plant valuable tree species in open Yet to be implemented Short to spaces within protected areas to medium enrich these areas. term • Monitor changes in forest cover and Yet to be implemented Short to vegetation either through ground medium surveys, or by using technologies term such as satellite imagery and geographic information systems for regular monitoring. • Introduce fire protection Yet to be implemented Short term and management plans for forested areas. This will also be complemented with establishing stringent rules and regulations to control setting of bush fires. Sectoral strategies 85 Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Implement afforestation and • Map degraded areas in the country. Yet to be implemented Short term reforestation projects. South Sudan aims to implement an • Procure seeds of important tree Yet to be implemented Short term ambitious reforestation and afforestation species and the necessary tools and project of planting 100 million trees over equipment for tree planting. a period of 10 years. • Establish central tree nurseries in Yet to be implemented Short to states and administrative areas to medium supply plants for implementation of term the tree-planting project. Invest in forest-related research. • Engage with existing research and Yet to be implemented Short term academic institutions in South Sudan The government will invest in carrying to identify tree species that can be out forest-related research to identify used for supporting the country’s tree species and breeds that can afforestation project. withstand extreme weather events, such as cyclones and floods, as well as other fast-growing tree species that could be used for rapid expansion of forest cover. Restore degraded areas. • Map water catchment areas in the The project is being Short to country. implemented near medium South Sudan aims to replant trees in Imatong catchment term degraded areas, especially in water of the Kinety River, catchment areas. however, there has • Identify suitable tree species and been no progress due Short to plant these species in predetermined to lack of financial medium water catchments. resources. term Plant trees in urban spaces. • Map urban areas for tree planting. This project is in its Short to initial stage; minimal medium Trees will also be planted outside the work has been done. term forest areas, such as in cities and towns. Progress has halted due to a lack of • Identify and select suitable tree Short to financial resources. medium species for urban forestry. term Promote agroforestry. • Raise awareness and build the The project is in Short term capacity of key stakeholders on the initial stage and South Sudan will promote agroforestry, agroforestry practices. minimal work has which will not only help sequester been done. carbon but will also provide other benefits such as reduced soil erosion • Identify suitable multi-purpose tree Short term and enhanced agricultural productivity species based on parameters such by maintaining soil fertility. as landscape and climatic conditions in different parts of the country. • Establish central tree nurseries in Short to states and administrative areas to medium supply plants for the project. term Review the Forest Policy to integrate • As part of the Forest Policy, develop Yet to be implemented Short term climate-change concerns. regulations to reduce the rate of deforestation by strengthening land- South Sudan will carry out a review of use management planning at the its Forest Policy to integrate climate- national and local levels, particularly change strategies into national and for the mining and logging sectors, regional plans. which are responsible for extensive deforestation globally. 86 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Promote the use of alternative fuels. • Encourage use of biofuels, such Yet to be implemented Medium to as those derived from refuse and long term To reduce dependence on forest agriculture residue. resources, especially fuel wood, South Sudan will develop regulations to promote the use of alternate sources of • Install biogas plants in rural areas to Yet to be implemented Medium to fuel. meet energy needs for cooking. long term Promote measures such as payment • Implement REDD+ programmes such South Sudan has Medium to for ecosystem services and benefit as beekeeping and aquaculture and developed a strategy long term sharing. to improve charcoal and briquettes and action plan for production to provide alternate REDD+. To avoid depletion of natural resources, livelihood options to communities. South Sudan will participate in international frameworks such as the United Nations REDD+ programme that • Raise awareness amongst various Short term focuses on implementing measures for stakeholders regarding REDD+ and reducing emissions from deforestation, build the capacities of communities for afforestation and the sustainable on forest management activities. management of forests, etc. These international programmes will not only increase access to international climate finance but also contribute towards development of national-level land and forest management systems, processes and capacities. Increase awareness of communities on • Conduct workshops, seminars and Yet to be implemented Short term climate change. talks on television and radio on climate change. To further prevent destruction of forests, South Sudan will raise awareness among different stakeholders, such as local communities and government institutions, regarding climate change and the role of forests in mitigating the impacts of climate change. Note: REDD+ is a United Nations framework that aims to curb climate change by stopping the destruction of forests. REDD stands for ‘Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation’; the ‘+’ signifies the role of conservation and sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Sectoral strategies 87

7.3.3.2 Adaptation A high rate of deforestation makes communities dependent on this sector for their livelihoods extremely vulnerable. Therefore, the following adaptation strategies have been proposed to reduce the deforestation rate and strengthen community resilience. Table 15: Adaptation strategies for the forestry sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Sustainable management of forests • Enable community members to Yet to be implemented Short to through community involvement. participate in the management of medium forest lands under the jurisdiction of term South Sudan will promote the relevant forest departments. sustainable management of forests through decentralized systems of state ownership and community responsibility. Such joint forest management initiatives will enable efficient and equitable distribution of forest resources and economic benefits (including carbon credits). Establish early warning systems. • Develop early warning systems Yet to be implemented Short to and response measures to control long term Incidences of pest and disease widespread pest and/or disease outbreaks are common in South Sudan; outbreaks to reduce their negative these negatively impact the country’s impacts on vegetation. vegetation. Therefore, the government will establish early warning systems dedicated to predicting incidences of pest and disease outbreaks.

7.3.4 Potential for job creation Industries based on forests and natural ecosystems create 4–5 million full-time-equivalent jobs (Nair are increasingly recognized as key elements of and Rutt, 2009). economic development. Effective implementation In addition, promotion of community-based forest of forest management and climate-change management and ecotourism in South Sudan will strategies in South Sudan will maximize economic contribute to a more diverse employment base. and employment benefits in the sector. It will provide more opportunities to the local Since South Sudan plans to carry out an extensive workforce that has the capacity and traditional afforestation project of planting 100 million trees, knowledge to carry out forest management activities such as land preparation, production work, which is needed to improve and restore of planting material and maintenance adapted forest ecosystems. Since women are traditionally to local conditions could be important sources engaged in collecting fuel wood and food from of employment in the country. Afforestation and forests, they have more knowledge of the trees and reforestation activities, including the reclamation forests in terms of biological diversity, sustainable of degraded land, will provide high employment management and conservation practices (FAO, opportunities. This is also evident from estimates 2014). Thus, if agroforestry and forest management that suggest that afforestation, reforestation and programmes are implemented while recognizing the control of desertification of 5,000 square the role of women, it will accelerate female kilometres of land annually, could potentially representation in the forestry sector. 88 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

7.4 BIODIVERSITY, ECOSYSTEM emissions between 2010 and 2016. Increased AND SUSTAINABLE WETLAND influx of water entering the Sudd wetland, due MANAGEMENT to dam releases upstream on the Nile River and its tributaries, resulted in increased soil microbial

7.4.1 Current status activity and release of methane emissions (Lunt et al., 2019). While this study has been carried South Sudan has large areas of natural forests out using advanced and reliable technologies and is rich in biological resources. These include (such as geographic information systems and a wide range of animal and plant species and satellite imagery), no ground surveys have been globally important ecosystems such as wetlands conducted to validate these findings. Given these (which cover 14.7 percent of the country’s land circumstances, the Government of South Sudan area). South Sudan is home to the Sudd wetland, would like to invite international researchers to which is one of the world’s largest Ramsar sites the country to study and better understand the and has also been designated as a cultural and phenomenon surrounding the wetlands, and natural world heritage site by UNESCO. assist local stakeholders in developing robust The majority of South Sudan’s population is measures and interventions to conserve and directly dependent on forests, woodlands and control emissions from these areas. wetlands for fuel wood, food and various other Controlling emissions emanating from the wetlands forest products for their livelihoods. As a result, due to anthropogenic activities and protecting the diversity of ecosystems and species in the biodiversity and natural ecosystems are key country are under continual threat of human priority areas for South Sudan. South Sudan’s NDS pressures. These ecosystems are continually highlights the need for biodiversity conservation and degrading because of expansion of urban areas management. The NAPA provides details of specific and increasing developmental and industrial projects for biodiversity management that South activities, such as pollution and land conversion. Sudan will implement, for example, establishing This has a direct impact on the biodiversity of water points for wildlife in protected areas and the region. The number of wildlife species has promoting alternative sources of livelihoods. decreased significantly in key wildlife areas of the country. For instance, elephant populations have The Government of South Sudan has also declined from 20,000 in 1980 to less than 2,500 drafted the Wildlife Conservation and Protected in 2007, and giraffe populations declined from Area Policy, which provides a legal framework 96,000 to less than 500 during the same period for addressing issues related to landscape (UNEP, 2018a). management in the country, and guides the sustainable management of natural resources and Increasing climate variability exacerbates this wildlife. South Sudan joined the United Nations existing stress on South Sudan’s ecosystems. Convention on Biological Diversity in 2014. Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall have led to floods and droughts in the region, which

7.4.2 Key strategies negatively impact natural ecosystems, especially the ecologically sensitive zones such as the 7.4.2.1 Mitigation Sudd wetland. According to recent published South Sudan will implement the strategies research, methane emissions from wetlands in described in Table 16 for the conservation and East Africa, especially the Sudd wetland, were sustainable use of wetlands in the country to responsible for about a third of the growth in global improve carbon sequestration. Sectoral strategies 89 Table 16: Mitigation strategies for biodiversity, ecosystem and sustainable wetland management Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Conservation and sustainable use • Build the capacity of government Yet to be Short term of wetlands for improved carbon and research institutions on wetland implemented sequestration. processes and associated GHG emissions. South Sudan will collaborate with international research institutes and agencies to conduct ground research on • Identify and classify wetlands, and Yet to be Short term the release of methane emissions from assess their biodiversity. implemented the Sudd wetland and develop measures to sustainably manage and mitigate high emissions coming from the country’s • Bring wetlands under protection for Yet to be Short to sustainable management. implemented medium wetlands. term Monitor wetland inventory and • Identify and classify wetlands. Yet to be Short to biodiversity hotspots. implemented medium term Similar to forest cover monitoring, South Sudan will monitor and develop an inventory of its wetland and biodiversity hotspots through ground surveys or by using other technologies such as • Assess threats to wetlands geographic information systems and by conducting a vulnerability satellite imagery. assessment.. Establish buffer zones around wetlands. • Assess wetland services. Yet to be Short to implemented medium Establish buffer zones around wetlands term to limit human activities that negatively impact the value of natural resources. The buffer zones will allow government to cost-effectively manage ecosystems and • Assess wetland areas of use. maintain water quality while protecting human habitat from flood-related damages. Reclaim wetlands. • Identify degraded wetlands in the Yet to be Short term country. implemented The government will also focus on restoring degraded wetlands in South Sudan with the aim of reducing • Improve wetland resource use. Yet to be Short to their emissions by increasing carbon implemented medium sequestration and building long-term term carbon stock. • Develop integrated management plans Yet to be Short to for wetlands. implemented medium term • Educated and create awareness Yet to be Short term amongst the general public for the implemented sustainable management of wetlands. 90 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

7.4.2.2 Adaptation of increasing industrial activities, including As discussed above, a significant proportion pollution, water abstraction for agriculture, of South Sudan’s population relies heavily on aquaculture and land-use change. Thus, South natural resources such as fuel wood, charcoal Sudan will focus on the conservation and and fish, exacerbating the current stresses on management of its biodiversity, ecosystems ecosystems. Furthermore, ecosystems in South and wetlands. This will involve the measures Sudan are increasingly vulnerable to the impacts described in Table 17. Table 17: Adaptation strategies for biodiversity, ecosystem and sustainable wetland management Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Conduct a biodiversity mapping study. • Utilize the capacity of existing Yet to be Short term research institutions and universities in implemented South Sudan will focus on understanding the country to conduct a biodiversity native and endangered species in mapping study throughout the country. various regions in the country through a biodiversity mapping study and/or a census. This will enable South Sudan to direct and prioritize conservation resources in a structured manner. Strengthen the National Biodiversity • Build more comprehensive and The National Short term Strategy and Action Plan. strengthened action plans for Biodiversity conserving the biodiversity of South Strategy and Action South Sudan will declare commitment to Sudan. Plan has been the National Biodiversity Strategy and developed for Action Plan (2018–2027) by showcasing South Sudan. its current implementation status and a roadmap for future implementation. Reduce the rate of deforestation by • Assess available energy sources. Yet to be Short to promoting alternative sources of energy. implemented long term The government will develop suitable • Select suitable energy sources regulations and measures for reducing that can be sustainably used by the deforestation rate by increasing communities that are currently access to electricity, introducing dependent on fuel wood. alternative sources of energy and strengthening land-use management • Develop a roadmap and policies and planning. implementation plan for introducing alternative energy sources. • Monitor and evaluate project performance. Develop waste management policies. • Develop and implement a waste Yet to be Short to management policy. implemented long term South Sudan will develop regulations in line with proposed waste management policies to reduce the disposal of solid wastes and/or untreated wastewater into water bodies or onto open land. Promote agroforestry. • Assessment of available production Yet to be Short to systems and the tree and crop species implemented medium South Sudan will promote agroforestry involved. term for diversifying land production systems and also to promote alternative livelihood options. • Utilize indigenous and scientific know- Yet to be Short to ledge to identify combinations of tree implemented medium species that could provide improved term livelihood opportunities to people, while also acting as a carbon sink. Sectoral strategies 91 Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Promote afforestation of degraded Planning phase: Yet to be Short to landscapes. • Identify degraded sites for implemented medium afforestation. term South Sudan will promote afforestation of • Organize a tender to carry out degraded landscapes and of watersheds afforestation works. using multi-purpose tree species to increase community safety nets and to Implementation phase: Yet to be Short to diversify livelihoods. • Develop baselines. implemented medium • Select tree species and design term planting protocols. • Establish forest nursery for seedling production. • Prepare soil. • Implement planting and tending activities. Monitoring phase: Yet to be Short to • Monitor overall project performance. implemented long term • Monitor carbon levels in trees and soil. • Create project database. • Build capacity and raise awareness of various levels of involved stakeholders. Develop a management plan to protect • Study the existing literature and Yet to be Short to watersheds. information available for the country. implemented long term The government will develop forest reserves and management plans to • Conduct field studies and stakeholder protect natural watersheds to maintain consultations to gather insight on water availability and quality. forest reserves and watershed management practices. • Outline the country’s biodiversity targets. • Carry out monitoring and evaluation. • Draft management plans for forest reserves and watershed protection. Introduce wildfire management plans. • Plan, implement and monitor. Yet to be Short to South Sudan will introduce fire • Research. implemented long term management plans to prevent and control • Build capacity. the spread of wildfires during dry periods • Raise awareness. and to reduce damage to forest resources and wildlife. Establish wildlife conservancies and • Engage with key government Yet to be Short term protected areas. stakeholders and communities living implemented adjacent to forestlands to gather their South Sudan will establish wildlife views and consent on changes to conservancies, protected areas and protected areas. national parks to prevent degradation of forest areas and conserve wildlife. • Assess the status of existing protected Yet to be Short term areas and national parks, and implemented determine their sizes. • Draw an implementation plan to bring Yet to be Short to forestlands under conservation. implemented medium term 92 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Establish water points for wildlife. • Identify and select sites for creation of Yet to be Short to water holes in protected areas. implemented medium The government will establish water term holes for wildlife in protected areas to ensure that water is available during dry seasons, thus reducing negative impacts on animals. Introduce integrated natural resources • Identify and select different natural Yet to be Short to management. resource management approaches implemented medium that best fit the context in South term Government will promote an integrated Sudan. natural resources management approach whereby coordination between different stakeholders and development efforts • Implement, monitor and evaluate the Yet to be Medium to are integrated to address human performance of identified management implemented long term and institutional factors affecting the approaches. conservation of natural resources, as well as affecting livelihoods. Promote ecotourism services. • Engage with communities living near Yet to be Short to protected areas to increase awareness implemented medium South Sudan will promote sustainable on the environmental and economic term community-based ecotourism services benefits associated with ecotourism. (for example, in the Southern National Park), including wildlife tourism, to provide improved or alternative livelihood opportunities to rural communities while also protecting biodiversity. Improve national parks and protected • Engage with communities and seek Yet to be Short to areas. consent from communities for any implemented medium changes to the sizes of protected term The government will focus on improving areas. the current conditions and landscapes of protected areas to conserve wildlife. Increase awareness and build the • Organize interactive and informative Yet to be Short term capacity of key stakeholders. talks on radio and television. implemented South Sudan will focus on building capacity of institutions for conducting baseline surveys to record and monitor changes in environmental pollution, biodiversity loss and natural resources management. In addition, increasing awareness and knowledge among communities regarding climate change and environmental concerns will also be a • Organize talks at clubs and schools to Yet to be Short term spread awareness among youth. implemented key focus area. Strengthen institutional and governance • Review the existing environmental Yet to be Short term frameworks for implementation of regulations to identify areas for implemented environmental regulations. improvement. The government will focus on strengthening and improving governance mechanisms and institutional frameworks for efficient enforcement of environmental • Identify the drivers of law enforcement. Yet to be Short term regulations in the country. implemented Sectoral strategies 93

7.4.3 Potential for job creation A large part of the population of South Sudan is and agriculture and livestock sectors (BenDor et al., dependent on ecosystem-based services for their 2015). Therefore, investments made in conserving, livelihoods. Overexploitation of these services will restoring and sustainably managing wetlands, water compromise their livelihoods. Therefore, investing catchments, forests, etc., will create employment in the sustainable management and restoration of opportunities and provide a means for sustained ecosystems, such as wetlands and watersheds, jobs in South Sudan while maintaining biodiversity will not only keep these ecosystems healthy but and protecting communities dependent on these such investments will also provide economic and ecosystems. social benefits to the communities dependent on these ecosystems.

7.5 ELECTRICITY Ecosystem restoration activities (including

7.5.1 Current status conservation activities) tend to create localized employment benefits through well paying South Sudan does not have an extensive electricity jobs. Various studies indicate that ecosystem generation and supply infrastructure. There is no restoration supports an average of 33 jobs per national grid for electricity supply, forcing people million of United States dollars invested (but up to depend on diesel-powered generators for to 39.7 jobs, depending on geographic scale electricity. Access is low with only 3 percent of and type of restoration activity) compared to the total population having access to electricity, only 5.2 jobs created in the oil and gas sector for mainly in the capital city of Juba and the towns of similar investment. The employment multiplier Wau, Kapoeta and Malakal. Electricity demand is of restoration activities ranges between 1.5 and estimated to be 300 megawatts (MW) but, in 2018, 3.8 jobs, which is similar to that of various industries the installed generation capacity of the country A CBERS4 satellite image of the southern part of the Sudd swamp. The black areas are open water surfaces. The brown lines crossing the image diagonally are the White Nile and tributaries. The dark green areas are flooded vegetated lowlands (mostly tall grasses and cyperaceae (reeds). The light green shows short grasses on higher ground and exposed soil is orange. 94 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Figure 30: Installed electricity generation capacity Figure 31: GHG emissions from domestic production (MW) in South Sudan, 2018 of electricity, gas and water, 2012–2015 42 0.20 0.20 40 0.19 0.19 0.17 32 30 0.15 Million tCO₂e 21 20 17 0.10 10 5.6 4.8 0.05 3 3 3 0 Juba Juba Yambio Wau Rumbek Bor Malakal Renk Paloch 0.00 (Ezra) 2012 2013 2014 2015 Source: Ministry of Electricity and Dams, 2018 Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 was only 131.43 MW of which 42 MW is used to power the oil field at Paloch (Figure 30). Figure 32: GHG emission scenarios for electricity generation, 2018–2030 Estimated GHG emissions for the electricity sector 6.7 of South Sudan are unavailable. However, data 6 for overall emissions from domestic production of 5 the electricity, gas and water sectors (combined) 4 Million tCO₂e gradually increased over the period 2012–2015 3 (Figure 31). The emissions increased from 0.17 million 2 1 0.3 0.5 tCO2e in 2012 to 0.20 million tonnes in 2015. 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Although South Sudan is completely dependent on thermal power generation, it has great potential for Baseline scenario Emission reduction scenario generating electricity through renewable energy sources. Most areas of the country receive 10–12 hours of sunshine a day, with a solar potential of approximately 6.9 gigajoules per square metre per Juba and a 20 MW solar park in Nesitu), which year. Currently, solar-based energy generation is are expected to be completed by 2021. Once insignificant in the country and it is estimated that completed, these projects are expected to only about 45,000 households have some form of increase total installed capacity to 251.43 MW (from lighting or electrical appliance powered by solar 131.43 MW) and increase the share of renewable energy. South Sudan also has huge potential for energy to 8 percent in the total energy mix. hydropower, with more than 200 suitable sites for small-scale hydropower generation plants. The 7.5.2 Emission reduction potential hydropower potential is estimated to be 4,860 MW Electricity demand in South Sudan is expected with an annual production of 24,132 gigawatt-hours to increase from 300 MW to 1,450 MW by 2035. (South Sudan Ministry of Environment, 2018). To meet this growing demand, South Sudan has The Government of South Sudan has identified identified multiple electricity generation projects various short- and long-term strategies to develop and the associated investment requirements. the electricity sector and to increase the share Using this information, two scenarios have been of renewable energy in the total energy mix. The developed for estimating the emission reduction government has invested in multiple projects potential of the electricity sector and are illustrated (including a 100 MW thermal power project in in Figure 32. Sectoral strategies 95 Baseline scenario: The baseline emission scenario the total installed capacity of renewable energy in estimates GHG emissions from the electricity the country by 2030. Thus, the emission reduction generation sector based only on the existing scenario is based on the following: strategies and projects that have already been • Over the next 10 years, six hydropower plants implemented in South Sudan (i.e., a 20 MW solar that have been planned by the government, will power plant is considered in this scenario). The be installed: Fula hydro (1,800 MW), and small emission trajectory does not reflect any new hydropower plants in Shukoli (210 MW), Beden renewable energy policies or financing that might (400 MW), Lakki (210 MW), Sue (12 MW) and be implemented in the sector. Thus, the baseline Kentti (3.5 MW). scenario assumes that beyond 2021, only oil-based • Investments of $500 million will be made for solar- power plants will be installed for electricity supply. based power generation, which translates to 57 Under this scenario, the share of renewable energy MW (at the cost of $1 per kilowatt-hour; Mozersky in the total installed capacity would be less than and Kammen, 2018) of new solar-powered plants 1 percent in 2030. Greenhouse gas emissions in the installed by 2030. baseline scenario are estimated to increase from 0.2 • Investments of $100 million will be made for million tCO2e in 2018 to 6.7 million tCO2e in 2030. power generation using wind energy, which Emission reduction (ER) scenario: The emission translates to a total of 11.41 MW (at the cost reduction scenario assumes that any new power- of $1 kilowatt-hour; Mozersky and Kammen, plant installation will be based on renewable 2018) by 2030. energy only; no power plants that use carbon- • Investments of $1.5 million will be made based fossil fuels will be installed beyond 2021. for biogas-based power generation, which The emission reduction scenario takes into account translates to 5.7 MW (at the cost of $30 per all the projects and investments that are planned megawatt-hour; International Energy Agency, by the Government of South Sudan to estimate 2020) by 2030. 96 Second Nationally Determined Contribution In the emission reduction scenario, the share of 7.5.3 Key strategies renewable energy will be more than 92 percent

7.5.3.1 Mitigation including hydropower plants (but 3 percent Electricity demand in South Sudan is expected to excluding hydropower) by 2030. Greenhouse rise above 1,450 MW by 2035. As estimated above, emissions in 2030 are estimated to be 0.53 million heavy reliance on fossil fuels for power generation tCO2e, 92 percent lower than the baseline scenario to meet this demand will result in significant (Figure 32, page 95). Thus, the emission reduction emissions from the sector. Given the increasing scenario will achieve a cumulative emission demand and South Sudan’s high potential for reduction of 11.9 million tCO2e by 2030 compared electricity generation from renewable sources, there to the baseline scenario. is significant room for green growth in this sector. The strategies that will be implemented to achieve Thus, South Sudan will implement the following the targets for emission reduction in the electricity strategies (described in Table 18) to achieve sector are detailed in the section below. emission reductions in electricity generation. Table 18: Mitigation strategies for the electricity sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Increase the use of clean and • Install Fula hydro (1,800 MW) and Feasibility study for Medium to renewable energy. small hydropower plants in Shukoli Grand Fula, along with long term (210 MW), Beden (400 MW), Lakki environmental impact South Sudan will continue to increase (210 MW), Sue (12 MW) and Kentti assessment, has been the use of clean energy and would aim (3.5 MW). carried out. at improving the share of renewable energy in its total energy mix by utilizing South Sudan’s high potential • Install wind turbines in Eastern Yet to be implemented Medium to for solar (6.9 gigajoules per square Equatoria, Greater Upper Nile and long term metre per year) and wind (285–380 Jonglei states. watts per square meter) energy generation. Increases in renewable energy for power generation will not • Install a 20 MW solar photovoltaic Engineering, Medium to plant to supply electricity to Juba. construction and long term only reduce emissions in the electricity procurement work for generation sector, but these will also the plant is ongoing. enable low-carbon development of most of the other secondary sectors (such as public administration, • Promote the environmentally Yet to be implemented Medium to education, health services and sustainable use of biogas for long term business activities that require electricity generation. electricity for operations). Improve the efficiency of biomass use. • Design improved cooking stoves to Awareness-raising Short to achieve energy-efficient cooking campaigns on the medium term South Sudan will focus on improving systems. economic use of energy efficiency in the use of biomass, biomass have been in particular, fuel wood and charcoal in conducted. the traditional energy sector. Reduce carbon intensity of existing • Assess the emission intensity of The Azra Short to long power plants. existing thermal power plants. independent-power- term producers, 33 MW South Sudan will encourage a reduction heavy-fuel-oil diesel in emissions from existing fossil-fuel plant has been notified power plants. to calculate emission levels. Sectoral strategies 97 Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Improve electrification in rural areas • Sign a memorandum of Currently, this activity Medium to using decentralized grids. understanding with investors for is stalled due to long term, rural, solar photovoltaic projects security concerns depending South Sudan will focus on improving in each of the ten states in the and inter-communal on electrification in rural areas through country. conflicts. improvement solar photovoltaic distribution. The in internal country will also make use of mini-grids security or decentralized renewable energy conditions grids, which can be a time and cost- efficient measure for providing access to electricity until a centralized grid is installed. Timely and affordable access to energy would reduce the opportunity costs associated with improved livelihood options and will be fundamental for South Sudan to meet its goals under Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. Increase renewable energy to access • Participate in carbon markets Yet to be implemented Medium to climate finance. to trade offsets generated from long term renewable energy projects. Offsets An increase in the contribution of can be traded not just globally, but renewable energy in the electricity mix also regionally (African countries will also enable South Sudan to access such as Ethiopia have started international climate finance through building domestic emission trading market-based mechanisms (such as schemes). carbon markets or result-based climate finance). Improve energy efficiency in the formal • Improve energy efficiency of South Sudan is Short to energy sector. lighting and appliances for power a member of the medium term saving. East African Centre South Sudan will focus on increasing of Excellence for the efficiency of electricity usage in the Renewable Energy formal energy sector and will promote and Efficiency. optimal usage of hydropower by careful management of water resources. Progress has also been made by including South Sudan on the priority list by the Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program to develop mini hydropower plants as part of the rural electrification project. Construct a national grid and • Conduct feasibility study for the Yet to be implemented Medium to interconnected transmission lines. construction of national grid. long term Currently, South Sudan does not have a national grid, therefore construction of central grid and transmission and distribution infrastructure is a priority area for the country. The government has also planned to construct • Conduct feasibility study for the Yet to be implemented Medium to interconnected transmission lines with construction of transmission lines long term Sudan, Uganda and Ethiopia. with neighbouring countries. 98 Second Nationally Determined Contribution With regard to gender representation in the Figure 33: Employment in the electricity, gas and water sectors, 2012–2015 renewable energy sector, women currently represent 32 percent of the renewable energy 15.7 workforce globally, which is higher than the 14 11.9 12 11.1 22 percent average reported for the oil and 9.9 Thousand workers 10 8.3 gas industry (International Renewable Energy 8 6 7.6

8.4 Agency, 2019). Therefore, increasing the share of 6.4 3.8 4 renewable energy in South Sudan will be pivotal 2 1.9 2.3 2.6 to job creation and, if the dividend of this growth 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 is equally distributed, it can provide increased Men Women Total career development opportunities to both men and women. Source: SCP-HAT, 2015

7.6 WATER

7.5.4 Potential for job creation

7.6.1 Current status Similar to GHG emissions, employment data for the electricity sector in South Sudan are unavailable. South Sudan’s water resources are distributed However, SCP-HAT provides total employment unevenly within the country, both spatially and in combined electricity, gas and water sectors temporally. Quantities of water vary significantly (Figure 33). Employment continuously increased between years, depending on major floods and for the period 2012–2015 with a compound annual drought events. Due to its relatively small population growth rate of 24 percent. Employment for men and limited industrial development, water demand and women observed an increasing compound is low in South Sudan compared to its neighbouring annual growth rate of 23 percent and 27 percent, countries. However, demand is expected to respectively. rise significantly with increasing population and industrial activities. The Ministry of Water Resources Employment in the electricity sector is expected to and Irrigation reported, in 2007, that the impact continue growing in the future with an increasing of human activities on the quantity and quality of share of renewable energy in the total energy mix. water resources was already evident and of growing This is because renewable energy technologies concern. Moreover, it has been observed that tend to be more labour intensive than conventional once-perennial rivers in South Sudan are becoming energy generation, and create more jobs per unit seasonal. Climate change is likely to exacerbate this of energy produced. Examples from developed problem, impacting water availability and reliability. countries also suggest an increasing employment trend in the renewable energy sector. For instance, Another critical issue in South Sudan is the absence employment in clean energy in the United States of wastewater management infrastructure. Untreated grew by 3.6 percent in 2018, adding about 110,000 municipal wastewater, sludge and industrial effluents new jobs. Moreover, it is estimated that the United run directly into water bodies, since most towns States’ two fastest growing jobs to 2026 will be lack water treatment and adequate sanitation those of solar installers (105 percent growth) and facilities. Only 13 percent of the population had wind technicians (96 percent growth) (Marcacci, access to sanitation facilities in 2017. This makes the 2019). Furthermore, recent studies show that communities, especially in rural areas, vulnerable renewable energy projects can offset job losses to water-borne diseases and in 2017, for instance, from a decline in extractive industries and can, in more than 16,000 people were affected by a cholera turn, create a net employment gain (International outbreak, with a mortality rate of 2.3 percent (World Labour Organization, n.d.). Health Organization (WHO), 2017). Sectoral strategies 99 Around 50 percent of the population in South sectors (represented in Figure 31). The low-carbon Sudan does not have access to safe drinking development of these services is directly dependent water (USAID, 2017). Most of the urban population on the use of renewable energy and the low-carbon (except in Juba and other state capitals) are development of the electricity sector. Thus, water dependent on undeveloped water supply systems being a secondary sector, its emission reduction similar to those of rural areas, such as water yards, potential has already been accounted for in the motorized community handpumps and unprotected electricity sector (refer Figure 32, page 95). wells. Thus, the major policies of South Sudan, i.e., the NAPA, the NDS and Vision 2040, focus 7.6.3 Key strategies on improving drinking-water accessibility and

7.6.3.1 Mitigation conserving natural water resources. To maintain water quality and reduce the transmission of water-borne diseases, it is

7.6.2 Emission reduction potential important to ensure that untreated wastewater Emissions from the water sector come mainly from is not directly discharged into water bodies. This the use of electricity for collection, treatment and can be achieved through implementation of the distribution of water to residential and commercial strategies described in Table 19. Table 19: Mitigation strategies for the water sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Development of water supply • Finalize the draft Water Bill. No progress has Short to infrastructure. been made due medium to lack of financial term To ensure access to safe drinking • Ensure coordination between national, resources. water and to enhance water resources transboundary and international management practices, South Sudan will water-sector activities. invest in establishing efficient water supply infrastructure. Develop wastewater treatment • Implement the urban water Yet to be Medium infrastructure. development project supported by implemented term the Japan International Cooperation South Sudan will invest in developing and Agency (JICA). improving urban and industrial wastewater treatment infrastructure to improve water quality. 100 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Promote the reuse and recycling of • Encourage recycling of industrial Yet to be Medium wastewater. wastewater. implemented term The government will promote the reuse and recycling of wastewater to reduce environmental impact and stress on freshwater resources. Develop regulations to reduce water • Impose and collect fines or penalties Not yet Short term pollution. for polluting freshwater resources. implemented South Sudan will develop and implement mechanisms such as penalties for industries and/or individuals responsible for polluting water sources. To implement the interventions provided in Table 7.6.3.2 Adaptation 19, South Sudan will require increased access to Table 20 showcases adaptation actions that will climate and development finance to set up adequate be taken in order to reduce the adverse impacts water management infrastructure. This will also help of changing water availability and water quality South Sudan to meet its goals under SDG 6: Clean on communities. Water and Sanitation. Table 20: Adaptation strategies for the water sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Rehabilitate irrigation schemes. • Rehabilitation of northern Upper Nile No progress has Short to State irrigation infrastructure to benefit been made due to long term The majority of South Sudan’s population about 20% of all the farmers in the area the lack of financial is dependent on agriculture and livestock by 2030. resources. for their livelihoods. These communities are highly vulnerable to climatic changes that impact water availability and quality. Therefore, South Sudan aims to rehabilitate irrigation schemes to provide improved access to water for agriculture. Develop water infrastructure to support • Construct and rehabilitate water- Not yet Short to livestock farming. harvesting and storage infrastructures implemented medium (such as haffirs and pans) and develop term South Sudan aims to establish rainwater- flood-control works (such as barriers harvesting measures for livestock and dykes). production to reduce vulnerability of cattle keepers and pastoralist communities in water-scarce regions. Conserve wetlands. • Generate awareness among Yet to be Short term government and institutions for implemented South Sudan has many important sustainable wetland management wetlands that support the livelihoods practices. of a large number of people (especially through fishing and extracting timber) and, in some cases, supply communities with • Build the capacity of communities Yet to be Short term water. These wetlands are vulnerable to living around wetlands to adapt and implemented changes in temperature and precipitation, diversify their livelihoods, thereby as well as over-extraction. Therefore, preventing excessive exploitation of protection of these wetlands is another wetland resources. important focus area. Sectoral strategies 101 Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Implement projects identified under • Review projects identified in the Yet to be Short to water-related policies that incorporate agriculture and irrigation master plans implemented medium climate-change criteria. to consider likely impacts of climate term The government will put in efforts towards change in project planning and implementing and executing projects implementation. that are included in the CAMP and the Irrigation Development Master Plan. • Implement the planned Jebel Lado The government is Short to Moreover, climate-adaptation criteria will Irrigation Scheme. currently setting up medium be incorporated in public investment in an agreement with term these water-related projects. the World Bank. Rehabilitate the hydrometeorological • Strengthen and upgrade the Yet to be Medium monitoring network. operations of the Water Information implemented term Management System for collecting and South Sudan will invest in establishing monitoring water-related information. and rehabilitating hydrometeorological monitoring stations to collect climate information and provide early warnings for events such as floods and droughts. • Rehabilitate existing water pumps and Yet to be Medium to install new pumps. implemented long term Introduce integrated water catchment • Implement the Nyimur Multipurpose A study for project Short to management. Water Resources Project to improve implementation has medium socio-economic development through been carried out. term To maintain water quality and quantity for the future, the Government of South water resources management for Sudan is prioritizing an integrated water increased water availability. catchment management approach. This involves recognizing the complex relationships between existing ecosystems, hydrology and human dependencies on these resources to identify and adopt measures for sustainably managing and reducing threats to water resources.

7.6.4 Potential for job creation of data on jobs that are dependent on water. However, there are few studies that find a strong Jobs in the water sector serve as building blocks for positive correlation between investments in the a wide array of water-dependent job opportunities water sector and national income, as well as in sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, energy, between water storage capacity and economic mining and industry. Access to safe drinking water growth (UNESCO, 2016). For instance, investment for households and commercial sectors, along in small-scale projects in Africa that focus on with adequate hygiene, is crucial for maintaining increasing access to safe water and basic sanitation a healthy and productive workforce across could potentially provide an estimated economic all sectors. Thus, investment in water-related return of about $28.4 billion per year (UNESCO, infrastructure is not only necessary for creating n.d.). These high economic returns will have jobs in the sector directly, but is also critical in positive impacts on direct and indirect employment providing an enabling environment for economic as well. If the planned NDC interventions for the growth and employment generation in other water sector are implemented in a coordinated water-dependent sectors. manner in conjunction with those for other sectors Estimating the potential of economic growth and (i.e., agriculture, energy and industry), South direct job creation is particularly challenging for Sudan could maximize positive economic and the water sector due to the current unavailability employment benefits. 102 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

7.7 WASTE Figure 34: Composition of municipal solid waste in Juba

7.7.1 Current status Currently, the waste management system of South Sudan is inefficient and underdeveloped. There are no national level policies or strategies that have been implemented for waste management in the country. Most of the waste that is generated either goes to landfill sites or is openly burned. The city of Juba generates approximately 1,337 tonnes of Paper Textiles Wood Nappies Plastic (12%) (12%) (4%) (1%) and other solid waste per day, which breaks down to a daily materials (42%) per-capita waste of 0.68 kilograms made up mostly of plastics and food waste (Figure 34). Figure 35 shows Source: JICA, 2018 that much of this waste comes from households (72 percent) followed by markets (11 percent). In Juba, the Figure 35: Sources of solid waste in Juba city council, collects 34.3 tonnes of waste a day (2.6 percent of the total waste generated), indicating low coverage of waste collection services (JICA, 2018). The remaining waste is disposed by households, most of which is illegally dumped along riverbanks, in vacant spaces or burned in open air. In addition to a low waste-collection ratio, South Sudan does not have large waste processing or Households Markets Restaurants Hotels Small recycling industries. Informal collection of waste (72%) (12%) (4%) and shops institutions and materials such as aluminium, scrap metal, hard (5%) others (8%) plastic and plastic bottles is carried out. These materials are exported to Uganda and Kenya for Source: South Sudan Ministry of Environment, 2018 recycling by small-scale private companies. There are no recycling or wastewater treatment Figure 36: GHG emissions from the waste sector, 2012–2015 plants and sewer systems in the country. Municipal wastewater, sewage and industrial effluents 4.121 4 3.727 3.922 run directly into natural water bodies due to the 3.553 lack of sanitation and wastewater management 3 infrastructure. This contaminates surface waters Million tCO₂e 2 and groundwater resulting in serious health risks to local communities. Unmanaged and untreated waste 1 not only impacts human and ecosystem health, but 0 0.021 0.022 0.023 0.024 also results in high and increasing GHG emissions 2012 2013 2014 2015 (Figure 36). According to the NATCOM, the waste Solid waste disposal on land Domestic and commercial sector contributed 11 percent (4.1 million tCO2e) to wastewater the country’s total GHG emissions in 2015 (South Source: South Sudan Ministry of Environment, 2018 Sudan Ministry of Environment, 2018). The major GHG emissions from the waste sector are landfill- generated methane and wastewater-generated methane and nitrous oxide. Sectoral strategies 103 Figure 37: Domestic production of GHG emissions from recycling, 2012–2015 0.0696 0.0697 0.0713 0.0704 0.06 0.04 Million tCO₂e 0.02 0.00 2012 2013 2014 2015 Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Figure 38: GHG emission scenarios for the waste sector, 2012–2030 6.63 6.5 6 Million tCO₂e 5.5 5 4.64 4.5 4 3.6 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 Baseline scenario Emission reduction scenario Greenhouse gas emissions from domestic percent by 2023, and to strengthen the capacity recycling, however, did not increase over the of solid waste management. However, due to lack 2012–2015 period (Figure 37). Instead, there is a of budget and the rapid population increase in the slight decrease of emissions (by 1 percent) between city, the plan is not making progress as scheduled 2014 and 2015. Recycling of waste material (JICA, 2018). contributed marginally, 0.1 percent (0.07 million

7.7.2 Emission reduction potential tCO2e), to the total domestic production of GHG emissions in 2015. To estimate the potential for GHG emission reduction from the waste sector, two scenarios A lack of effective waste management infrastructure have been developed, and projections made and policies has led to waste becoming a major for the years 2016–2030. The two scenarios environmental problem in South Sudan. To address are described below and illustrated in these issues, the Environment Protection Bill Figure 38. requires the Ministry of Environment and Forestry to issue guidelines on solid and hazardous Baseline scenario: The baseline emission waste management. Moreover, the government scenario projects GHG emissions for the waste developed the Solid Waste Management Plan sector based only on the existing policies in for Juba (city) with technical support from JICA. South Sudan. The emission trajectory does The city declared a target collection rate of 34 not reflect any new policies or financing that 104 Second Nationally Determined Contribution might be implemented in the sector; i.e., the the baseline levels (Figure 38). Under this scenario, baseline scenario represents the case of no emissions from the waste sector are estimated action. Projections for the amount of waste to be 4.6 million tCO2e by 2030, which results in generated are based on population growth rate a cumulative emission reduction of 10.9 million and urbanization. Under this scenario, emissions tCO2e (19 percent lower) by 2030 compared to from the waste sector continually increase and the baseline scenario. The strategies that will be reach 6.6 million tCO2e by 2030. implemented to achieve the emission reduction targets for the waste sector are detailed in the Emission reduction scenario: The emission section below. reduction scenario represents a decarbonization pathway for South Sudan, in which the government

7.7.3 Key strategies implements policies such as landfill methane recovery, increased recycling and incineration. 7.7.3.1 Mitigation The emission reduction target in this scenario is The following table showcases mitigation actions based on estimates of the IPCC, which suggest that will be taken up in order to ensure proper that the waste sector has a potential of mitigating management and treatment of waste and reduce 30 percent of its emissions by 2030, compared to GHG emissions. Table 21: Mitigation strategies for the waste sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Develop national-level waste management • Develop a national-level plan for solid Yet to be Short to policy. and liquid waste management with a implemented medium focus on a circular economy. This plan term There are minimal regulatory systems could be implemented at state level for effective waste management and for first and subsequently cascaded down regulating waste management activities in to each municipality. South Sudan. Therefore, the foremost focus of the government would be development and implementation of a national-level policy and plan for waste management. A • Increase awareness and disseminate Yet to be Short to major aspect of this policy will be to enable information regarding waste implemented medium transition towards a circular economy by management among communities at term promoting the use of waste as a resource national, state and county levels. and enhancing recycling rates. This will help South Sudan reduce primary material extraction and increase the use of secondary sources. Increase private-sector participation. • Increase awareness regarding Yet to be Short to the global carbon markets and implemented long term Currently, there is minimal participation of associated climate finance among private players in the waste management private players. (Waste management sector, with major responsibilities lying with is one of the potential sectors for the municipality. Therefore, an important generating carbon credits. Thus, aspect of the waste management plan would implementation of efficient waste be to encourage involvement of private management practices can reduce sector in waste management activities. This GHG emissions and potentially would ensure improved coverage of waste generate emission-reduction credits collection and management services. in carbon markets. The revenue generated from the sale of such carbon credits can provide economic incentives to private players for development and implementation of effective mitigation technologies.) Sectoral strategies 105 Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Reduce, reuse, recycle to minimize waste • Promote waste prevention from different Yet to be Short to and use waste as a resource. sectors by utilization of urban waste implemented medium for making briquettes; plastic waste to term To transition from a linear to a circular generate refuse-derived fuel, which economy, South Sudan will promote waste could be used in industry; methane prevention, minimization, recycling and capture during flaring for biogas reuse in various sectors such as agriculture, electricity-generating plants; and reuse hospitality, construction and industry. This and recycle construction material, such represents a growing potential to reduce as wood, bricks, iron, etc. GHG emissions through decreased waste generation, not only in the waste sector but in other sectors as well. • Create green belts in sewage These plans are Medium to treatment sites. included in the long term NDS as priority • Procure compactors, excavators, actions. Short term dumper trucks and shredders to manage waste disposal; train staff to manage waste facilities. • Establish laboratories to test quality of Short to water resources and wastewater. medium term Regulate the extraction of primary • Reduce supply of primary resources Yet to be Medium to resources. to increase demand for recycled or implemented long term reused resources. South Sudan will regulate the extraction and use of primary sources to catalyse an adoption of waste recycling. Promote composting of organic waste. • Enhance composting by mandating Yet to be Short term segregation of waste (at source) to implemented Large quantities of organic waste are enable composting of segregated generated in the country, for instance, food organic waste from markets, hotels, waste (29%) and wood waste (3.8%), which restaurants, households and sewage form a significant portion of municipal solid sludge. waste in Juba. South Sudan thus will promote the composting of organic waste as a circular economy strategy. Depending on the • Increase awareness on the generation Yet to be Short to compost quality, it could have many potential of carbon credits through composting implemented medium applications, such as manure in agriculture and and the associated economic term production of biogas for cooking and lighting. incentives. Development of urban and industrial • Construct solid and liquid waste The plan has Medium wastewater treatment plants. management facilities in Juba, Wau been included term and Malakal. in the NDS as a Most GHG emissions from the waste sector priority action. come from domestic and commercial wastewater. Therefore, South Sudan will target the development of wastewater • Access international technology, Yet to be Medium treatment and effluent treatment plants for example, zero liquid discharge implemented term to reduce GHG emissions. Efficient technology. implementation of wastewater treatment will also promote water conservation by preventing pollution and reducing the volume of pollutants flowing into water bodies. In this regard, access to international technology • Build capacity on the use of Yet to be Short to will be paramount due to limited domestic international technology extensively. implemented medium manufacturing facilities. Thus, to a great (Capacity-building will be crucial since term degree, the achievement of these particular experiences in other countries, such goals for wastewater management will as India, have shown that technology be conditional on receiving international implementation without requisite financing and technology. knowledge is likely to be unsuccessful.) 106 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Introduce decentralized waste • Introduce decentralized waste Yet to be Short to management options. management options, such as using implemented medium livestock waste for biogas generation, term South Sudan will also explore decentralized which could be further used for waste management options, especially in cooking and lighting in households; rural areas. and installation of pit latrines, decentralized wastewater treatment systems, septic tanks, etc.

7.7.3.2 Adaptation The following table showcases adaptation actions that will be taken up in order to ensure proper management and treatment of waste. Table 22: Adaptation strategies for the waste sector Strategies Activities under consideration Current progress Time-frame Improve access to sanitation facilities and • Include housing infrastructure in new Yet to be Medium improve urban sanitation practices. urban planning centres. implemented term In South Sudan, access to basic sanitation facilities is low, especially in rural areas where only 6% of the rural population uses basic sanitation services. Development of solid and liquid waste management facilities will strengthen local communities’ coping capacities by ensuring clean and hygienic surroundings and by reducing the likelihood of health impacts to communities that could arise during floods due to the prevalence of unhygienic practices. Development of small or decentralized • Develop septic tanks for decentralized Yet to be Short to wastewater treatment systems. waste treatment. implemented medium term Development of small or decentralized wastewater treatment systems would improve access to sanitation facilities while reducing water pollution and vulnerability to water-borne diseases and associated health impacts. Improve the performance of waste • Establish solid and liquid waste A plan included Medium to management facilities. treatment plants and develop in the NDS. long term laboratories for testing treated waste. South Sudan will improve the efficiency of solid and liquid waste management facilities to ensure proper treatment and disposal of waste, thus reducing land and water pollution. Establish an integrated waste management • Map stakeholders involved in solid Yet to be Short to system. and liquid waste management at all implemented medium levels of government. term South Sudan will target sustainable management of waste by taking into account all sources, treatment, disposal and recycling, with an emphasis on waste prevention and increasing the efficiency of resource use. Sectoral strategies 107

7.7.4 Potential for job creation 7.8 TOURISM AND RECREATION Currently, the majority of waste management activities 7.8.1 Current status are carried out by the informal sector in South Sudan, South Sudan has numerous tourist destinations, so overall employment trends in the sector are not including a wide variety of flora and fauna, and available. However, employment data for recycling in diverse cultural and historical sites. The country the country (recycling of metal waste and scrap) saw an has 14 national parks and protected areas and is overall positive growth rate between 2012 and 2015 home to the world’s second largest animal migration (Figure 39), with a compound annual growth rate of (UNEP, 2018a). Besides wildlife-based attractions, 10 percent. This positive rate was reflected for men South Sudan has many rivers and wetlands, and women at 9 percent and 13 percent, respectively. including the Sudd, which is the most extensive Formalizing the waste sector will generate wetland in the Nile River basin. These tourist sites opportunities for increased formal employment are an important source of carbon sequestration, and will ensure higher wages for unskilled workers. watershed protection and biodiversity conservation. Implementation of waste management policies While data for GHG emissions from the tourism will increase the demand for waste management and recreation sector as a whole are not available, services in South Sudan. the data for emissions from hotels and restaurants While solid waste management is a highly mechanized show a gradual increasing trend from a domestic process that requires minimal labour, recycling of production perspective for 2012–2015. The share waste is a highly labour-intensive process. Thus, of GHG emissions from domestic production was high job-creation potential in the waste sector will be 0.0036 million tCO2e, contributing marginally mainly driven by the recycling industry. It is estimated (0.005 percent) to total domestic production GHG that waste collection and landfill disposal create less emissions (67.6 million tCO2e). Other environmental than one job per 1,000 tonnes of waste managed, impacts of hotels and restaurants are observed in while collection, processing and manufacturing terms of natural resource consumption, such as of products from recycled materials create 6–13 water, and waste generation. In 2017, hotels and jobs per 1,000 tonnes of waste recycled (National institutions in Juba generated 62 tonnes per day Resources Defence Council, 2014). (5 percent of total waste generated) (JICA, 2018). Thus, the implementation of waste management

7.8.2 Emission reduction potential policies (mentioned above) in South Sudan with a focus on enhancing recycling rates would create Globally, the tourism sector contributed 8 percent job opportunities in the sector. to emissions between 2009–2013 (Dunne, 2018). The majority of these emissions (more than 50 percent) came from aviation and road transport, Figure 39: Employment in recycling, 2012–2015 followed by accommodation (World Tourism

0.29 Organization, 2019). Since emissions related to 0.30 0.25 0.25 0.22 domestic transport (both road and aviation) for 0.19 Thousand workers 0.20 0.22 South Sudan are accounted for in the transport 0.15 0.19 0.17 sector, here the focus is only on emission reduction 0.10 0.14 0.06 0.07 from the hotel industry. The tourism and recreation 0.05 0.04 0.05 sector is in a nascent stage of development in 0.00 2012 2013 2014 2015 South Sudan, and there are therefore limitations Men Women Total with respect to data availability for the sector as a whole. Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 108 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Two scenarios have been developed to estimate Figure 40: Hotel and restaurant sector GHG emissions potential emission reduction in the hotel industry, from domestic production, 2012–2015 based on historical data and projections for the 0.0035 0.0036 0.0036 years 2016–2030 using a statistical model. 0.0033 0.003 Baseline scenario: The baseline emission scenario Million tCO₂e projects GHG emissions for hotels under existing 0.002 policies in South Sudan. The emissions trajectory 0.001 does not reflect new policies or financing that might be implemented in the sector. Under this scenario, 0.000 emissions from the sector rise by 74 percent from 2012 2013 2014 2015 2012 to reach 0.0054 million tCO2e by 2030. Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Emission reduction scenario: The emission reduction scenario represents the decarbonization Figure 41: GHG emission reduction scenarios for the pathway that South Sudan will have to follow until hotel and restaurant sector, 2010–2030 2030 to achieve the Paris Agreement’s goal of 0.0054 limiting global temperature rise to a maximum of 0.005 2ºC. This scenario aims to reduce hotel industry emissions by of 66 percent from 2010 levels 0.004 Million tCO₂e 0.0031 by 2030, in line with the 2ºC target estimated 0.003 by International Tourism Partnership for the 0.0018 global hotel industry (United Nations Framework 0.002 Convention on Climate Change, 2018). Under this 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 scenario, emissions from this sector are estimated Baseline scenario Emission reduction scenario to be 0.0018 million tCO2e in 2030 and there will Sectoral strategies 109 be a cumulative emission reduction of 40 percent 7.8.3 Key strategies (0.02 million tCO2e) by 2030.

7.8.3.1 Mitigation The strategies that will be implemented to achieve With the expected future growth of the tourism the emission reduction targets for hotels have been and recreation sector, the pressure on resources detailed in the section below. These strategies such as energy and water is likely to rise, as focus on the entire tourism and recreation sector, are associated GHG emissions. South Sudan rather than just hotels and restaurants, to ensure will consider the strategies in Table 23 for the that as the tourism industry develops, it grows with mitigation of GHG emissions and low-carbon low-carbon emissions and in a sustainable manner. development of the sector. Table 23: Mitigation strategies for the tourism and recreation sector Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Manage waste efficiently in hotels and • Promote composting of organic waste Yet to be Short to restaurants generated by hotels and restaurants implemented medium (since most of this waste is likely to be term Hotels and restaurants generate huge food waste). quantities of waste (62 tonnes per day in Juba). South Sudan will implement efficient waste management measures to help • Utilize opportunities from composting Yet to be Short to reduce GHG emissions. of waste for installation of biogas units implemented medium as an alternate source of energy for term cooking and lighting in hotels. Increase the share of renewable energy • Promote use of energy-efficient Yet to be Short to appliances in hotels and restaurants implemented medium South Sudan will focus on increasing the and use of clean energy for cooking term share of renewable energy and improving and lighting. energy efficiency in hotels and restaurants as the sector grows. Use low-carbon transport for tourism and • Use EVs, particularly for transit to and Yet to be Long term recreational activities from airports, and using buses to pick implemented up a large number of passengers at Tourism and recreation is interconnected one time instead of individual cars. with the transport sector, so promotion of the use of electric vehicles (EVs) and low-carbon transport will help reduce • Use EVs for recreational transport (e.g., Yet to be Long term transport-related emissions in tourism and safaris). implemented recreation as well. Promote the use of locally produced • Promote collaboration between the Yet to be Short to sustainable food in the tourism and local tourism industry and sustainable implemented medium recreation sector food producers in the country. term As food production is one of the largest emitters of GHG emissions, increasing demand for locally produced sustainable food in the tourism and recreation sector will reduce GHG emissions from agriculture activities (e.g., transportation of food) and will help improve the livelihoods of farmers and rural communities. This will contribute towards achieving Target 8.9 of SDG 8: Decent work and economic growth (“By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products”). 110 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

7.8.3.2 Adaptation The following table showcases adaptation actions that will be taken in order to ensure sustainable growth of tourism activities. Table 24: Adaptation strategies for the tourism and recreation sector Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Integrate ecotourism into existing plans. • Promote sustainable Yet to be Short to medium nature-based tourism, implemented term The tourism policy of South Sudan aims to including wildlife tourism, to promote tourism to the variety of attractions provide improved livelihood in the country, including natural forests opportunities to rural and wildlife. If the industry develops communities while protecting unsustainably, it will increase pressure on biodiversity. natural resources and cause significant adverse impacts to wildlife, forests and ecosystems. This in turn will have an adverse impact on the livelihoods of communities that are dependent on them. Therefore, South Sudan will integrate ecotourism into existing plans, ensuring responsible travel to natural areas. Community-based tourism in Southern • Engage with communities in Yet to be Short to medium National Park. Western Lakes and Gbudwe implemented term states for managing the park. South Sudan will establish community-based ecotourism, particularly in Southern National Park. Ensure sustainable growth of recreational • Development of sustainable Yet to be Short to long term activities. and climate-resilient parks, implemented gardens, water activities As its economy develops and demand for and other recreational recreational activities increases, South infrastructure. Sudan will ensure that development of any new recreational infrastructure is climate resilient and occurs in a sustainable manner with no negative impacts on the ecosystems and biodiversity of the region.

7.8.4 Potential for job creation Figure 42: Employment in hotels and restaurants, 2012–2015 The tourism and recreation sector in South Sudan is currently in a phase of development. 41.1 40 36.7 Individual entrepreneurs and a few corporates, 32.3 34.5 29.2 30 Thousand workers especially from East Africa, have started building 26.2 establishments for tourism. While data with respect 20 23.5 24.7 12.0 to the number of businesses and employment are 10 9.8 10.5 not available for the tourism and recreation sector, 8.8 0 a few sources, such as the National Bureau of 2012 2013 2014 2015 Statistics and SCP-HAT, provide data for hotels Men Women Total and restaurants. In 2010, 1,045 businesses (14.5 percent of total businesses) were registered Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Sectoral strategies 111 as hotels or restaurants (South Sudan National 7.9 MINING AND QUARRYING Bureau of Statistics, 2010). According to SCP-HAT,

7.9.1 Current status employment in hotels and restaurants grew at a compound annual growth rate of 8 percent in South Sudan has more than 16 minerals, including 2012–2015. The employment rate for both men gold, copper, zinc, lead, manganese, silver, tin, and women also increased over the same period, uranium, diamonds, tungsten, mica, iron ore, marble, with a compound annual growth rate of 8 percent limestone, dolomite, clay and asbestos. However, and 11 percent, respectively. commercial exploration is currently constrained by the lack of industrial activity in the country, limited The potential of the tourism and recreation investments and few trained human resources. sector to contribute to the economic and social development of the country is significant. As the Domestic production output in the sector has been sector is linked to various others, it is a major observed to be increasing, but most of the minerals creator of employment, particularly for women, currently produced are exported to neighbouring youth, migrant workers and rural communities. The countries. According to SCP-HAT data, domestic global tourism sector generates 1 in every 11 jobs output increased by 1.48 percent per annum from in the world (International Labour Organization, 2012 to 2015 (from $255 million to $267 million, 2016). There is evidence from other African respectively). countries (e.g., South Africa) that a booming tourism Oil production, which has been the major source sector creates many more jobs than other sectors of revenue for the country, has been declining in because of its labour-intensive nature. Effective recent years. The government is therefore now implementation of initiatives like those mentioned promoting mining and quarrying, which are focused in Chapter 7.8.3 to strengthen the sector’s linkages on in South Sudan’s Vision 2040, as an alternative with other sectors throughout the supply chain source of revenue. (e.g., transport, agriculture and promotion of locally produced goods) will enhance local employment Illegal small-scale and artisanal mining for minerals opportunities and contribute towards reducing like gold has been increasing, especially in the poverty in South Sudan. rural areas. Artisanal gold mining accounted for approximately 85 percent of the total gold The future growth of the tourism and recreation extracted (about 280 million tonnes) up to 2015 sector in South Sudan will also have a positive (Ibrahim, 2015). The vast majority of those involved impact on women’s employment, since tourism is in artisanal mining are poor rural individuals for one of the few sectors in which the participation whom alluvial gold mining provides critical income of women is already above parity in some to supplement their subsistence livelihoods regions. Women account for up to 70 percent of farming and cattle rearing. However, an of all workers in the global tourism industry increase in artisanal mining could lead to adverse (World Bank, 2018). Furthermore, promotion and environmental impacts like increased shifting of implementation of sustainable wildlife tourism land use (from forestry to mines), deforestation, strategies with effective planning, stakeholder soil erosion and open dumping of waste. collaboration and community participation will provide income-generating opportunities for The Government of South Sudan has therefore communities that live adjacent to protected areas, developed a mining policy and mining act to especially for their women. Tourism employment regulate the growth of the sector and formalize will likely change the social and gender dynamics mining activities, including small-scale artisanal in these communities as more women become mining. The Mining Policy recognizes the need to empowered. ensure that mining operations are conducted in a 112 Second Nationally Determined Contribution socially and environmentally responsible manner Figure 43: Mining and quarrying sector GHG emissions by minimizing the harmful impacts of mining. It also from domestic production, 2012–2015 ensures that the interests of local communities are considered and protected. The policy does not 7.81 7.41 7.01 focus in particular on climate change mitigation 6.39 6 and adaptation in the sector. Thousand tCO₂e 4 While small-scale mining has been formalized through the Mining Act and its regulations, illegal and 2 damaging practices are still prevalent in the country. 0 This sector is not currently included in relevant 2012 2013 2014 2015 climate change policies in the country. While mining Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 and quarrying is carbon-intensive, the share of GHG emitted by the sector is low (0.01 percent of total GHG emissions in 2015, according to SCP-HAT of limited industrial activities and lack of trained domestic production data). However, emissions from human resources. Currently, the mining and the sector are likely to increase with further growth. quarrying industry is in a development stage Growth in the sector is also likely to lead to adverse and the share of GHG emissions from the sector impacts on land and water resources, as well as is marginal. This makes it difficult to project the on biodiversity, especially if illegal small-scale and future trajectory of emissions for the sector artisanal mining continues to grow. accurately. However, as South Sudan transitions from a low-

7.9.2 Emission reduction potential income economy to a middle-income economy, While South Sudan has abundant mineral wealth, an increase in industrial mining and quarrying is it has not been extensively explored because expected. As a result, GHG emissions from the Sectoral strategies 113 sector are expected to increase and contribute country’s industrial sector. This is likely to result significantly to the country’s overall emissions. in an increase in the amount of GHG emissions Therefore, South Sudan, through its second NDC, released by the sector, in addition to adverse commits to implementing low-carbon interventions impacts on land and water resources. South within the sector to help reduce its negative Sudan will therefore implement the interventions impacts on the environment while contributing to described in Table 25 to ensure that growth of the country’s economic growth. the mining and quarrying sector occurs in an environmentally sustainable manner.

7.9.3 Key strategies

7.9.3.1 Mitigation As already mentioned, the sector has significant The following table showcases mitigation actions importance from an economic development that will be taken up in order to ensure sustainable standpoint and will contribute to the growth of the growth in the mining sector. Table 25: Mitigation strategies for the mining and quarrying sector Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Reduction in carbon emissions from • Promote integration of aspects of Yet to be Short to mining activities. energy efficiency in the process design implemented medium (during crushing and grinding) of small term South Sudan will implement strategies that to large mines, and increase efficiency focus on reduction of GHG emissions from of energy consumption in vehicles at the sector through reduction of energy mining sites. consumption in processes and operations. Reduce deforestation due to mining. • Integrate land use management into Yet to be Short term the Forest Policy, especially for the implemented As part of its Forest Policy, South Sudan mining sector. will focus on developing regulations to reduce the rate of deforestation due to mining by strengthening land-use management planning and policies at the national and local levels.

7.9.3.2 Adaptation The following table showcases adaptation actions that will be taken up in order to build resilience from the impacts of climate change in the mining sector. Table 26: Adaptation strategies for the mining and quarrying sector Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Strengthen governance and institutional • Strengthen the governance framework Yet to be Short term mechanisms for the mining sector. to ensure miners’ compliance with implemented ESIA, environment management Stronger institutional and governance plans and sustainable mining closure mechanisms will enable strict enforcement plans submitted for obtaining licenses of the policy and ensure compliance with as mandated under existing mining its requirements. regulations. • Restrict illegal small-scale mining, Yet to be Short to which is still prevalent in the country, implemented medium thereby preventing negative term environmental impacts. 114 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Develop environmental regulations. • Develop national-level plans and Yet to be Short term regulations focused on reducing implemented South Sudan will develop of negative environmental impacts environmental regulations and standards resulting from mining activities. for air quality, water management, and effluent and hazardous waste management at mining sites, and set up mechanisms for ensuring the regular monitoring of mining sites and compliance with regulations. This will help manage and reduce impacts on surrounding land and water resources, along with detrimental effects on the health and livelihoods of surrounding communities. Develop regulations to promote • Adopt globally accepted environmental Yet to be Short term sustainable mine closure health and safety standards and implemented guidelines for covering up mine Develop standards for sustainable closure entrances, replanting grass and trees, of mining sites and making the land usable and testing surrounding water, soil and for other purposes, such as forestry and air for contaminants, and implementing recreation, in the future. measures to prevent contamination. • Develop strict guidelines to ensure Yet to be Short term prevention of environmental disasters implemented due to failure of mining infrastructures such as tailings dams.

7.9.4 Potential for job creation Figure 44: Employment in the mining and quarrying Employment in the mining and quarrying sector sector, 2012–2015 has been increasing at a compound annual growth 56.3 58.7 57.8 rate of 2.45 percent, with a positive growth trend 53.8 50 45.1 46.9 46.1 of employment for both men and women at 2 43.5 Thousand workers 40 percent and 4.7 percent per annum, respectively. 30 Many people have been observed to be shifting 20 11.7 11.7 10.2 11.2 their livelihoods from agriculture to mining. SCP- 10 0 HAT data shows that employment in the agriculture 2012 2013 2014 2015 sector has been decreasing by 0.7 percent per Men Women Total annum; this may correlate with the increase in employment in the mining sector, given that there Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 is limited industrial development in the country and oil exploration activities have also declined. providing local employment opportunities. In addition to direct jobs, mining creates indirect and Implementation of policies to restrict artisanal and induced jobs, the number of which could be much small-scale mining will result in a large number of greater than direct jobs in mining. people who depend on informal mining activities losing employment. However, the expected Furthermore, implementation of policies such as growth of the mining sector and increase in formal mandatory compliance with ESIA will not only mining activities will drive economic growth while mitigate the negative environmental impacts but Sectoral strategies 115 will also provide social and economic benefits commercial transportation services are fairly to local communities that live near mine sites. regular along the White Nile. Local employment in the sector can further be The overall cost of transporting goods remains strengthened with government efforts to improve high in South Sudan. This places a significant cost the competitiveness of local workers and locally burden on transport users and suppliers and has produced goods and services. direct consequences on the country’s economy. Therefore, the Government of South Sudan is

7.10 TRANSPORT currently focusing on the development of the

7.10.1 Current status country’s transport infrastructure (especially road transport) and the issue is also a key priority in most South Sudan has four main modes of transport – of the development policies of South Sudan. The road, rail, river and air transport. However, these NDS targets for 2018–2021 include constructing are currently neither efficient nor reliable. Road and rehabilitating 1,000 kilometres of feeder road transport is the single largest mode of transport, with and 500 kilometres of highway. most goods being transported by road. However, most roads (including highways) are unpaved and Data of GHG emissions from the transport sector are inaccessible during the rainy season due to show a decreasing trend from 2012 to 2014, poor maintenance. The poor infrastructure results followed by an increase of 12 percent in 2015 in freight tariffs being almost four times higher than (compared to 2014). Transportation contributed those in neighbouring countries. 1.2 percent to total GHG emissions in 2015. Of this, road transport contributed to 0.42 million Vehicle ownership remains low as a result of the tCO2e (94 percent of total transport emissions) and country’s low average income and poor road civil aviation 0.03 million tCO2e (6 percent of total infrastructure. Most of the vehicles imported are emissions). While currently the share of transport used and old and are therefore inefficient. emissions is low, it is expected that it will grow South Sudan has 248 kilometres of narrow-gauge rapidly as South Sudan improves its transport single-track railway, stretching from Babonosa in network for economic activities and for meeting north Sudan to Wau. However, the rail network the demands of a growing population. Therefore, has not been operational since 2009/2010. The there is a need to focus on mitigation strategies country has one heliport and about 85 airports, to ensure green growth of the sector. of which only three have paved runways. There are seven main river ports in the country and 7.10.2 Emission reduction potential To estimate the potential of GHG emission reduction in the transport sector, two scenarios Figure 45: GHG emissions from the transport sector, 2012–2015 have been developed with projections for the 0.65 years 2016–2030. 0.6

0.52 Baseline scenario: The baseline emission scenario 0.5 0.42 projections of GHG emissions for the transport sector 0.4 0.37 Million tCO₂e 0.3 are based only on existing policies, with no new 0.2 policies or financing being introduced in the sector

0.1 (i.e., the baseline scenario represents a case of no 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.0 action). The trajectory of emissions by this sector 2012 2013 2014 2015 has been sourced from South Sudan’s NATCOM, Road transportation Civil aviation which estimates growth in fuel consumption for road Source: South Sudan Ministry of Environment, 2018 transport using GDP, passenger and freight growth 116 Second Nationally Determined Contribution pathway that South Sudan will have to follow until Figure 46: GHG emission scenarios for the transport sector, 2012–2030 2030 to achieve the Paris Agreement’s goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5ºC above 0.9 pre-industrial levels. Since more than 90 percent 0.9 of emissions in the transport sector are from 0.8 0.7 road transport, the emission reduction scenario 0.7 Million tCO₂e concentrates on GHG mitigation from road 0.6 0.5 transport. This scenario aims to reduce transport 0.5 emissions from the baseline level by 2030, in line 0.4 with the Paris Process on Mobility and Climate 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 estimates for emission reduction required from Baseline scenario Emission reduction scenario land transport globally to achieve levels compatible with a 1.5°C scenario (Gota et al., 2016). Under this scenario, emissions from the transport sector are rates; increase in overall vehicle stock and use of estimated to be 0.5 million tCO2e in 2030. The vehicles; and the change in average fuel efficiency emission reduction scenario achieves cumulative over time. In the baseline scenario, emissions from emission reduction of 2.43 million tCO2e by 2030, the transport sector increase gradually and reach which is 31 percent lower than the baseline 0.9 million tCO2e (29 percent higher than the 2012 scenario. level) by 2030. The strategies that will be implemented to achieve Emission reduction scenario: The emission the emission reduction targets for the transport reduction scenario includes the decarbonization sector are detailed in the section below. Sectoral strategies 117

7.10.3 Key strategies

7.10.3.1 Mitigation Development of the transport sector is one The government will implement sustainable of the main priorities of most development and low-carbon measures (Table 27) that will strategies in South Sudan. Therefore, the support improved mobility and at the same time sector is expected to grow rapidly and is likely contribute to achieving South Sudan’s emission to be a major contributor of GHG emissions. reduction targets. Table 27: Mitigation strategies for the transport sector Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Regulate importation of inefficient • Review import policies to include Yet to be Short term vehicles. criteria for types of vehicles that can be implemented imported. Most vehicles in South Sudan, such as cars and delivery trucks, are imported into the country. Low incomes and no age restrictions on the importation of vehicles result in the majority of imported vehicles being old and inefficient. South Sudan will therefore develop and implement import policies and strategies focusing on the type of vehicle imported to minimize emissions in the country. Incentivize the importation and use of • Introduce tax rebate or lower import Yet to be Medium EVs. duty on EVs. implemented term South Sudan will implement measures to incentivize the importation and use of (old or new) EVs. This could either involve importing complete EVs or EV parts that can be assembled within the country. Use of EVs will help reduce GHG emissions and control air pollution levels in the country. Introduce electric railways and improve • Specific activities will be Yet to be Medium to the rail network. determined over the course of NDC implemented long term implementation. South Sudan will invest in improving the existing rail network and will also introduce electric railways into the country. Develop guidelines and standards to • Establish exhaust testing centres: Yet to be Short term control vehicular air pollution. vehicles that fail tests by emitting implemented fumes above allowable emissions South Sudan will focus on developing levels will be subjected to mandatory national ambient air quality standards or repairs or scrapped. vehicular emission standards to control the problem of air pollution caused by the transportation sector. These standards can also be used as a measure to regulate the importation of old and inefficient vehicles. Promote high volume transportation. • Increase awareness among the general Yet to be Short term public regarding benefits associated implemented The government will explore policies with using mass transportation. encouraging high volume transport options such as buses and carpooling. 118 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Coordinate the development plans of the • Increased deployment of EVs Yet to be Long term transport and renewable energy sectors. will contribute towards increased implemented electrification, especially adoption of The transport sector is directly linked to modern renewable energy systems (to the development of renewable energy mitigate emissions from power source). infrastructure in the country. Therefore, effective coordination mechanisms • At the same time, RE systems, between the two sectors will be especially decentralised RE systems, established. need to be complemented by the use of storage in the form of batteries. The technology used for these batteries are also the same used for EVs. Thus, increased adoption of RE will lead to the establishment of battery manufacturers who can supply batteries to both RE systems as well as EVs.

7.10.4 Potential for job creation transport and electricity infrastructure, which will provide increased employment and career According to SCP-HAT data, employment in the development opportunities (as discussed in the transport sector has been increasing steadily from infrastructure (constructions and buildings) and 2012. Total employment grew at a compound electricity sections). While it is difficult to estimate annual growth rate of 10 percent in 2012–2015, the net impact of planned policies, it is likely with an annual growth rate in employment of that effective implementation strategies, such men and women of 10 percent and 13 percent, as vehicular emission standards, will generate respectively. additional jobs in automobile maintenance and Future job creation potential will remain uncertain exhaust testing centres. if adoption of EVs in South Sudan is largely dependent on imports, with no focus on local 7.11 INDUSTRY market development. Nevertheless, increasing adoption of EVs could have a positive impact on 7.11.1 Current status indirect and induced jobs. This is because the Currently, most manufacturing in South Sudan use of EVs will require development of adequate is carried out by small-scale enterprises and the country is largely dependent on the importation Figure 47: Employment in the transport sector, of produced goods and services. Small-scale 2012–2015 manufacturing of products such as potato crisps, beverages, metal products, electric motors and 85.71 74.74 78.34 bricks takes place in the country. Domestic 80 64.24 75.84 production output is highest in the electrical and Thousand workers 60 66.39 69.54 57.43 machinery sub-sector, which generates 32 percent 40 of total industrial output. This is followed by the 20 6.81 8.35 8.8 9.87 food and beverages sub-sector, which accounted 0 for 18 percent of total industrial output in 2015. 2012 2013 2014 2015 Since local manufacturing of goods in South Men Women Total Sudan is minimal, GHG emissions from domestic Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 production are insignificant. In 2015, domestic Sectoral strategies 119 production emissions from the industrial sector Figure 48: GHG emissions of the industrial sector were 0.14 million tCO2e, 0.21 percent of total from domestic production, 2012–2015 emissions. As is the case with domestic production output, most of these emissions were from the 0.140 0.136 0.140 0.132 0.122 electrical and machinery, and food and beverages 0.120 sub-sectors. As far as consumption is concerned, 0.100 Million tCO₂e 0.080 however, the industrial sector is the largest 0.060 contributor to GHG emissions, indicating heavy 0.040 dependence on imports. The sector’s consumption 0.020 contributed 39.6 percent (24.52 million tCO2e) to 0.000 total emissions in 2015. 2012 2013 2014 2015 As South Sudan transitions to a middle-income Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 economy, these emissions are likely to rise with an increase in industrial activity. However, Figure 49: Share of industry sub-sectors to GHG currently there are minimal to no national policies emissions from domestic production, 2012–2015 or strategies to regulate industrial activities and monitor their impact on the environment. 0.15 Food and beverages Electrical and machinery

7.11.2 Emission reduction potential

0.10 Metal products Million tCO₂e As discussed above, the industrial sector in South Transport equipment Sudan is currently at a nascent stage and the Maintenance and repair 0.05 country is largely dependent on importation of Wood and paper manufactured goods and services. As a result, Textiles and wearing apparel the share of GHG emissions from domestic 0.00 Other manufacturing 2012 2013 2014 2015 industrial activities is marginal (0.21 percent of total emissions). South Sudan has minimal policies that Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 120 Second Nationally Determined Contribution focus on industrial development in the country and green technologies in a timely and cost-efficient given the uncertainty of how the sector might grow manner. in future, it is difficult to project the likely trajectory of future emissions in the sector. 7.11.3 Key strategies However, as South Sudan transitions to a middle- 7.11.3.1 Mitigation income economy, it is expected to witness an Since industry is currently at a nascent stage increase in industrial activity. Therefore, South in South Sudan, there is room for sustainable Sudan, through its second NDC, commits to and green growth of the sector and a number implementing low-carbon interventions in the of opportunities for mitigating GHG emissions. sector to ensure that it contributes to economic South Sudan will focus on the implementation of growth while adopting energy-efficient and the strategies described in Table 28. Table 28: Mitigation strategies for the industrial sector Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Promote importation of energy-efficient • Review import policies to Yet to be Medium to goods. incorporate criteria for importation of implemented long term green and low-carbon products. Most of the emissions in the industrial sector are embedded emissions in imported goods. Therefore, a key area of focus for South Sudan is to create policies that will encourage the importation of highly energy-efficient goods. This will contribute towards decreasing the share of embedded emissions. Promote efficient waste management, • Given that much of the waste Yet to be Short to particularly in the food and beverage generated in the food and beverage implemented medium industry. industry is likely to be organic term in nature, composting of waste, The food and beverage industry contributes particularly in this industry, will be significantly to GHG emissions in the encouraged. industrial sector, with emissions increasing at a compound annual growth rate of 5%. This indicates that there is increased consumption of food and beverages within the country. Given the nature of the goods produced and consumed (e.g., dairy products, meat, fish, beverages, tobacco), an increase in consumption will lead to an increase in production of organic waste. Therefore, waste management in the food and beverage industry will be a priority in the country. Promote the use of energy-efficient • Promote the use of energy-efficient Yet to be Medium to technologies and renewable energy. technologies to reduce energy implemented long term requirements of industrial processes As industry in South Sudan is currently (for example, waste heat recovery in the development stage, any future from utilities such as boilers, chillers industrial development can be based on and air compressors). the adoption and promotion of energy- efficient technologies. This will result in more favourable costs than for a developed • Increase share of or integrate Yet to be Medium to economy to retrofit increased efficiency. renewable energy in industrial implemented long term office/building operations (captive electricity) as the industrial sector in South Sudan grows. Sectoral strategies 121 Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Promote the use of alternate sources of • Use alternate sources of energy Yet to be Medium to energy. such as biofuels and refuse-derived implemented long term fuel in different sectors. In more energy-intensive industries or processes (such as heating equipment, boilers and kilns) fossil fuels can be replaced with alternate sources of energy. This will convert South Sudan’s waste streams into usable fuel, ensuring transition from a linear to a circular economy (e.g., the cement industry would be a prime candidate for the use of refuse-derived fuel which would then contribute towards emission reductions in not just the cement sector but also the waste and construction sectors). Develop regulations and guidelines to • Develop standards for effluent Yet to be Short to reduce the negative environmental impact treatment and management of implemented medium of industrial activities. solid and hazardous waste and air term pollution. South Sudan will develop environmental regulations to regulate the impact of industrial activities on the health of the environment and ecosystems.

7.11.4 Potential for job creation Manufacturing industries provide employment diversification opportunities, reduce dependence According to the SCP-HAT data, total employment on imports by enhancing productive capacity and in the industrial sector grew at a compound annual reduce poverty. While industrial development is growth rate of 3 percent in 2012–2015, with data crucial for economic growth and job creation, there for both men and women showing an increasing is uncertainty with respect to how manufacturing trend in employment. Of the industrial sectors, industries will grow in South Sudan. This is because the electrical and machinery sub-sector provided structural transformation in the majority of East employment to the most people (38 percent of all African countries has moved from agriculture to people employed in the industrial sector). information and technology-based industries, Industrial development is an engine of economic tourism, etc. (Asmal et al., 2020). The labour- growth and a major source of employment. intensive manufacturing sectors such as textiles and apparel and leather products play a rather limited role in African countries (United Nations Figure 50: Employment in the industrial sector, 2012–2015 Conference on Trade and Development, 2013). If South Sudan also follows a similar route, 246.92 257.34 260.3 250 240.61 bypassing manufacturing, the employment rate 200 will be lower in the industrial manufacturing sector Thousand workers 150 139.04 140.04 145.6 145.74 than other sectors like tourism, information and 100 111.74 114.56 communications technology, education and health 101.57 106.88 50 care services. 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 Given the uncertainty of how industrialization might Men Women Total take place in South Sudan, it is difficult to estimate future job creation potential in the industrial sector. Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 122 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

7.12 PETROLEUM, CHEMICAL AND In February 2020, the government announced plans to NON-METALLIC MINERAL PRODUCTS invite bids from international companies to undertake an environmental audit to assess pollution levels and

7.12.1 Current status the source of pollution, and put systems in place to Oil has been the backbone of South Sudan’s prevent it. economy and generates about 60–80 percent of the country’s revenue. However, as a result of 7.12.2 Emission reduction potential a natural decline in oil reserves and geological South Sudan’s economy is highly dependent on oil challenges (increasing floods), oil production has production and significant efforts are being made decreased by about 62 percent in recent years, by the government to improve this sector. However, from about 325,000 barrels per day in 2011 to the sector is highly vulnerable to both physical 123,000 barrels per day in 2017 (South Sudan and transitional climate-related risks and these Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2018). factors can impact negatively on the country’s oil- Floods have significantly impacted oil producing producing capacity and costs. Ensuring low-carbon capacity by covering wells with water and further development of the petroleum sector is critical if slowing the production process. Production has also negative implications for South Sudan’s economy been affected by the ongoing COVID-19 crisis, which are to be avoided and GHG emissions reduced. has increased travel costs and the time it takes to It is estimated that oil production in South Sudan transport equipment and materials to oil fields. is lower than other countries. This means that the Domestic production output in the sector, as per carbon intensity value to be attained to achieve the SCP-HAT data, is observed to be decreasing the Paris Agreement’s goal of limiting temperature by 0.42 percent per annum (from $1,484 million rise to 2°C is also relatively low. According to the in 2012 to $1,466 million in 2015). While the International Energy Agency, the carbon intensity sector’s domestic production output decreased of global energy supply will be around 20 grams in 2012–2015, the GHG emissions from domestic of carbon dioxide per megajoule in 2050 using production increased by 8 percent per annum. the 2°C scenario, while in 2015 emission intensity for South Sudan was estimated to be 8.4 grams of The sector is significantly important for economic carbon dioxide per megajoule (58 percent lower development and the government is making than the International Energy Agency projection for considerable efforts to improve its current status. 2050). South Sudan, through its second NDC, aims Amongst these are plans to conduct studies to select the best oil wells in order to increase production. The government has also developed Figure 51: GHG emissions in the petroleum, chemical the National Petroleum Policy (2013) and the and non-metallic mineral products sector from domestic production, 2012–2015 Petroleum Act (2012) for regulating growth in the sector. Furthermore, in October 2020 the 2.86 2.72 2.79 government announced that it wants to focus on 2.5 2.33 deploying technologies to track oil and allow more 2.0 recovery from existing fields. Million tCO₂e 1.5 While the sector has not been included in climate 1.0 policies in the country, the Petroleum Policy calls for 0.5 environmental protection in the petroleum industry 0.0 through environmental and social impact assessments, 2012 2013 2014 2015 and environmental auditing and management planning. Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 Sectoral strategies 123 to maintain (or further reduce) current emission 7.12.3 Key strategies intensity levels to ensure the sector contributes

7.12.3.1 Mitigation to the sustainable and economic growth of the In the petroleum sector, South Sudan will focus country. As South Sudan also understands the on implementing sustainable and low-carbon importance of shifting energy consumption from measures during extraction and refining processes conventional to renewable energy-based sources, that will reduce its emission footprint while also it will focus in the long term on phasing out the use supporting the growth of the sector. The measures of petroleum products in the country. will be implemented around the areas described The strategies that will be implemented to reduce in Table 29. GHG emissions from the sector are detailed in the section below. Table 29: Mitigation strategies for petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Introduce regulations to reduce emission • Develop regulations to use/reduce the Yet to be Short term intensity of oil extraction. amount of gas flared. implemented Flaring (burning) and venting of gas is the most carbon-intensive process in crude • Invest in development of supporting Yet to be Medium to oil extraction. Currently, natural gas in infrastructure (e.g., gas pipelines) and implemented long term South Sudan is either flared, vented or creation of a market for supply (e.g., to reinjected into oil fields. Regulations and/ industries or households) to ensure the or measures to either reduce the amount economic feasibility of the process as of gas flared or capture and use it will be well as to avoid the release of gas into put in place. the atmosphere. 124 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Improve the energy efficiency of the • Mandate the use of energy-efficient Yet to be Medium extraction process overall. pumps and gas turbines. implemented term Measures to reduce energy use at operating sites will be encouraged to • Decrease amount of fuel consumed in Yet to be Medium to reduce emissions. transportation. implemented long term Replace petroleum products with • Use of fuels such as biofuels, refuse- Yet to be Long term alternate energy sources. derived fuel, solar and wind to replace implemented fossil fuel in various sectors (e.g., In the long term, the government will industry, construction, hotels and focus on gradually phasing out the use restaurants). of petroleum products in the country, replacing them with alternative sources of energy.

7.12.3.2 Adaptation The following table showcases adaptation actions that will be taken up in order to build resilience in the petroleum sector. Table 30: Adaptation strategies for petroleum, chemical and non-metallic mineral products Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Construct climate-resilient infrastructure. • Develop flood management plans and Yet to be Short to construct flood-resilient infrastructure. implemented medium This sector is directly impacted by climate term change, particularly by flooding events when excessive water prevents access to existing oil wells, reducing their output potential. Therefore, instituting climate- resilient infrastructure planning will be a primary concern.

7.12.4 Potential for job creation The petroleum, chemical and non-metallic product Figure 52: Employment in the petroleum, chemical sector has witnessed a decreasing trend in overall and non-metallic mineral products sector, 2012–2015 employment, which declined at a compound annual growth rate of 1 percent in 2012–2015. Employment 51.55 52.2 51.71 50.19 for both men and women decreased in 2015. 50 One of the potential reasons for this could be the 40 Thousand workers decline in the country’s oil reserves, resulting in a 30 29.53 29.34 29 27.79 decrease in oil production and therefore needing 20 22.86 22.72 22.4 22.02 fewer employees. Given the role of this sector in 10 the economic development of South Sudan, oil 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 extraction activities will continue in the near term, and will continue to provide employment. Men Women Total In the long term, achieving the 1.5°C goal will entail Source: SCP-HAT, 2015 more aggressive decarbonization of the energy Sectoral strategies 125 sector, implying more rapid replacement of fossil health care services, preventable diseases such fuel-based energy production with renewables. as malaria and acute respiratory infections are Thus, in the long run, phasing out the use of common. Food insecurity, malnutrition and lack petroleum and oil products will result in negative of safe drinking water and sanitation facilities are impacts on jobs in the petroleum industry. According also responsible for poor health and widespread to International Labour Organization estimates, disease (e.g., 16,706 people were affected by a extraction of crude petroleum and services related cholera outbreak in 2017). to crude oil extraction will witness one of the Climate change can potentially have serious strongest declines in job demand by 2030 because implications for the already poor health status of transition to sustainability in the energy sector. of South Sudan. Extreme weather events such However, employment loss in this sector will as increasingly variable rainfall and floods can be compensated by creation of green jobs in heighten the risk of water-borne diseases and other sectors, such as renewable energy and physical injury. Malaria cases in the country construction, resulting in a net positive effect on job have seen an increasing trend (from 323,113 creation (International Labour Organization, 2018b). cases in July–September 2011 to 359,741 in July–September 2012) during the peak rainy

7.13 HEALTH season in the country. Deaths in the country due

7.13.1 Current status to malaria accounted for about 1,300 cases in 2012 compared to about 590 in 2011. People in South Sudan have poor access to health care services, with only 25 percent of The Government of South Sudan aims to improve the population having access to health facilities. the health status of the country through its current There is a shortage of medical facilities and policies (the South Sudan Health Policy, NDS and skilled health workers and a limited supply of Vision 2040, amongst others). These policies medical equipment and drugs. The distribution aim for a healthy and productive population for of numbers of health workers among the different the people of South Sudan by strengthening the states is also inequitable, with Central Equatoria national health system. The NDS contains three- having the highest number of physicians (51 year targets for the improvement of the health percent) in South Sudan (South Sudan Ministry sector within the country. The targets and current of Health, 2010). Because of the lack of proper status are provided in Table 31. Table 31: Status of the health sector in South Sudan Parameter NDS target (2018–2021) Current status Government expenditure 7% (of total expenditure) The budget decreased from 3% in FY2018/19 to 1% in FY2019/20 (ƒnd, 2019). Number of doctors 1/10,000 people 1/65,574 people (Global Health Workforce Alliance, 2021) Number of nurses and trained staff 2/10,000 people 1/39,088 people (ibid.) Child mortality 30/1,000 live births 79/1,000 live births (ibid.) Maternal mortality 400/100,000 live births Not available 126 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

7.13.2 Key strategies

7.13.2.1 Adaptation sanitation facilities are impacted by both water- and High food insecurity in South Sudan has led to vector-borne diseases such as malaria, cholera, severe malnutrition among the population and has diarrhoea and respiratory diseases. Climate risks been responsible for several instances of acute such as increased flooding further exacerbate food shortages in the country. This insecurity is existing health problems, as many water- and deepened by climate change, which frequently vector-borne diseases increase with higher gives rise to droughts and floods, impacting the temperatures and rainfall. This is seen in the food production capability of the region. Thus, increase in numbers of people affected by malaria climate change can have a direct and severe and deaths caused by the disease during the impact on the nutritional health of South Sudan’s peak rainy season. South Sudan will focus on the population. Moreover, rural communities that implementation of adaptation actions to reduce have limited access to clean drinking water and the vulnerability of communities (Table 32). Table 32: Adaptation strategies for the health sector Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Conduct research on climate change • Annual assessment of impact South Sudan provides a Short to and human health and well-being. of vector-borne diseases weekly integrated disease long term such as malaria, kala-azar and surveillance and response Funnel climate finance into research trypanosomiasis on human health. bulletin and monthly that details the interactions between vector-transmitted disease climate change and various health- burden report. related impacts under different scenarios in South Sudan. • Annual assessment of impact of water-borne diseases on human health. Sectoral strategies 127 Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Strengthen early warning systems. • Develop a robust climate Weekly, monthly and Short to monitoring and forecast system in seasonal meteorological long term Improve early warning systems to collaboration with the Department forecast reports are provide timely warning to the local of Meteorology to identify and available. Measures such population about disease outbreaks predict occurrences of extreme as mass distribution of and epidemics. weather events, such as droughts long-lasting insecticidal and floods. nets, indoor residual spraying and larval source management are being carried out. Capacity-building of communities on • Train different levels of Yet to be implemented Short term response measures. stakeholders such as government staff and communities on response Develop capacities of local preparedness measures through communities about likely health risks workshops, interactive talks, etc. and appropriate response measures to reduce their vulnerability during outbreaks of climate-related diseases. Implement disease, vector • Assess progress achieved in There have been reports Short term surveillance and control projects. controlling the spread of malaria on progress achieved through the Malaria Indicator in key malaria indicators South Sudan will continue to Survey. since the 2013 survey was implement disease, vector released in 2017. surveillance and control projects for eradication of water-borne diseases in the country. • Conduct a vector susceptibility A report on vector Short term study in the country. susceptibility has been published for South Sudan. Develop climate-resilient health • Specific activities will be Yet to be implemented Short to systems. determined over the course of long term NDC implementation. South Sudan will invest in building hospitals and train doctors and staff on treating climate-related diseases.

7.14 DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

7.14.1 Current status South Sudan faces a high risk of floods (more than 1 in In 2020, about 800,000 people (approximately 6 100 people are at risk) and a medium risk of droughts percent of the total population) were affected by (Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas). About 78 percent of floods that inundated homes and left them without households (primarily rural communities) are reliant on food, water and shelter. crop farming (mostly rain-fed) and animal husbandry The sector is a priority in South Sudan’s Vision as their main sources of livelihood. Droughts, floods 2040 and the NAPA. The NAPA stresses improving and erratic rainfall impact the livelihoods of these collection, analysis and dissemination of weather communities, as they lead to significant losses information and strengthening drought and flood of crops and livestock. Furthermore, floods have early warning systems. destroyed forests, especially in the low-lying areas, and this has had negative impacts on biodiversity and South Sudan’s Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and the livelihoods of communities dependent on forestry. Disaster Management Strategic Plan 2018–2020 128 Second Nationally Determined Contribution focuses on a holistic approach that includes about five of the 28 hydrometeorological stations implementing preventive and/or development set up for weather monitoring and forecasting are measures to reduce vulnerability in addition functional. This is primarily due to lack of capacity to emergency responses for saving lives and and availability of funds in the sector. livelihoods. These measures include developing a disaster risk management policy, developing risk 7.14.2 Key strategies assessment and management tools, improving

7.14.2.1 Adaptation community preparedness and ensuring increased The following table showcases adaptation actions investments in the sector. that will be taken up in order to reduce the impacts While the sector is a priority for the country and has of climate change related risks such as floods and been included in key adaptation plans and documents, droughts and ensure preparedness of communities there is no information on the likelihood and intensity and the government when it comes to handling of occurrences of weather events in the country. Only extreme weather events. Table 33: Adaptation strategies for the disaster risk management sector Strategies Activities being considered Current progress Timeframe Strengthen early warning systems. • Rehabilitate five national disaster risk Yet to be Medium management centres in Juba, Wau, implemented term In the absence of efficient early warning Malakal, Renk and Raja. and disaster management systems communities remain highly vulnerable to climate-induced disasters. There is a • Carry out research to map disaster- Yet to be Medium strong need for setting up or upgrading prone areas in the country. implemented term weather monitoring stations to predict weather patterns so that appropriate measures may be taken. • Strengthen the information and Yet to be Medium communications technology and implemented term telecommunications sector to enable the provision of timely warnings to relevant stakeholders, including government stakeholders, private players and communities. Awareness raising and capacity-building • Raise awareness regarding possible Yet to be Short to of stakeholders. outbreaks of events and measures to implemented medium be undertaken to reduce associated term Means of increasing knowledge and risks. awareness amongst various stakeholders, such as government officials and communities, will be developed to • Build capacity on response- Yet to be Short to enable their understanding of the risks preparedness of communities that implemented medium of predicted climate-related events so are involved in agriculture and fishing term that they may take suitable measures to activities, especially among the protect lives and property. women. Response-preparedness will include measures such as planting drought-resilient crops, establishing farm ponds and improving water infiltration. Sectoral strategies 129 8 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS 130 Second Nationally Determined Contribution INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

8.1 THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT South Sudan has published various polices and plans to ensure sustainable development and management of its natural resources. These include frameworks to cater for the development of the economy while taking into account sustainable development objectives. The instruments that mainstream environment and/or climate change issues are provided in the section below.

8.1.1 National Environment Policy The National Environment Policy seeks to protect and conserve the environment and ensures use of natural resources in a sustainable manner. The aim of the policy is to create public awareness regarding the protection of the environment and provide a basis for the formulation of environment protection and management policies, laws and guidelines. The policy oversees the implementation of international, national or regional environmental law in South Sudan. The main objectives of the policy are to: • Develop regulations and set guidelines for sustainable management of the environment; • Integrate environmental concerns into South Sudan has developmental policies and programmes at published various different levels, i.e., government, community and individual/private sector levels; polices and plans to • Build the capacity of state and regional ensure sustainable institutions, communities and other stakeholders in efficient environmental management; and development and • Promote public participation in conservation management of its and sustainable management of resources. natural resources. The Environment Policy recognizes climate change as a concern that is likely to have an adverse impact on the livelihoods of South Sudanese people. It identifies the climate change impacts that South Sudan is witnessing, such as changes in rainfall Institutional arrangements 131 patterns, increasing temperature and frequency • Understand the likely impacts of climate change of floods and droughts and provides measures to on resilience of key crops, agroforestry, tree address climate change issues. It advocates for species, etc.; the development of national-level climate change • Enhance the adaptive capacity of communities policy in South Sudan, together with strategies in drought- and flood-prone areas; and and measures for climate change mitigation and • Support measures to protect vulnerable adaptation, with the aim of supporting efforts to communities against diseases and pest reduce the vulnerability of communities to climate outbreaks related to climate change. hazards. Some of the implementation strategies that are proposed as part of this policy are to:

8.1.2 Environmental Protection Bill • Collaborate with the Ministry of Environment The Environment Protection Bill was developed and Forestry to identify key activities that to provide a legal framework to cover all matters respond to immediate needs to adapt to climate and concerns related to the environment in change; South Sudan. The bill empowers the Ministry • Support and promote the development of of Environment and Forestry to act as a lead intensive agriculture and diversified crops institution for implementing all policies related adapted to extreme climate risks; to the environment, including climate change, • Map and intensify research on crops and biodiversity, air and water pollution and monitoring livestock most adapted to changing climatic land use patterns, to determine their impact on the conditions in different agroecological zones; and quality and quantity of natural resources. • Prevent water, soil and air pollution from agrochemicals.

8.1.3 National Adaptation Programme of Action

8.1.5 Comprehensive Agricultural Master The NAPA for South Sudan is the most significant Plan, 2015–2040 of the various documents that chart the adaptation The CAMP was approved by the Government of needs of the country. The NAPA identifies priority South Sudan in March 2017. It is an investment projects that will address South Sudan’s urgent plan that was developed to align with the national need for adapting to climate change. These priority policies, plans and strategies of various ministries, projects have been identified under five thematic such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Food areas, namely environment; water resources; Security, the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries agriculture; disaster risk reduction and policy; and and the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation. institutional framework. It lists potential adaptation The CAMP has developed over 110 sub-sector activities under each thematic area to lay the project profiles with the aim of ensuring food foundation for climate change adaptation in South security, improving livelihoods of communities and Sudan in the medium and long term. promoting sustainable agriculture and livestock rearing practices. The development themes under

8.1.4 National Policy on Food Security the CAMP and corresponding focus areas where The National Policy on Food Security recognizes investments are planned are as follows. climate change and natural disasters as threats Reconstruction and recovery to food security. The policy aims to implement measures to mitigate the adverse impacts of • This theme looks at the reconstruction and climate change on food security in the medium recovery of the agriculture sector from internal and long term. Its key objectives are to: conflict, insecurity and lack of innovation with a 132 Second Nationally Determined Contribution view to developing the sector and supporting Agriculture, Forestry, Cooperative and Rural production and market activities, particularly Development and Ministry of Livestock and in the areas that have been most affected. Fisheries Industries, 2015). • It aims to build trust between economic players

8.1.6 Forest Policy and the government to reduce transaction costs. The Forest Policy lays down a clear institutional • It also focuses on restoration of law and order and governance framework for forests across the by strengthening legal frameworks and their country. It recognizes the importance of forests for enforcement. commerce, communities and conservation and sets out a series of implementation and institutional Food and nutrition security measures to protect forest reserves in the country. • This theme focuses on improvement in The policy emphasizes the need for the agricultural production and productivity, which implementation of sustainable forest management will result in increased household cash income. measures to enable South Sudan to gain access • It aims to promote a cash-based economy as to international financing under mechanisms a rural agricultural labour market is likely to such as REDD+. It also proposes establishing increase farmers’ options to generate income a designated national authority so that the for asset development and investment for country can participate in the Clean Development production. Mechanism and facilitate the flow of climate change Economic growth and livelihood improvement benefits to South Sudan. • The theme focuses on providing support to 8.1.7 National Electricity Policy farmers in the transition from subsistence to The South Sudan National Electricity Policy, commercial farming. produced by the Ministry of Electricity and Dams, • With government support, input and output outlines the framework for developing and running activities and import and export markets will the electricity supply industry. It focuses on the be addressed, with the aim of increasing the use of indigenous energy sources, such as crude supply of and demand for agricultural goods. oil and hydropower, for meeting household energy Agriculture sector transformation demand. The policy outlines priorities for the development of the sector, including the scope • This theme aims to increase the value of for public-private partnerships. The government agricultural products, both processed and has identified medium- and long-term strategies unprocessed, by making outputs competitive for the development of the electricity sector. in both international and regional markets. These include: • It focuses on establishment of a non-agricultural manufacturing and service sector with • Expanding the country’s generation capacity accumulated capital and other direct foreign to around 580 MW by 2025; investment. • Increasing urban households’ access to electricity to 75 percent by 2025; Institutional development • Expanding the national transmission and • The theme aims to build a trusted public distribution grid to link all 10 state capitals; financial management system and legal and • Connecting South Sudan with the grids of regulatory framework to mobilize external Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda; and and internal financial resources for CAMP • Strengthening the environment for private implementation (South Sudan Ministry of investments in the power sector. Institutional arrangements 133 Renewable energy projects that are planned as part of the policy include: • Importing 50–100 MW of power from Ethiopian hydropower plants; • Developing the Fula Rapids 40 MW hydropower project; and • Developing the Sue 15 MW mini hydropower project.

8.1.8 Fisheries Policy The aim of the Fisheries Policy is to maximize fish production while avoiding overfishing and preventing degradation of wetlands. It focuses on strengthening areas like governance, research and aquaculture in the fishing sector. It also outlines objectives rated to climate change, along with corresponding strategies, institutions responsible, and timelines (Table 34). Table 34: Climate change strategies outlined in the Fisheries Policy Objectives Strategies Timeframe Governance To respond appropriately to climate Research climate change and As and when necessary change and natural disasters disaster management and develop policy advice to contribute to wider government responses To maintain a healthy environment and Ensure that compulsory ESIAs are Ongoing as routine activity of the ecosystems undertaken for all developments that Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture affect fisheries, including large-scale Development aquaculture developments Observe all international treaties and Immediate implementation, then ongoing protocols on the environment and as routine activity of the Directorate of biodiversity Fisheries and Aquaculture Development Research To monitor environmental changes Improve monitoring of changes in Ongoing as routine activity of the affecting fisheries, including climate the environment and their effect on Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture change fisheries and aquaculture Development Establish a hydrology section in the 2019 Fisheries Research Unit, with sufficient equipment and staff to undertake routine environmental monitoring Aquaculture To address environmental concerns Include guidance on the mitigation 2016 regarding aquaculture of the effects of aquaculture on the environment in the Codes of Practice for aquaculture 134 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

8.2 MAJOR STAKEHOLDERS

8.2.1 Major administrative bodies for climate change The following table details the government organizations/ministries that will play a lead role in implementing climate change/environment policies in South Sudan. Table 35: Major administrative bodies for climate change Organization Suborganization Roles and responsibilities Ministry of Environment – The Ministry of Environment and Forestry is the lead institution and Forestry responsible for formulation of policies, regulations and plans for the environment, forestry and biodiversity protection and management in South Sudan. The ministry is also the technical and operational focal point for international environmental conventions and treaties. Ministry of Electricity and – The Ministry of Electricity and Dams, the regulatory body for the Dams power sector, is responsible for the development of electricity sector policies and regulations in South Sudan. It looks after the implementation of plans, strategies and projects in electricity generation, distribution, transmission and dams for irrigation. South Sudan Electricity The South Sudan Electricity Corporation is the only electricity utility, Corporation responsible for generation, transmission, distribution and sales of electrical energy to consumers in Juba, Malakal and Wau. The South Sudan Electricity Corporation, an implementing body of the Ministry of Electricity and Dams, is responsible for the execution of the ministry’s policies and strategies. Ministry of Water – The ministry is responsible for water resource management in South Resources and Irrigation Sudan, looking after the management of rivers, watersheds and supply of water. Ministry of Transport South Sudan Road The Ministry of Transport is responsible for overall policy and Authority regulation of the transport sector, as well as the administration of all modes of transportation – road, rail, air and river. South Sudan Civil Aviation Authority South Sudan The South Sudan Meteorological Department operates under the Meteorological Ministry of Transport (as part of the South Sudan Civil Aviation Department Authority) to provide weather-related and aeronautical information for air navigation. Ministry of Wildlife South Sudan Wildlife The mandate of the Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism is Conservation and Service to protect areas in South Sudan (national parks and game reserves). Tourism It protects, conserves and manages these through the South Sudan Wildlife Service. Ministry of Agriculture – The ministry is responsible for enhancing agricultural productivity and Food Security with the aim of improving food security, driving economic growth, and facilitating and encouraging sustainable development for improved livelihoods. Ministry of Livestock and – This ministry is charged with livestock and fisheries development Fisheries policies. The ministry’s roles include preparing and enforcing regulations and guidelines related to livestock disease tracking and control and ensuring the safety of food of animal origin. Institutional arrangements 135 Organization Suborganization Roles and responsibilities Ministry of Humanitarian – The ministry is responsible for developing policy and decision- Affairs and Disaster making on disaster risk reduction at the national level. Its mandate is Management to oversee all humanitarian work in South Sudan. Ministry of Finance and – The Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning is responsible for Economic Planning developing South Sudan’s finance policies, as well as for public financial management, tax and revenue collection, procurement and legislation. It is also responsible for allocating financial resources to government agencies, thus enabling them to implement sectoral plans and policies. Ministry of Petroleum – The Ministry of Petroleum is responsible for formulating legislation and regulations for the management and development of South Sudan’s oil and gas sector, as well as for the supply of petroleum products for power generation. Ministry of Mining – The Ministry of Mining is responsible for developing and implementing policies, regulations and legal frameworks for the development and sustainable management of mineral resources in South Sudan. National Bureau of – The National Bureau of Statistics is responsible for collecting and Statistics analysing national-level economic, social and demographic statistics in South Sudan. Ministry of Housing, – The Ministry of Housing, Land and Physical Planning is the national- Land and Physical level institution responsible for land governance, land use planning Planning and urban development in South Sudan. Ministry of Roads and – The Ministry of Roads and Bridges is responsible for carrying out Bridges research related to roads and developing affordable, efficient, and safe road transportation infrastructure in the country. Ministry of Defence and – The ministry is responsible for defending and protecting citizens, Veteran Affairs maintaining peace and sustaining the conditions that will enable stability, unity and economic growth in the country. The ministry is also responsible for helping civilian authorities in cases of emergency and natural disaster. Ministry of Justice and – The Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs is responsible Constitutional Affairs for representing the Government of South Sudan in legal matters, drafting statutory laws, informing the general public of legal frameworks and documents, and overseeing the legal profession in South Sudan. Ministry of General – The Ministry of General Education and Instruction is mandated to Education and develop policies and regulations with the aim of providing basic Instruction education to all children, eradicating illiteracy, improving the status of women and providing equitable access to learning opportunities for all South Sudanese people. Ministry of Gender, Child – The ministry is responsible for developing and implementing and Social Welfare policies that promote gender equality, social inclusion and justice, and safeguard the rights of women, children and other vulnerable groups. 136 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Organization Suborganization Roles and responsibilities South Sudan Land – South Sudan Land Commission is responsible for developing Commission and coordinating policies such as the Land Act and other legal frameworks related to land, land governance and land rights in the country. Ministry of Interior – The Ministry of Interior is responsible for law enforcement and maintenance of order in South Sudan. Ministry of Trade and – The Ministry of Trade and Industry is responsible for development Industry and management of industries and commercial activities in the country. Ministry of Health – The Ministry of Health is responsible for developing and managing health facilities across the country, training and education of health workers, and ensuring robust systems are in place to achieve its responsibilities. Institutional arrangements 137 Figure 53: Institutional framework for NDC implementation IMPLEMENTING EXECUTING ENTITIES ENTITIES Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security State government Ministry of Defence and Local urban development  Veteran Affairs authorities Ministry of Electricity  County government and Dams Ministry of Health Public and private industries Ministry of Gender, Child and Social Welfare Ministry of Housing, Land and Physical Planning FINANCING NATIONAL NDC BODIES Ministry of General Education and Instruction FOCAL POINT Regional/international Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs carbon markets and Disaster Management Ministry of Environment and Forestry International donor agencies Ministry of Interior Ministry of Finance Ministry of Justice and and Economic Planning Constitutional Affairs Private sector Ministry of Livestock  and Fisheries Ministry of Mining Ministry of Petroleum TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE Ministry of Roads and Bridges AND CAPACITY- BUILDING Ministry of Trade and Industry AGENCIES Research institutions Ministry of Transport and universities Ministry of Water Resources Independent consultants and Irrigation Ministry of Wildlife, Conservation Non-governmental KEY and Tourism organizations Communication channel Financial channel South Sudan Land Commission Developmental institutions 138 Second Nationally Determined Contribution

8.2.2 International donor agencies and regional stakeholders Besides regulatory bodies and ministries, international donor agencies and regional stakeholders (e.g., educational institutions, non-governmental organizations and private players, such as industries) will need to be involved for NDC implementation (Table 36). Table 36: Stakeholders active in climate change Organizations Roles and responsibilities Research institutions and The implementation of the NDC will require inputs from research institutions and/or universities universities that are actively working in the climate change space, on agriculture, forestry and fisheries, amongst others. Examples of these institutions include the Yei Agricultural Research Centre, the Palataka Agricultural Research Centre and the Halima Agricultural Research Centre. International donor International donor agencies such as the AfDB, Japan International Corporation Agency, agencies World Bank, United Nations Development Programme and USAID are actively involved in implementing projects related to development and climate change in South Sudan. These organizations will play a significant role in implementation of the NDC, especially in providing access to financial resources and technical assistance. Private sector NDC implementation will require support from local, regional and other large private players in the country, such as industries and private businesses.

8.3 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR NDC • The overall adminis tration of N DC IMPLEMENTATION implementation; • Coordinating with implementing agencies The institutional framework for NDC implementation regarding implementation of sectoral plans will include the following bodies: and strategies; • National NDC Focal Point • Approving implementation of sectoral targets, • NDC implementing entities projects and interventions; • NDC executing entities • Acting as a monitoring body to track the • Technical assistance and capacity-building progress of implemented projects; agencies • Acting as a primary contact point for both national • Financing bodies and international financing agencies; and The following section provides an in-depth • Disbursing funds to implementing entities, understanding of the roles and responsibilities of technical assistance bodies and capacity- the bodies shown in Figure 53. building agencies and supervising financial flows between different agencies. National NDC Focal Point NDC implementing entities The Ministry of Environment and Forestry will act as the national NDC Focal Point for the National-level government bodies and ministries implementation of the NDC in South Sudan. A will act as implementing entities – the main bodies separate environmental authority/department, looking after the operations of planned projects and which will be responsible for coordination and strategies. The tasks that will be performed by the harmonization of NDC activities with all other implementing entities are given below: relevant ministries, will be created within the • Support the Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Environment and Forestry. Forestry in implementation of planned The responsibilities of the NDC Focal Point will include: interventions. Institutional arrangements 139 • Develop sectoral policies and regulations in • Regularly monitor the implementation of coordination with the Ministry of Environment interventions and prepare reports on targets and Forestry. achieved and use of funds. • Ensure proper disbursement of funds to Table 37 provides details of the ministries that executing entities. will be implementing entities for developing and • Coordinate with executing entities to provide implementing NDC sectoral interventions. and/or facilitate the necessary technical support, training, etc., required for the In addition to the ministries listed in Table 37 that implementation of NDC interventions. are responsible for implementation of sectoral NDC activities, other national-level ministries will provide support across all sectors (Table 38). Table 37: NDC implementing entities Sector Implementing entity Agriculture, livestock The Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security and the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, with the and fisheries support of the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, will be responsible for development and implementation of policies for the agriculture, livestock and fisheries sector in South Sudan. Infrastructure The Ministry of Housing, Land and Physical Planning will be the main implementing entity responsible (construction and for the formulation and development of policies (e.g., national building codes, ESIA guidelines) to buildings) ensure low-carbon and climate-resilient development of any new infrastructure in South Sudan. The ministry will be supported by other sectoral ministries for which development of infrastructure is a priority, such as the Ministry of Transport for construction of climate-resilient transport infrastructure, the Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism for construction of tourism infrastructure and the South Sudan Land Commission for development of large infrastructure projects. Forestry The Ministry of Environment and Forestry will act as implementing entity for this sector. The ministry, with the support of the state forest departments and the Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism, will be responsible for implementation of sustainable forest management, reforestation and afforestation projects, as well as the promotion of the REDD+ programme. Biodiversity, The Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism will act as implementing entity for this sector. ecosystem and The ministry will be responsible for developing and implementing ecosystem and biodiversity sustainable wetland management measures. The ministry will be supported by the Ministry of Water Resources and management Irrigation for planning and execution of wetland and other water resource management projects. Electricity The Ministry of Electricity and Dams will act as the implementing entity for feasibility and development projects for renewable energy-based electricity generation in South Sudan. Water The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation will be the main implementing entity for execution of water-related projects. The ministry will be supported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security for implementation of water harvesting projects targeted at the agriculture sector. Waste The Ministry of Environment and Forestry will be the implementing entity for this sector. Its role will be to develop waste management, promote waste recycling and invest in solid and liquid waste management infrastructure in South Sudan. Tourism and The Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism will be the implementing entity for the tourism recreation and recreation sector. It will be responsible for integrating ecotourism in existing tourism policies and developing regulations for efficient waste management in the tourism and recreation sector. The ministry will be supported in promoting the use of EVs by the Ministry of Transport, and sustainable food consumption by the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. 140 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Sector Implementing entity Mining and quarrying The Ministry of Mining will be the implementing entity for the mining and quarrying sector. The ministry will be responsible for strengthening institutional and governance mechanisms to restrict illegal mining and ensure compliance with ESIAs, environment management plans and sustainable mining closure plans. The ministry will also promote energy efficiency measures to reduce the carbon footprint of mining and quarrying processes. Transport The Ministry of Transport and Ministry of Roads and Bridges will be the main implementing entities responsible for formulation and development of policies for the transport sector, such as vehicular emission standards and regulations for promoting the use of EVs in the country. The South Sudan Roads Authority will support the development of climate-resilient road infrastructure in South Sudan. Industry The Ministry of Trade and Industry will act as implementing entity for this sector. The ministry will be responsible for the formulation of policies and regulations to ensure green growth of industries, such as in the reduction of environmental pollution, efficient waste management, and use of alternative fuels and energy-efficient technologies in industrial operations. The ministry will be supported by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry in the planning and execution of industrial waste management programmes. Petroleum, chemical The Ministry of Petroleum will be the implementing entity for this sector. It will be responsible and non-metallic for implementation of sustainable and low-carbon measures to reduce the carbon footprint of mineral products petroleum extraction and refining processes. Health The Ministry of Health will be the implementing entity responsible for research on climate change and its health impacts on the South Sudanese people. It will also be responsible for early warning and building capacities for adequate response during disease outbreaks. Disaster risk The Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and Disaster Management will be the implementing entity for management this sector. It will be responsible for improving early warning systems, raising awareness among various stakeholders and capacity-building on community response measures. The South Sudan Meteorological Department (which operates under the Ministry of Transport) will support the Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs in improving early warning systems in South Sudan. Table 38: Implementing entities across sectors Sector Implementing entity Ministry of Gender, The Ministry of Gender, Child and Social Welfare will be responsible for ensuring integration of Child and Social gender perspectives and social justice in relevant climate mitigation and adaptation interventions Welfare across all NDC sectors. It will promote women’s empowerment and target improving the status of the most vulnerable groups in the country. Ministry of General The Ministry of General Education and Instruction will support other ministries in creating Education and awareness around climate change and capacity-building of various stakeholders, including Instruction government institutions and local communities. Ministry of Interior The Ministry of Interior will ensure enforcement of the NDC for its effective implementation across all sectors and regions. Ministry of Justice and The Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs will ensure that the NDC and the NDC Constitutional Affairs interventions are legally adopted and enacted by the Parliament of South Sudan. Ministry of Defence The Ministry of Defence and Veteran Affairs will ensure implementation of NDC interventions and Veteran Affairs and coordination across all sectors. In particular, it will support the Ministry of Environment and Forestry in reducing the rate of deforestation in the country. It will also be responsible for ensuring that a safe and secure environment is available for the implementation of NDC projects. Institutional arrangements 141 NDC executing entities Local-level government bodies (e.g., county bodies, adopt the NDC. The technical assistance and Urban Development Authority), public and private capacity-building programme will be carried businesses and non-governmental organizations out by research institutions and universities, will act as NDC executing entities, and will be non-governmental organizations, development responsible for on-the-ground implementation agencies and independent consultants. The main and operations of the planned NDC interventions. tasks of technical assistance and capacity-building Executing entities will perform the following tasks: agencies will include: • Support implementing entities in execution of • Suppor ting government bodies (NDC planned interventions. Focal Point and implementing entities) in • Prepare regular reports on progress and carrying out feasibility studies for project performance of interventions and use of funds implementation. to keep implementing entities updated on the • Providing sector and stakeholder-specific status of projects. technical suppor t and guidance in development and implementation of the NDC Technical assistance and capacity-building projects. agencies • Providing stakeholder-oriented training to Implementation of the South Sudan NDC will the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, require technical support and capacity-building implementing entities and executing entities, for government bodies and other institutions tailored to their needs through interactive involved in the implementation framework. It will seminars and workshops. also require the development of an outreach • Developing an outreach programme to engage programme to attract the private sector to the private sector in NDC implementation. 142 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Financing bodies • Regional/international carbon markets: Individual private players and other executing The manner in which funds for implementation entities of GHG emission reduction projects can of the NDC will flow from a financing body to the access international climate finance by trading implementing or executing entity will depend on carbon credits through participation in regional the source of financing. The National NDC Focal carbon markets (e.g., Ethiopia’s planned carbon Point will act as a primary contact in the case of market) or global voluntary carbon markets financing sourced from international developmental (e.g., the Gold Standard and Verified Carbon financial institutions. However, financing can be Standard). offered directly to the project proponent on the ground in the case of direct sources such as private • Private sector: The private sector provides investors and/or carbon markets. The funds can funds from actors operating at international, come from the following sources: national and local levels. South Sudan can increasingly engage with the private sector • Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning: to promote green growth along supply chains The ministry will provide domestic funding to the that they manage. The country can also Ministry of Environment and Forestry who will deploy different approaches to mobilize disburse it to the relevant implementing entities. private finance in climate change mitigation • International donor agencies: The Ministry and adaptation (e.g., by developing policy to of Environment and Forestry can also access create feed-in tariffs for specific renewable funding from international donor agencies, energy technologies, which in turn increases such as the United Nations Development the profitability of clean energy investments). Programme, World Bank and AfDB. Institutional arrangements 143 9 CAPACITY- BUILDING AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER 144 Second Nationally Determined Contribution CAPACITY-BUILDING AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER Capacity-building and knowledge transfer play a decision-making and broadcasting of early crucial role in implementation of NDC interventions warnings. and achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement. For • Access international support to build the effective implementation of the NDC, South Sudan technical capacity of government institutions will need to increase the awareness of individuals, (or NDC implementing and executing entities) government institutions, communities and other for implementation of NDC interventions. stakeholders on the importance of addressing climate change, and enhance their ability to access • Focus on enhancing institutional capacity and climate-related information, enabling improved governance mechanisms to enhance cross- decision-making at national, state and individual sectoral and interministerial coordination for levels. In this regard, South Sudan plans to carry climate action in the country. Strong governance out the following interventions: will also enable South Sudan to access climate finance from the international donor community. • Develop climate - change awareness programmes to disseminate information Apart from capacity-building needs, the amongst the wider public. Government of South Sudan has also identified areas where international technology transfer • Update school curricula to include climate will be required for execution of mitigation and change, environmental management and adaptation interventions. These include: other relevant topics with the aim of increasing awareness among youth. • Renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies; • Utilize the capacities of universities and research institutions such as the Sudd Institute, • Access to climate information systems to carry Yei Agricultural Research Centre, Palataka out real time monitoring of hydrometeorological Agricultural Research Centre and Halima events and establish early warning systems; Agricultural Research Centre to support the • Technologies that can be used for water government in carrying out research and recycling, harvesting, irrigation and sustainable developing and implementing capacity-building management of water resources; plans at national, state and county levels. These institutions can support the government by: • Availability of tools and methodologies to assess climate vulnerability, risks and impacts, º Conducting vulnerability assessments and and to identify adaptation options; identifying climate-related risks; º Developing and implementing community- • Transportation technologies that are resilient based adaptation plans; to the adverse impacts of climate change, º Conducting cost-benefit analyses of particularly roads and large-scale transportation adaptation options and sharing best practices of goods; and to prioritize implementation of interventions; • Technologies for the protection and º Developing climate-change awareness development of climate-resilient infrastructure, programmes and disseminat ion of especially for development of flood-proof information; and infrastructure. º Collec ting, analysing and applying hydrometeorological and climate data for Capacity-building and technology transfer 145 10 NDC GENDER- RESPONSIVENESS 146 Second Nationally Determined Contribution NDC GENDER-RESPONSIVENESS Women play a vital role in climate change mitigation and adaptation, given their significant involvement in climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, forestry and health. Women’s traditional and local knowledge on the use and sustainable management of natural resources is a valuable resource, especially when it comes to adaptation planning. However, women are disproportionately affected by the negative impacts of climate change while suffering from unequal access to economic resources, climate information and decision-making power, which makes them even more vulnerable. Understanding the gender-differentiated impacts of climate change and empowering and utilizing the knowledge of all people, regardless of gender, will lead to the development of effective responses for the management of climate risks in a fair and just manner. To ensure that women are at the centre of climate action, South Sudan intends to adopt a multitude of interventions (Table 39). This will also enable South Sudan to access international climate finance (e.g., from Global Environment Facility and Green Climate Fund), which recognize the importance of women in addressing the challenge of climate change. To ensure that women are at the centre of climate action, South Sudan intends to adopt a multitude of interventions. NDC gender-responsiveness 147 148 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Table 39: Strategies for gender inclusion in the NDC Strategies Target group Current progress Integrate a gender perspective into national- Women A gender focal point has been nominated from level climate change policies and strategies. the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. South Sudan will target 35% representation of women in decision-making related to climate change – as per the Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan. Integrate a gender perspective into Women Climate-related programmes that directly impact climate change mitigation and adaptation women’s health and well-being are increasingly interventions. Principles of gender equality being taken up in the country (e.g., introducing and women empowerment will be included improved cooking stoves, which contribute in climate financing. to a variety of benefits apart from emission reduction, such as energy security for the family and improved health due to a reduction in indoor air pollution). Consider inclusion of women and other Women, men, girls and Specific considerations are given to issues that vulnerable groups when carrying out boys impact women. vulnerability assessments to ensure that evaluations do not focus solely on economic sectors dominated by men. Engage with men and women to build Women, men, girls and Both men and women are informed about adaptation plans by utilizing their indigenous boys; and women’s appropriate response measures to extreme knowledge. This particularly involves social networks climatic change. The government involves working with women in community-based women’s groups in planning and implementation adaptation planning, using their skills of community-based adaptation projects. and knowledge on natural resource management. Ensure that the burdens and opportunities Women (ensure 35% Women participate equally with men and created by climate change mitigation and representation of women contribute to climate change adaptation adaptation interventions are equitable. in climate action, as projects in the country. per the Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan) Strengthen adaptive capacity of communities Community members Awareness training on climate change using a gender and human rights approach. adaptation and mitigation and disaster risk This will involve making information, training management has been conducted. and technologies for climate change adaptation and mitigation accessible to and relevant for all stakeholders. NDC gender-responsiveness 149 11 NDC FINANCING REQUIREMENTS 150 Second Nationally Determined Contribution NDC FINANCING REQUIREMENTS

11.1 PROPOSED FINANCE REQUIRED Access to finance plays a critical role in making the transition to a low-carbon and climate-resilient economy. The government of South Sudan has estimated that the country will require financing worth $100 billion to make the country resilient over the coming decades. In order to achieve the targets set within the second NDC, initial estimates suggest that South Sudan will require $376.3 million for implementing adaptation actions in the agriculture, livestock and fisheries; infrastructure (construction and buildings); forests; biodiversity, ecosystem and sustainable wetland management; water; tourism and recreation; health; and disaster risk management sectors. With regard to mitigation, a total of $10,356.1 million is required for GHG reduction in the agriculture, livestock and fisheries; forestry; electricity; waste; infrastructure (construction and buildings); transport; and tourism and recreation sectors. The total, amounting to $10,732.4 million, is required for a period of 10 years. Table 40 indicates proposed investment by sector required for implementation of NDC adaptation strategies. These financial estimates were provided by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. NDC financing requirements 151 Table 40: Financing requirements for NDC adaptation strategies8 Financing required Sector Actions Specific 2030 target (million $) Agriculture, Initiate bee-keeping project Cover 3,000 farmers in Upper Nile Region, livestock and 5,000 farmers in Bahr el Ghazal Region and fisheries 6,000 farmers in Greater Equatorial 10 Initiate rangeland mapping and Cover 20,000 farmer households in Upper water management project Nile Region, Bahr El Gazal Region and Greater Equatorial 5 Initiate quarantine system project – for pastoralists 0.5 Initiate crop pest and disease – control project for farmers across the country 1 Promote climate-smart agriculture – 3 Establish seed breeding and seed – bank centre 5 Promote small-scale aquaculture Improve food security by empowering 10% of farmers across the country 1 Infrastructure Develop climate resilience and – (construction green infrastructure (in human and buildings) settlements in urban areas) 1 Establish urban drainage water Cover Juba city and the three capitals of the channels former three regions (Malakal, Wau and Juba) 0.8 Forestry Develop agroforestry (in Western – Equatorial State) 0.5 Biodiversity, Develop inventory of wetlands – ecosystem and and carry out biodiversity hotspot sustainable mapping 0.5 wetland management Carry out integrated natural – resources management 200 Water Launch a water supply project to – provide clean drinking water in urban and rural areas 7 Develop livestock water catchment – and water harvesting techniques in water-scarce areas 10 Rehabilitate northern Upper Nile Cover 20% of farmers in the area irrigation scheme 100 8 Data provided by the Government of South Sudan. 152 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Financing required Sector Actions Specific 2030 target (million $) Tourism and Promote community-based – recreation ecotourism in Southern National Park 1 Disaster risk Strengthen the early warning Rehabilitate existing five centres (Juba, Wau, management system Malakal, Renk and Raja) 10 Health Launch disease and vector Eradicate water-borne diseases surveillance and control project 20 Total 376.3 Table 41 indicates proposed investment by Government of South Sudan. The costs for sector required for implementation of NDC additional strategies have been estimated using mitigation (for existing and additional) strategies. global marginal abatement cost curves (Gillingham The financial requirements for existing mitigation and Stock, 2018). actions are based on inputs provided by the NDC financing requirements 153 Table 41: Financing requirement for NDC mitigation strategies9 Financing required Sector Actions Specific 2030 target (million $) Electricity Scale up the use of renewable Installation of the following hydropower energy plants: • Fulla (1800 MW) • Shukoli (3.5 MW) • Beden (400 MW) • Lakki (210 MW) • Sue (12 MW) • Kentti (3.5 MW) 4,000 Launch rural solar photovoltaic – electrification project 500 Promote environmentally – sustainable use of biogas (for electricity generation and cooking) 1.5 Construct wind power plant Installation of wind turbine in Eastern Equatoria, Upper Nile and Jonglei 100 Introduce the use of energy-saving – cooking stoves 1 Transport Establish emissions standards for – vehicles 1.5 Improve transport infrastructure and – integrated national transportation system (introduce electrical railway and cars) 200 Waste Establish an integrated waste Improve urban and industrial wastewater management system, including all treatment, ensuring adequate quantity and waste sources (forest, agricultural, quality of water in human settlements. domestic and crude oil waste) Use urban waste as a high-value resource stream (e.g., in making briquettes) Reduce, reuse and recycle solid waste 20 Forestry Afforestation – 10 Conserve forests through – implementation of REDD+ programme and promote alternate livelihoods 6.5 Reforestation (in degraded areas – and outside forest areas) 7 9 Data provided by the Government of South Sudan 154 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Financing required Sector Actions Specific 2030 target (million $) Forestry Awareness raising and capacity- – building on forest conservation and REDD+ 5.5 Review Forest Policy – 1.5 Conduct forestry research – (identification and development of fast-growing tree species, information dissemination) 15 Promote agroforestry – 8 Biodiversity, Conservation and sustainable use Wetland survey and mapping 10 ecosystem of wetlands for improved carbon and wetland sequestration Create buffer zones along wetland areas management 5 Financing for additional mitigation strategies (estimated using marginal abatement cost curves) Agriculture, Efficient soil and livestock 18% reduction in GHG emissions by 2030 livestock and management compared to 2017 levels fisheries 4,279.7–5,330.8 Waste Landfill gas recovery, composting 30% reduction in GHG emissions compared to of organic waste and engineered baseline in 2030 wastewater management 126.9 Tourism and Composting of organic waste, 66% reduction in GHG emissions compared to recreation promotion of sustainable food and baseline in 2030 EVs in the sector 0.4–6 Total 9,299.5–10,356.1 Marginal abatement cost curves showcase the management policies is $71 per tonne of carbon marginal costs of achieving a cumulative level of dioxide equivalent. Using this information, the emission abatement in order, from least to most financing requirement for implementation of expensive mitigation technology or measures livestock management policies is calculated to (Gillingham and Stock, 2018). The financial be $5,330.2 million. requirements for the three sectors have been calculated using the estimated cumulative emission

11.2 FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS FOR NDC reduction potential for these sectors (Chapter 7) IMPLEMENTATION and cost per tonne of emission reduction possible using the mitigation technology and/or intervention South Sudan can receive financing through being considered. For instance, emission reduction diverse resource streams to implement prioritized potential for the agriculture, livestock and fisheries climate change mitigation and adaptation sector is estimated to be 75.08 million tCO2e by activities. The following are some of the key 2030 and the marginal abatement cost of livestock financial instruments and mechanisms. NDC financing requirements 155 Multilateral and bilateral grants: Grants play lower or zero interest rates for climate change an integral role in multilateral and bilateral activities. These loans can be directed towards financing. They can be used for implementation low-carbon technologies that are economically of non-revenue generating activities that do viable but face market- and finance-related not generate financial returns (e.g., capacity- challenges (e.g., energy efficient technologies). building programmes, technical assistance Development financial institutions are the main and ongoing activities). Grants can be used to sources of concessional loans. help capitalize financial mechanisms related to Regional and international carbon markets: ecosystem management, forestry and biodiversity Regional and international carbon markets can conservation. Sources of grants include the World play a significant role in increasing private sector Bank and AfDB. participation in NDC implementation by providing Non-concessional loans: Non-concessional economic incentives through trading emission loans, which generally are received from private reduction credits. Carbon markets can be used sector players at market-based interest rates, can particularly by the waste and renewable energy be used for the development of climate-resilient sectors in South Sudan. infrastructure or for other revenue-generating Table 42 provides details of funds that actively projects in sectors such as electricity and support climate change mitigation and adaptation tourism. activities in sub-Saharan Africa and could therefore Concessional loans: Concessional loans are serve as channels for finance flows for NDC characterized by longer repayment terms and implementation in South Sudan. 156 Second Nationally Determined Contribution Table 42: Climate funds supporting sub-Saharan Africa Name of fund Focal sector Description Financial instrument United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change climate finance mechanisms Green Climate Fund Adaptation and Provides financial support to developing countries to Grants and mitigation enable climate action concessional loans United Nations Adaptation Supports implementation of adaptation projects Grants Adaptation Fund in developing countries that are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change The Least Developed Adaptation Supports least developed countries in the Grants Country Fund preparation and implementation of their NAPAs Global Environment Adaptation and Provides funds for developing countries and Grants and co-financing Facility mitigation countries with economies in transition to meet the objectives of international environmental conventions and agreements Others Clean Technology Mitigation Promotes scaled-up financing for deployment of Grants, concessional Fund low-carbon technologies. loans Pilot Programme for Adaptation Supports developing countries to integrate climate Grants and Climate Resilience resilience into national goals and strategies concessional loans Forest Investment Mitigation Provides finance to developing countries Grants Programme for managing forest resources and reducing deforestation and degradation. Scaling-up Renewable Mitigation Provides technical assistance to USAID partner Grants Energy Programme countries for scaling up renewable and clean energy Global Climate Adaptation and Helps climate-vulnerable countries increase their Grants, technical Change Alliance mitigation resilience assistance, official (European Union) development assistance United Nations REDD Mitigation Supports developing countries in reducing Grants Programme (multi- deforestation and builds the capacity of donor trust fund) governments to prepare and implement national REDD strategies NDC financing requirements 157 12 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 158 Second Nationally Determined Contribution INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION South Sudan is the youngest least-developed country in the world. As a result of long-term conflicts and continued instability, the country lacks efficient socio- economic infrastructure and has limited capacity to develop policies and programmes to boost economic growth. Poverty rates are very high and subsistence agriculture remains the main source of income for the majority of the population. South Sudan’s economy is highly dependent on natural resources and the country is already facing serious challenges due to climate change, such as floods and droughts. According to the Climate Change Vulnerability Index 2017, South Sudan is the fifth most vulnerable country to climate change in the world. This is because the majority of the population is dependent on climate- sensitive sectors for their livelihoods (e.g., agriculture, forestry resources and fisheries) and likely changes in temperature and rainfall intensity may have long-lasting negative impacts on the already poor health, nutrition and economic status of the country. To reduce the vulnerability of communities, immediate climate action is required, but South Sudan has limited domestic capacity to tackle climate-change concerns. Therefore, financial, technological and capacity-building support will be necessary to enable and accelerate national climate action. Access to new and sustained South Sudan is sources of climate finance will play a crucial role in willing to finance achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement and in $6.5–7 billion implementing NDC mitigation and adaptation activities in South Sudan. To enable the implementation of while international interventions that are identified as part of this NDC investments of document it is important that South Sudan is provided with opportunities to access technical and financial $93–93.5 billion will support from the international community. be required over a South Sudan is willing to finance $6.5–7 billion while period of 10 years. international investments of $93–93.5 billion will be required over a period of 10 years. 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