Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP)

Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of the Republic of Macedonia MINISTRYOFENVIRONMENTANDPHYSICALPLANNING SKOPYE,2004 001 Skopye,2003 MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning R.DarrellSmith,Ph.D. SvetozarPetkovski,Ph.D.,andVesnaSidorovska,Ph.D. Grafohartija Grafohartija 500 copies NationalandUniversityLibrary"St.ClementofOhrid” Skopye BiodiversityStrategyandActionPlanfortheRepublicofMacedonia Skopje:MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning,2003.-134Pages.:Tables;30cm Bibliography: pp. ISBN:9989-110-16 -6 Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmitted inanyformorbyanymeans,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwritten permissionofthepublisher. Publisher: Englisheditors: Englishtranslation: Printedby: Printingrun: Technicalpreparation: CIP-Cataloguing-in-PublicationData 002 President: ,Stateadvisor-MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning Members: ,MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning ,MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning ,NationalCommitteeonBiodiversity ,MinistryofFinance ,MinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandWaterManagement ,MinistryofForeignAffairs ,MinistryofEconomy ,MacedonianMuseumofNaturalHistory,Skopye ,EconomicChamberoftheRepublicofMacedonia ,PelisterNationalPark ,FacultyofAgriculture,Skopye ,FacultyofLaw,Skopye ,MacedonianMovementofEcologists ProjectManager: This document was based upon scientific data used in the preparation of the Country Study for Biodiversity of the Republic of Macedonia.Thepreparation of this document and its publication were financedbytheWorldBankundertheGlobalEnvironmentalFacility(GEF). SteeringCommittee: MenkaSpirovska KonstantinSiderovski DanicaPavlovska StefankaHadzipecova KristinaPavlovska PanceNikolov ZoranStojcevski SnezanaTasevska TodorIvanovski StojmirkaTasevska SlavkoDamevski VladimirDzabirski KrsteRistevski BorisGelevski VeselaLambevskaDomazetova • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 003 MembersoftheWorkingTeamInvolvedinthePreparation oftheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlanfortheRepublicofMacedonia I. CoreTeam VladoMatevski SvetozarPetkovski LjupcoMelovski Sreten Andonov Nikola Nikolov SvetislavKrstic II. Members BrankoMicevski ZivkoSekovski JordeJakimovski JovanRistov Sonja Ivanovska MitkoKostadinovski JaneAcevski PeceNedanovski ZlatkoLevkov VasilKostov SlavcoHristovski III. OtherParticipants VesnaSidorovska Gordana Popsimonova Sasko Jordanov Gose Stefkov ,Ph.D.,Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Museumadvisor-MacedonianMuseumofNaturalHistory, Skopye ,Ph.D.,Asst.Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciences andMathematics,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Professor-FacultyofAgriculture,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Asst.Professor-FacultyofForestry,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Asst.Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciences andMathematics,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyforNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Professor-InstituteforSociological,PoliticalandJuridical Research,Skopye ,Director-InstituteofProtectionofCulturalMonumentsoftheRepublicof Macedonia ,Ph.D.,Assoc.Professor-FacultyofAgriculture,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Assoc.Professor-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNatural SciencesandMathematics,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Professor-FacultyofForestry,Skopye , M.Sc.,Assistant-FacultyofEconomy,Skopye ,M.Sc.,Assistant-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye ,M.Sc.-InstituteofLivestockscience,Skopye ,Assistant-InstituteofBiology,FacultyofNaturalSciencesand Mathematics,Skopye ,Ph.D.,Vice-president-SocietyfortheInvestigationandConservationof BiodiversityandtheSustainableDevelopmentofNaturalEcosystems(BIOECO),Skopye ,Ph.D.-InstituteofAgriculture,Skopye ,M.Sc.-MinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning ,M.Sc.,Assistant-FacultyofPharmacology,Skopye • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 004 005 TABLEOFCONTENTS TABLE OFCONTENTS TableofContents Foreword 1.4.1.GeographicPosition 1.4.2.Physicalgeography 1.4.3.Climate 1.4.4.Hydrography 1.4.5.Humanpopulationandsettlements 2.1.1. Keyecosystems 2.1.2.Threatenedecosystems 2.2.1.Micro-organisms 2.2.2.Algae 2.2.3.FungiandLichens 2.2.4.Higherplantgroups 2.2.5.Fauna 2.3.1.Micro-organisms 2.3.2.Algae 2.3.3.FungiandLichens 2.3.4.Higherplants 2.3.5.Fauna 2.4.1.Micro-organisms 2.4.2.Algae 2.4.3.FungiandLichens 2.4.4.Higherplants 2.4.5.Fauna 2.5.1.Usageofwildplantsandfungi 2.5.2.Useofwildanimals 2.5.3.Assessmentsofsustainability 2.7.1.Crops 2.7.2.Nativebreedsoflivestock 1.INTRODUCTION 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHE REPUBLIC OFMACEDONIA 1.1.TheValueofBiodiversity 1.2.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity 1.3.BiodiversityStrategy andActionPlan 1.4.Countrycontext 2.1.Diversityofecosystems 2.2.Diversityofspecies 2.3.Endemicandrelictspecies 2.4.Rare,threatenedandextinctspecies andassemblages 2.5.Speciesofeconomicimportance (wildplantsandanimals) 2.6.Geneticdiversity(gene-fund) 2.7.Agrobiodiversity .................................................I ..........................................................III ........................3 ........3 ........................................4 .......................................5 ..........................5 ..............................6 .................................................8 .......................................10 ....11 ..........................15 .................................15 .......................20 ............................... ..26 ................................26 ...................................................26 ..............................27 ............................28 ..................................................29 ....................33 .................................33 ...................................................33 ..............................33 ......................................34 ..................................................35 .....................................37 ...................... ...........37 ..................................................37 ..............................37 ......................................38 ..................................................41 ......................43 ...........43 ............................45 .............47 ................47 .....................................48 ...................................................48 ..................49 ...........................3 ....15 3.KEYTHREATSTO BIODIVERSITY 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKFOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGY ANDACTION PLAN 3.1.Socio-economiccontext 3.2.Keyeconomicsectorsaffecting biodiversity 3.3.Underlyingcausesofbiodiversityloss 3.4.Maindirectthreatstobiodiversity 3.4.1Habitatloss,modificationand fragmentation 3.4.2.Overuseofbiologicalresources 3.4.3.Pollutionoftheenvironment 3.4.4.Introducedandinvasivespecies 3.4.5.Climatechanges 3.4.6.Naturaldisasters 3.4.7.Otherfactors 6.1.1.TheOverallAim 6.1.2.GuidingObjectives 6.1.3.StrategicPrinciples 4.1.Constitutionalbasis 4.2.Legalbasis 4.3.Internationalagreements 4.4.Institutionalframework 5.1.Currentlossof,oreffectson, biodiversity 5.2.Directcauseofbiodiversityloss 5.3.Underlyingcausesofbiodiversityloss 5.4.Keysectorsaffectingbiodiversity 5.5.Constrainstoconservation 5.6.Oppurtunitesforconservation 6.1BiodiversityStrategyforMacedonia 6.2.BiodiversityActionPlan forMacedonia 6.3.ImplementationoftheBiodiversity StrategyandActionPlan 6.4.MonitoringoftheImplementation oftheBiodiversityStrategy andActionPlan BiodiversityActionPlanforMacedonia ............................53 ..........................71 ...............91 ....................99 ...........................53 ..............................................55 .....62 ............63 .......................................63 ..........64 ...............65 ..........66 ...................................66 ...................................67 ........................................68 ...............................71 ..............................................72 .......................79 .........................81 ........................................91 ............92 ...92 ..........93 ....................94 ..............95 .....99 .................................99 .............................99 ............................100 ........................................100 ......................101 ....................................102 ....104 006 007 FOREWORD FOREWORD Duringtheperiodsinceachievingitsindependence,theRepublicofMacedoniahasbeenstriving tobuild a stable political and economic community, with a legal system able to facilitate rapid integrationintotheEuropeanUnionandthewiderinternationalcommunity.Thisprimarystrategic goal hasgivenrisetosectoraltargets,oneofwhichistheestablishmentofefficientenvironmental protectionmeasuresinordertoprovideabasisforanimprovedqualityoflife. One component o f t h i s strategic goal is the conservation of biodiversity and habitats. In the process toward achieving this goal, the Republic of Macedonia has ratified: (1997), (1997), (1997)and (1999). Theseconventions, together with theinternationalagreements assumed from theformerSocialist FederalRepublicofYugoslaviabymeansofsuccession,constitutepartofthenationallegislationand representabasisforbiodiversityconservation. Inspiteoftheexistenceoflegalbasesfortheregulationofbiodiversityconservation( [1973]aswellasothersectorallaws),however,foralongperiodthere hasbeenafeltneedtodevelopanationalstrategyforbiodiversityconservationnotonlyinorderto establishadirectionandidentifypriorities in this area, but also asanobligationarisingfrom the .Theactionsbegunin1998,beforetheinvolvementoftheGlobal EnvironmentalFacility (GEF), were initiated with the signingoftheagreementforfunding the project, "Activities Related to Biodiversity and CapacityAssessment."Theyhave resulted in the preparationoftheCountryStudyforBiodiversityandtheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlanfor theRepublicofMacedonia. TheCountryStudywasthefirststepinthisprocedureandrepresentsanoverview ofthesituation inMacedoniaasitrelatestospeciesandecosystemdiversity,thelevelofknowledgeofparticular floristicandfaunalgroupsandthelevelsandtypesofdirectorindirectthreatstotheirsurvival.In addition,itdescribestheusesofbiodiversityforcommercialpurposes. TheStrategy,asabasicplanningdocument,definesanintegratedapproachtotheconservation andsustainableuseofthecomponentsofbiodiversity,whiletheActionPlanencompassesspecific activitieswhichmustbeaccomplishedinordertoachievetheOverallAimandGuidingObjectives enumeratedwithintheStrategy. Supportedbythescientificcommunityandwiththe close collaborationofnon-governmental organisationsandthewiderpublic,wehavesucceededindevelopingthebasicstrategicdocuments concerningbiodiversitywhichwilldoubtlesslyprovideameaningfulcontributiontothehighquality conservationandsustainableuseofbiologicalresources. MinisterofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning, LjubomirJanev the Convention o n Biological Diversity Convention on Wetlands ofInternationalImportance Particularly a s Waterfowl Habitat Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats ConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals Lawonthe ProtectionofNaturalRarities ConventiononBiologicalDiversity TheGovernmentoftheRepublicofMacedoniaonits67thsession, heldonthe19thofJanuary,2004hasadoptedTHEBIODIVERSITY STRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 008 1. INTRODUCTION 3 Humansareaninherentpartoftheglobalecosystem,whetheritisacknowledgedornot,andwehavea uniqueroletoplaybecauseofourabilitytoinfluencethisverysystemandbecausethethreattobiodiversityis alsoathreattothebasiclife-supportprocessesthatmaintainthelivingworldoftheplanetEarth. Theroleofmicro-organisms,plantsandanimalsinprovidingecologicalservicesofvaluetohumanityis themostimportantanthropocentricreasonforconservingbiodiversity.Amyriadoforganismsunderpinthe ecologicallife-supportfunctionsthatenablehumansocietytoexist. Thevalue of biologicaldiversitythus arises byvirtueofthe ecological services derived through the interactionsbetweentheorganisms,populationsandcommunitiesofthenaturalenvironment;thevalueof biodiversity losscorresponds to thesensitivityoftheseecologicalservicestoboththe depletion and the completelossofspecies.Thereisathresholdofdiversitybelowwhichmostecosystemscannotfunction.In otherwords,allself-organisinglivingsystemsrequireaminimumdiversityofspeciesinordertocapturethe sun's energy and to develop thecyclic relationoffundamentalcompoundstoproducers,consumersand decomposers. The major threattobiodiversityisnot the direct exploitation of species by humans but, rather, the alteration and destructionofhabitatwhich results from the growth of the human population and from damaging human activities. Habitat change by humans is caused directly through land-use changes, urbanisation, infrastructuredevelopmentandindustrialisation. Indirecthabitatchangeiscausedthrough environmentalimpactsresultingfromtheuseandextractionofresourcesfromtheenvironmentandfromthe dischargeofvariouswastesintotheair,soilandwater.Includedwithinthisprocessaretheglobalchanges causedbytheburningoffossilfuelsandtheemissionofgreenhouseandozone-depletinggases. Thenaturalprocessofspeciation(creationofnewspecies)isconstantlygeneratingbiologicaldiversity. Differentiationofpopulations,however,normallyoperatesonatimescaleoffromthousandstomillionsof years. Allestimatesofpresent-dayextinctionratesshowthemtobedrasticallyhigherthantherateatwhichthe naturalprocessesthatcreatebiodiversitycouldexpecttocompensatefortheselosses.Theextinctionoutputs farexceedthespeciationinputs,andEarthisbecomingimpoverishedasaresult. TheRepublicofMacedoniaisnotexemptfromtheglobal,regionalandnationalprocesseswhichcause thelossofbiodiversity.Inspiteofthefactthat,onanationallevel,thecomponentsofbiologicaldiversityare inbetterconditionthanthoseofthemoredevelopedEuropeancountries,thisshouldnotbeamandatefor complacency. Onthecontrary, i tshouldbeachallengetobemore deliberateinimplementingactivities focusedonbiodiversityconservationinitsentirety. 1.INTRODUCTION 1.1.Thevalueofbiodiversity 1.INTRODUCTION 1.2.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity The (CBD)wasadoptedinRiodeJaneiroin1992;morethan180 partieshavesinceratifiedit.Thisconventionprovidesacomprehensivedocumentoutliningtheprinciplesof biodiversityconservationandsustainableuseor,more precisely,itclearlydefinestherelationshipsamong protection,sustainableuseofnaturalresourcesandsustainablehumandevelopment.InratifyingtheCBD, the"PartiestotheConvention"undertakeacommitmenttoimplementtheconventionatanationalleveland tocontributetoachievingitsgoalsandobjectivesatagloballevel. AtthetimetheCBDwasadopted(1992),theRepublicofMacedoniawasstillnotaregularmemberofthe UnitedNations (UN).AfteracceptanceintotheUNandaftermanyyears'effortsbyrelevantgovernment Ministriesandscientificinstitutions,theParliamentratifiedtheCBDin1997.Uponitsagreementwiththe provisionsoftheconvention,theUNGeneralSecretarynotifiedtheRepublicofMacedoniathatitbecamean officialpartytotheCBDon2March1998. Convention onBiologicalDiversity 4 Figure1. Viewonthe tworelictlakes OhridLake(right)and PrespaLake(left) Galicicamountain betweenthem (Photo:M.Dzingo) 1.3.BiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan Duetoglobalenvironmentalchanges,significantinfluencesonbiologicalresourcesandthefunctioning ofecosystemshavebeennoticed.Itisnecessaryforcoordinatedactivitiesonaregional,nationalandlocal leveltobeundertakeninordertoprevent,reduceandmitigateharmfuleffectstobiodiversity,effectsthatare seeninthealarmingdataregardingthepermanentlossofspeciesrichness.Inordertoaccomplishthis,the BiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan(BSAP)willdefinethenationalprioritiesforeffectiveandintegrated conservation,aswellasessentialactions,projectsandprogramsforbiodiversityconservation. ImplementationoftheBSAPshouldinvolveallrelevantinstitutions,suchasthelegislativeauthorityand the government, as well as those members of society who are involved in the educational process of developingandincreasingpublicawareness. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA TheBSAPpresentsaprocessbywhichawidespectrumofparticipantsmaybeunitedwithonemaingoal inmind-theconservationandmaintenanceofbiodiversity.Fourmaincomponentsareincludedwithinthe BSAP: • The basic document includes information about the current level of knowledge regarding biodiversity, aswellaspotentialthreats.Inaddition,thisdocumentprovides a foundation upon which furtherplanning,decisionmaking andestablishing ofprioritiesfortheconservationofthe componentsofbiodiversitycanbebased. • TheStrategyexplainsthegoals,objectivesand tasksforbiodiversityconservation.Itisadocument whichdefinesanintegratedapproachbaseduponthemanystrategiccomponentswithintherealm oftheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity. • TheAction Planforbiodiversityconservationconsistsof specifictaskswithapreciselydefined timetableandbudgetandofdetailedactivitiesforachievingthestrategiccomponents.TheAction Plan also gives detailed descriptions of the activities to be used in reachingpredictable main objectives,aswellasvariousalternativesthatmightbeundertakentorealizetheproposedgoals. • Thefinaldocumentwillincludethedetailsoftheimplementation,evaluationandmonitoringofthe outcomeoftheBSAPandofassociatedactivitiesregardingbiodiversityconservation. 555 1.INTRODUCTION 1.4.Countrycontext 1.4.1.Geographicposition Figure2. Geographicposition ontheRepublicofMacedonia Figure3. The reliefandthe hydrologymapontheRepublicofMacedonia Position: • • • • • ² • • ² • • • • • • The Republic of Macedonia is situated in the centralpartoftheBalkanPeninsulabetween40°50' and42°20'N.L.and 20°27'30"and23°05'E.L. Very importanttransportationroutespassthrough thecountry Theneighbouringcountriesare: onthewest,Albania onthesouth,Greece ontheeast,Bulgaria onthenorth,SerbiaandMontenegro Totallengthoftheborder:849km Totalarea:25,713km Population: 1,945,932 (according to the 1994 census) Populationdensity:75,7inhabitants/km Numberofhumansettlements:1632 Capitalsity:Skopje-444.760inhabitants Highestpeak:GolemKorab-2764mmsl. Longest river: Vardar - 301 km (in Republic of Macedonia) Totalforestland:997.000ha Totalagriculturalarea:1.244.000ha 6 1.4.2.Physicalgeography The landformofMacedonia,asapartoftheBalkanPeninsula,ischaracterisedbycomplexgeotectonic features,whichproducedeveloped relief,complexgeologyand,hence,adiversityofsoiltypes.Thisisan important factor in explaining the rich biodiversity of the country. T h e chief reason for the complex geotectonic evolution of the internal part of the Balkan Peninsula (Macedonia) is the large number of orogeniccycles,fromtheoldestyetknown,totheyoungestalpineorogenesis. TheRhodopemassifistheoldesttectonicunitontheBalkanPeninsula.ItextendspartlyintoMacedonia, notasasolidformation,butbrokenintoseveralblocksofdifferingformsanddimensions. The Pelagonian andSerbian-MacedonianmassifsareproductsofaPrecambrianorogenesisevent.The separationofthetwomasses(PelagonianandSerbian-Macedonian)fromthemotherRhodopemassifand fromeachother,whichwasconnectedwiththecreationoftheVardarzone,occurredduringthePalaeozoic Era.Theso-calledHercynianorogenesisphasehadanextremeinfluenceinthewesternpartsofMacedonia, wherethesedimentcomplexisfoldedandmetamorphosed. TheRepublicofMacedoniaposs esses a complex mosaic of various metamorphic, sedimentary and igneousrocksinalltectonicunits. Thereliefstructureofthecountry isveryinterestinganddiverse,andis represented by mountains, valleys, ravines, narrow gorges, saddles and other forms. The present relief structure is morphogenically diverse aswell,withbotholderandyounger relief forms.The most important among the large relief forms are "mountains," which cover approxi mately two-thirds of the territory. Theyfallintotwogroupsdepending upon their time of formation, geologic composition and size of extension;thesearetheRhodopeand Dinaricgroups. TheRhodope group isconsidered tobeolderandwasformedduringthe Hercynian orogenesis. The moun tains Osogovski Planini, Plachko vitsa, Belasitsa and Ograzhden, situated primarily in the eastern part of the country, are characteristic representatives. The Dinaric group extends through the western, south-western, southern and centralportions of the country. These mountains were formed during the alpine orogenesis. These include: the Shar Planina mountaingroup(SharPlaninaMountain,Korab-thehighestpeakinMacedonia,Bistra,Stogovo,Yablanitsa andGalichitsa),Vardar zone(Zheden,Vodno,Kitka,Mariovo,NidzeandKozhufontherightdescending bankandSertaandPlavushontheleftdescendingbank)andPelagonianhorstanticline(Baba,Yakupitsa, Karadzitsa,Babuna,Goleshnitsa,SelechkaPlaninaandothers). “Valleysandlargerplains"aretheseconddistinctmorpholog icfeatureofthereliefstructure.Theyare distributedoverapproximatelyone-thirdofthecountry.MostdistinctaretheonesextendingalongtheVardar River.Fromthenorthwesttothesoutheast,theyaresituatedasfollows:Polog(373km),Skopye(1,840 km ), Tikvesh (604 km ) and the Gevgeliya-Valandovo Valley (620 km ). They are intersected by the respectivegorgesZheden(Derven),TaorandDemirKapiya. The largestvalleyintheRepublicofMacedoniaisthePelagoniaValley,whichissituatedinthesouth westernpartofthecountryandoccupiesanareaofabout4,000km.Othercharacteristicvalleysandplains include:Ohrid-StrugaValley,PrespaValley,DebarskoPolePlain,BerovoValley,Piyanets,KochaniValley, OvchePolePlain,Strumitsa-RadovishValley,KumanovoValley(628km )andSlavishkoPolePlain. Old,so-called"palaeo-relief"ischaracterisedbysaddles,whichareremnantsofformerfluvialerosion. Thebestknownsaddlesare:Pletvar,Prisad,Bukovo,Gyavato,StrazhaandPreseka. Tracesof“glacialrelief”canalsobefoundinMacedonia.Thereareremnantsofbothglaciersandcirques onsomeofthemountains,andofonlycirquesonothers due to thesmallsizeoftheglaciers.Someofthe cirques have filledwith water andbecomeglaciallakes.Suchreliefischaracteristic mainlyo f theh igh MountainsinwesternMacedonia. ² ² ² ² ² ² Figure4. Limestones reliefformsof SharPlanina-Gorna Leshnica (Photo:Lj.Melovski) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 1.INTRODUCTION 5557 “Karstic relief” is represented by all types of surface (depressions, crevices, fissures and karstic plains)and undergroundkarsticforms.Underground forms include about 164 caves and 12 pits and sinkholes. Limestone is found mostly on the Suva Gora, Zheden, Yakupitsa, Galichitsa, Bistra, and higherpartsofSharPlanina,mountains. Otherreliefformsinclude“gypsumandyounger fluvialrelief.” In conjunction with the complex geotectonic features, developed and diverse relief, as well as climatic characteristics, the Republic of Macedonia alsoaboundsinvarioussoiltypes. Figure5. Thecliffon theBabunariver-Peshti (Photo:M.Velevski) Figure6. CrnoEzero withaviewon theRudoka SharPlanina (Glacialrelief) (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure7. PaleoreliefonSelechkaPlanina (Photo:M.Velevski) 8 1.4.3.Climate Due to specific natural and geographic characteristics, there are two main types of climates in the Republic of Macedonia:Mediterraneanand continental. Thus, twoprominent seasons occur: cold, wet wintersanddry,hotsummers.Inadditiontothese,inthehigh,mountainousareasthereisalsoamountain climate characterised by short, cool summersandconsiderablycoldandmoderately wetwinters,where precipitationismainlyintheformofsnow. InspiteofthefactthatMacedonialiesrelativelyclosetotheAegeanandAdriaticSeas,theinfluenceofthe Mediterraneanclimatedoesnotreachverydeeplyintothecountry,exceptwithinafewvalleys.Thisisaresult ofthehighmountainswhichriseupinthewestandsouthofthecountry.TheinfluenceoftheAegeanSeacan befeltalongthevalleyoftheVardarRivernorthwardtoDemirKapiya,andslightlylesssointheSkopye Valley.SomeslighteffectalsoreachesthevalleysoftheStrumitsaandBregalnitsaRivers,aswellasthe proximityofDoyranLake.The influenceoftheAdriatic SeaonportionsofwesternMacedoniaextends primarilyalongtheCrniDrimvalley. The continental influence enters from the north and continues toward the south. As a result, the characteristics of this climate arefelt deeplywithinthe country, especially in the northeast and eastern regions. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 1.Shrub-oakforestzone 2.Pubescentoakforestzone 3.Italianoakforestzone 4.Sessileoakforestzone 5.Beechforestzone: a)sub-montanebeechforestzone b)montanebeechforestzone 6.Sub-alpineforestzone 7.Alpinepastureszone Theaverageannualtemperatureis11.3 C.Thehottest townsareValandovoandGevgeliya, withtemperaturesof 14.5 Cand14.3 C,respectively.Inthemountainclimatic areas,themeanannualtemperaturesare:onPopovaShapka, 4.7 C,inLazaropole,6.8 CandinKrushevo,8.2 C(1951 1980). The average precipitation within Macedonia (1951 1980)is683.7mm/year.Theareasofhighestprecipitation occur in MavroviAnovi and Resen, with 1,197 mm and 757.9mm,respectively,andthelowestinOvchePolePlain withonly490.3mm.Hailfallsmostoftenintheperiodfrom April toOctober ,wi th thehighestincidences in April and May. It is most frequent in the Ovche Pole, Pelagonian and Tikvesh areas and in the valleys of Gevgeliya-Valandovo andSkopye. blowmainlyfromthenorthernquadrantbut,in specific areas, the direction can change according to the relief structure. Although the best-known winds are the VardaretsandYugo,localwindssometimeoccurinvalleys orravines. Annually,thequantityofsunlightpresentisabout2,100 2,450 hours, while the mean annual cloudiness rating is between4.3and5.7ona10-pointscale. Theaveragenumberofcleardaysis130inthesouthand73 days in the Skopye Valley. Theaveragenumberoffoggy days ranges from 4-72,mostly occurring in autumn and wintermonths.FogispresentmainlyintheSkopyeValley (72days)andinPolog(33days),andoccursleastoftenin the Strumitsa-Radovish Valley and in Malesheviya,where theaverageannualnumberoffoggydaysis3-5. ° ° ° ° ° ° Winds 9 1.INTRODUCTION Figure11. Theoakregioninthe continentalclimate-zonalregion (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure9. Oak-shrub (Quercuscoccifera)in thesubmediterranean climateregion (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure12. SharPlanina Kobilica-TheAlpineclimateregion withhighmountainvegetation (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure10. Morina persica (Photo:O.Matevska) 10 1.4.4.Hydrography The RepublicofMacedonia containsan adequatenumberofwaterresources,bothundergroundand surface,buttheyarenotuniformlydistributed.Undergroundwatersinclude:phreatic,artesian,subartesian andwellwaters.Theyhavegreatimportanceforthecountry,becauseitisestimatedthatnearly60%ofrural and50%ofurbandrinkingwatersuppliescomefromwells. Withrespecttosurfacewaters,4,414springshave been recorded, with a total capacity o f approximately31.4m/sor991.90×106m /year.A great number havenotyetbeenmeasured,butare includedonhydrologicmaps.The capacityofabout 800ofthespringsrangesfrom1-5l/s,butthereare also90springswithcapacitiesofmorethan30l/s, with58yielding100l/s.Ofthespringsoccurring only in karstic areas, the most characteristic are: Rasche,inthefoothillsofZhedenMountain(4m s capacity);Ostrovo,nearthemonasteryofSt.Naum byOhridLakeandBilyanaSprings,nearthecityof Ohrid.Therearealsonumerousmineralsprings,the most noteworthy of which is near the village of Bansko,withwateratemperatureof72 C. of Macedonia are divided into three primarywatersheds:oneflowingtotheAdriati cSea and two to the Aegean Sea. Another very small watershedflowstotheBlackSea TheVardarRiver(Aegeanwatershed)isthelargest river,containing80%ofthewaterflowleavingthe RepublicofMacedonia.Oftheremaining20%,13% flows through the Crni Drim River (Adriatic watershed), with only 7% through the Strumitsa River, a tributary of the Bulgarian Struma River (Aegeanwatershed).ThetotallengthoftheVardar River is 388km,ofwhich 300kmarepresent in Macedonia.Atthepointwhereitexits Macedonia near Gevgeliya, its average flow is 174 m /s. Its major western tributaries are theCrna River(207kminlengthwitha37m/s average flow at its mouth) and the Treska River (138 km, 30 m /s). The longesteasterntributariesoftheVardar aretheBregalnitsaRiver(225km,28 m /s) and the PchinyaRiver(135km, 16 m /s). The Crni Drim Riverflows only 48 km within the territory of Macedonia and, together with its tributary, the Radika River, one of Macedonia's most attractive rivers, encompasses 1,772 km of watershed area. The Strumitsa River's watershed is1,465km . Hydrologic and hydrographic features specific to the Republic of Macedonia are the natural tectonic lakesOhrid,PrespaandDoyran. Ohrid Lake is the largest, occupying an area of 348.8 km , of which 229.9 are in the Republic of Macedonia. I t i s30 .5kmlongand15 kmwide.Thedeepestpointis287mandtheaveragedepthis144.8m.Thelakeissituatedat699mmsl.In additiontoflowfromtheCrniDrimRiver,thelakereceiveswaterfrom80surfaceandundergroundsprings andfromPrespaLake,whichislocatedtothesoutheastatahigheraltitude. ³ ³ ³/ ° ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ² ² ² The rivers Figure13. Themiddle-flowof theRadikaRiver (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure14. The Vardar River-thelower-flow (Photo:Lj.Melovski) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 511 1.INTRODUCTION Prespa Lake,withanareaof274km (176.8 km ofwhichbelongtoMacedonia),isthesecond largestinthecountry.Itslengthis28.6kmandits width,16.9km. Itsgreatestdepthis54m,withanaveragedepthof 18.8m.Thelengthoftheshorelineis100.1km. PrespaLakeissituatedat853mmsl. Doyran Lake, situated in the south-eastern corner of thecountry, occupies an area of 42.7 km . Of this amount, 27.1 km is within the Republic of Macedonia. Prior to the recent hydrologicperturbationscausedbybothclimatic andhumanfactors,thelake'smaximumdepthwas 10mandtheaveragedepth,6.7m. Among the other Macedonian water resources,thereare110majorandminorartificial lakes, but only 20 with volumes larger than 1,000,000m . Theyareusedforirrigation,watersupplyand theproductionofhydroelectricpower. ² ² ² ² ³ Figure15. ThePrespa Lakewiththe GolemGradisland (Photo:M.Dzingo) 1.4.5. Humanpopulationandsettlements The territory of the Republic of Macedonia has been continuously inhabitedsinceancienttimesduetoitsfavourablegeographiclocationandclimaticconditions.Thereare archaeologicalfindingsthatindicateintensivehumanactivity(settlementsandotherobjects)datingfromthe PalaeolithicandNeolithicperiods,BronzeAge,IronAge,andfromtheClassicalperiod(ArchaeologicalMap oftheRepublicofMacedonia-MacedonianAcademyofScienceandArts,1994).Thesefindingsaremost numerousintheareasoftheVardarRiverandPelagonia,andinthevalleysofsomeoftheVarda r'stributaries. ThecurrentappearanceandcharacteristicsofmanyofthelandscapesinMacedoniaaretheresultofthe distribution of settlements from prehistoric times to the present (e.g., degradation of the natural zonal vegetationinsomeregions,strongculturalcharacteristicswithincertainareasetc.). Considering the long-term demographic trendsandtheir influence onthe quality ofsocio-economic developmentandtheenvironment,itwillbeusefultomentionthegrowth, structureanddistributionofthepopulation. Data for the population of Macedonia over the past 50 years are presented inTable1.From1948to1994,aperiodof46years,thetotal populationgrewby729,946inhabitants,or69%. Table 2 shows a constant decreasing trend for natural population growth rate, however. Such trends unfavourably transform the age structureofthepopulation(duetothecontinualagingprocess). The processofdemographicaging(i.e., thattheaverage age of the population is tending to increase), is subject to both the natural and mechanical components of population growth. The level of spatial mobilitywithin thecountryconforms, toag rea t ex t en t , t o thesizeand distributionofethnicandmigrantpopulations.Thenumberofmigrants includedwithinthetotalpopulationfiguresincreasedfrom12%to36% duringtheperiod1948-1994. Accordingtothecensusof1994,46%ofthemigrationwasoflocalorigin, 42%wasbetweenmunicipalitiesand12%wasfromabroad. Demographic characteristics. MigrationwithintheRepublicofMacedonia,exemplifiedbytherapid growthofcitiesandanunbalancedregionalpopulationdistribution,has resulted in numerous problems, including the unsustainable use of biologicalresources.Consequently,problemsresultingfromtheobserved demographic patternsshould beconsideredwhencreatingimplementa Census Year Population (totalNumber) 1948 1953 1961 1971 1981 1994 1.152.986 1.304.514 1.406.003 1.647.308 1.908.136 1.945.932 1953 1961 1971 1981 1994 23,1 20,6 15,4 13,6 8,5 Census Year Population Growth Table1. Population of theRepublicof Macedoniabyyear (accordingto censusdata) Source:Calculations usingdatafrom theStatisticYearbook oftheRepublicof Macedonia2001, p.48,Skopje2001 Table2. Dynamicsof thepopulationgrowth, 1953-1994 Source:Calculations usingdatafrom theStatisticYearbook of theRepublicof Macedonia2001, p.48,Skopje2001 tion and monitoring policies for the programmes connected with the sustainable use of biologicalresources. Considering the meanpopulationagewithintheState,themost desirable age structure is seen within large cities, whiletheworstsituation is present i n ruralsettlements(Table3). Settlements.ModernsettlementswithintheRepublicof Macedoniadifferfromeachotherinsize,spatialorganisa tionandsocialandculturalcharacteristics.Ruralandurban social organisation varies mainly with demographic and economic indicators.Theprincipaldifferencesbetween villagesand townscanbeseenintheaffinitiesof their communities. Villages are inclined toward agriculture, in contrast to towns' professional/industrial orientationinthesecondaryandtertiarysectors.Therearealsootherrural-urbandifferences,suchasthesize ofthecommunity,levelofdispersalofstructures,socialdifferentiationandstratification,mobility,ambient surroundingsandsystemsofinteraction. Highpopulationconcentrationsinthelargercities(Skopye-444,760inhabitants,Bitola-86,174,Kumanovo 94,589, Prilep - 71,899 and Tetovo - 65,318), the inappropriate siting of industrial facilities and an inadequate communal infrastructure create serious problems in ensuring a quality environment. Demographic,economic,socialandenvironmentalcharacteristicswithinthepopulationalsodemonstrate significant rural-urban differences. While the processes of industrialisation andurbanisation have had a positiveinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftownsandtheirnearbyvillages,theyhavenegativelyimpacted distanthillandmountainvillages. The officialterritoriallimits of Macedonianvillagesencompass 86.7% of thenation's land areaand include40.2%ofthetotalpopulation(recordsfrom1994).Villageshavinglessthan50inhabitantsrepresenta specificproblem(360villages-20.6%ofthetotalnumberofvillages).Itisexpectedthatthevillageswithin thissubgroup,especiallytheoneshaving10orlessinhabitants,willeventuallybetotallyabandoned(104 villages).ThesituationisespeciallyseriousintheregionsofPrilep,Kavadartsi,Shtip,Veles,Ohrid,Demir HisarandBitola. 12 Other Towns Villages 0,0 32,2 30,3 34,5 12,0 36,0 30,5 18,9 14,1 0,3 Cityof Skopye 30,2 30,5 26,7 12,6 0,0 Mace donia 33,2 30,8 22,8 13,0 0,2 Age Structure 0-19 20-30 40-59 60andolder UnknownFigure16. Village Lisec(SharPlanina) themountainvillage ofcompacttypewith typicalrurallandscape (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure17. The Creshkavillage (OvchePole) abandonedvillagein thelowestpart ofOvchePole (Photo:M.Velevski) Source:Calculationsusingdatafrom theCensusof1994,Population,housing andagribusinesses,BookV,Skopje1996 Table3. Agestructureofthepopulation BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 2. BIODIVERSITY WITHIN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA 5 The richness and heterogeneity of species and ecosystems are the most striking features of the biodiversityoftheRepublicofMacedonia. Thissituation is a r esultofMacedonia's specific geographicposition, climate, geology, geomorphology, hydrography,pedologyandothercharacteristics,suchasthechangeswhichoccurredduringpastgeologic periods(e.g.,fromtheendofTertiarythroughtheIceAge,withitsglacialandinterglacialphases). Ahugenumberofrelictspeciesandecosystemsaretheresultofthesechanges,whichcontinuetohavean effectontherecentflora,faunaandfungi. Accordingtorecentdata,theimposingnumberofmorethan18,000taxaofflora,faunaandfungi-900of which are endemics - express Macedonia's rich biodiversity. The presence of more than 260 plant assemblagesalsoshowsthegreatdiversityofecosystems. Basedupon an analysis of biodiversityrichness within the countries of the European continent, the Republic of Macedonia holds the toppositiononthe"EuropeanHotspot"list. Despite thefact that the biodiversityofthefloraandfaunahasnotbeenfullystudied,thefindingstodateindicateitsgreatabundance. Asanexample,thediversityofinvertebratespeciesonarelativelylimitedsurfaceatsomesites(OhridLake, marshecosystemsandothers)canbedirectlycomparedtothediversityofcoralreefs;insomecases,the biodiversityinMacedoniaishigher. Therichnessanddiversityofecosystemsisaresultoftheheterogeneityofnaturalconditionswithinthe State,suchasreliefandgeologicfeatures,climate,soilsetc. Even though Macedonia's land areaisrelativelysmall,itexhibits a great diversity ofreliefforms,with heterogeneous geologicsubstrata and a complexpedologicstructure, combined withparticular climatic influences. Duringthecountry'slonggeologichistory,influencesfromthesefactorshelpedtocreatearichmosaicof relictandrecentecosystems(e.g.,wetland,meadow,halophytic,steppe-like,hillydryland/grassland,forest, mountain,sub-alpineandalpine),coupledwithanthropogenicallydevelopedruderal(i.e.,growingonwaste orinwasteplaces),weed,andagriculturalecosystems. In accordancewiththeirimportance,range,genetic and species diversity richness, ecological functionality, as well as economic value, the following key ecosystemsmaybedistinguished:forest,dryland/grassland,mountainandaquatic/wetland. TheseecosystemscoveralargeportionofthelandareaoftheRepublicofMacedonia at elevations of 150-2,200 m. Broadleaf forests dominate (Hornbeam [ ], Chestnut [ ],Beech[ ],Hop-hornbeam[ ] a n d O a k [ ]), whileevergreen forests(Fir[ ],Spruce[ ] andP ine [ ]) aswellasmixedforests (Beech-Fir)aredistributedinsmallareas. Duetoover-harvesting,theyhavebeendegradedinthelowlandareasandcompletelydestroyedinsome places. Nevertheless, they are represented byover80pureforeststandsand include speciesfromseven classes. Forestecosystemsarepresentinthefollowingqualitativeregions: Forestecosystems. Carpinus betulus Castaneasativa Fagussylvatica Ostryacarpinifolia Quercussp. Abiessp. Picea sp. Pinussp. 2. BIODIVERSITYWITHIN THEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 2.1.Diversityofecosystems 2.1.1.Keyecosystems 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 15 •The"Beechregion"coversthemountainousareasbetween1,100-1,700mmsl.Thefactthatit encompassesonly22%ofMacedonia'stotalforestedareanotwithstanding,thisregionpossessesthe largesttimbermassinthecountry.Theaverageannual temperature in this region ranges from 6.4-8°C; the averageprecipitation is 900-1100mm.Light brown podzolic soils(inthelowerbelt)andbrownpodzolic soils(inthehigherbelt)aretheprevailingsoiltypes. The sub-mountain Beech region is present between 1,100-1,300m(chieflyconsistingoftheclimate-zonal community, assn. ). RefugialtypesofBeechforests,aswellasPineforest communities (Black pine [ ]), may be foundhere.Themountainbeltspreadsbetween1,300 and 1,700 m (the range of the climatogenic assn. ) andisformedby varioustypes of BeechandBeech-Firforests.Inthe successional habitats, forests of Aspen ( ),Birch( )andWhite pine ( ) are also present. Typical faunal inhabitants in this region are:Slowworm( ),Roedeer ( ) , R e d d e e r ( ), Aesculapian snake ( ), Wildcat ( ), Pine marten ( ), Fire salamander( )etc. Festuco heterophyllae-Fagetum Pinus nigra Calaminthograndiflorae-Fagetum Populussp. Betulasp. Pinus sylvestris Anguisfragilis Capreolus capreolus Cervus elaphus Elaphe longissima Felis silvestris Martes martes Salamandrasalamandra BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA · The "Oakregion"isdistributed within lowlands andhighlands to 1,100mmsl.Theaverageannualtemperatureinthisregionrangesfrom9 14.2°C,andtheaverageprecipitationis500-850mm.Theprevailingsoil typeiscinnamon-colouredforestsoils,butothersoiltypesarealsolocally present (e.g., red podzolic soils [ ], chernozem, pseudogley gley,luvic,brownpodzolicetc.).Climate-zonalOakforestsdominatein these regions,mixed withorographically-edaphicallyandhydrologically conditioned Chestnut, Common ash ( ), Maple ( ),Poplar( ),Willow( .)etc.inplaces.Withrespectto vertebrate fauna, typical inhabitants of this region are eastern Mediterranean and Syrian boreal species such as: Balkan whip snake ( ), Fallow deer ( ), Eastern hedgehog ( ), Weasel ( ), Balkan spadefoottoad ( ),Greenwoodpecker( ), Cat snake( ),Wormsnake( )etc. • terra rossa Fraxinus excelsior Acer sp. Populussp. Salixsp Coluber gemonensis Dama dama Erinaceus concolor Mustelanivalis Pelobatessyriacus balcanicus Picus viridis Telescopusfallax Typhlopsvermicularis Figure19. Upperlimit ofaBeechforeston Belasicamountain (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure20. Sub-mountainBeechforest(Festuco heterophyllae-Fagetum)onBistramountain (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure18. Hungarian Italianoakforest (Quercetumfrainetto cerrismacedonicum) Debarca (Photo:M.Dzingo) 16 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA •The"pre-mountain(sub-alpine)region"isthehighestforestbelt,locatedbetween1,700mand approximately2,100mmsl.Theannualmeantemperatureis3.5°Candtheaverageprecipitationis about1,000mm.Theprevailingsoiltypeisbrownpodzolic;othertypesareveryinfrequent.Inthis belt,forestsarecomprisedofNorwayspruce( ),Dwarfmountainpine( )and Molikapine( ),aswellasaheathof , etc. Inthe"pre-mountain"forestcomplexes,characteristicanimalspeciesconsistofSiberianboreal faunalelements,typicalinhabitantsoftheforestedareasofSiberiaandnorthernEurope.Suchspecies include: Waxwing ( ), Lynx ( ), Three-toed woodpecker ( ), Red squirrel ( ), Black grouse ( ), Capercaillie ( ),Hazelhen( ),Brownbear( )andAdder( ). Piceaabies Pinusmugo Pinuspeuce Bruckenthaliaspiculifolia Vacciniummyrtillus Bombicilla garrulous Lynx lynx Picoides tridactylus Sciurus vulgaris Tetrao tetrix Tetrao urogallus Tetrastesbonasia Ursusarctos Viperaberus Figure22. Mixedfir-beechforestin Mavrovo (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure21. Molikapineforeston Pelistermt.withstonerivers auniquephenomenonintheRepublicofMacedonia (Photo:V.Matevski) Dryland/grassland ecosystems: These occur in the lowland and highlandbeltsfrom60-1,200 m m s l . Thesoils on which they develop are geologically diverse (silicate, lime stone,dolomiteetc.). The climatic characteristics are similar to those of the Oak forest region. Figure23. Vegetationonthehighland pasturesonthelimestonequarryes (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure24. Saganatolia 17 Dryland/grasslandecosystemsencompassahighernumberofdiffering plantcommunitiessuchas:meadow,halophyticandsteppe-like,aswellas theplantcommunitiesofhighlandpastures.Theyusuallydevelopwithin successionalhabitats,primarilyduetothepermanentdegradationofforest phytocoenoses(mainlyOak),butalsoonabandonedagriculturallandareas. From a faunal standpoint, eremial (i.e., grassland or semi-desert) elementsoriginatingfromtheAral-Caspianrefugialcentreandadaptedto life in steppe-like or semi-desert conditions are dominant within the dryland/grasslandecosystems.Typicalspeciesinclude:Stripedfieldmouse ( ),Stonecurlew( ),Commonquail (Coturnixcoturnix),Sandboa( ),Lessermolerat( ),Greatbustard( ),Commonpartridge( ), Balkanwalllizard( ),Littlebustard( )etc. Apodemusagrarius Burhinusoedicnemus Eryxjaculus Nannospalax leucodon Otistarda Perdixperdix Podarcistaurica Tetraxtetrax Mountain ecosystems. Mountain ecosystemsarepresent within a largeportionoftheRepublicofMacedonia;however,optimalconditions for their development are onlypresent onmountains with elevations above2,000m.Theaverageannualtemperatureinthisbeltis-4°C;the average precipitation is800mm.Withintheareashavingalimestone substratum,limestone-dolomiticblacksoils(mould-zonalsoiltype)are most often present, whereas the ranker soil type is typical in areas withoutlimestone.Thecommunitiesofthemountainpastures,located on silicate (vegetative class ) and carbonate (vegetative class ) soils, are represented by approximately15associations.Communitiesthatdeveloponlimestone and silicate rocks, limestone screes, under snow banks etc. are also includedwithinmountainecosystems. Thefaunaofmountainecosystemsiscomplexincontentbecauseitis amixtureoffaunalelementsofvariousorigins.Themoststrikingfeature of this fauna is the presence of indigenous relict-endemic, palaeo Mediterranean and oreal (high-mountain) faunal elements such as: Balkan snow vole ( ), Balkan alpine chamois ( ), Mountain souslik ( )andBalkanmole( ) , a swe l l a savery large number of invertebrate fauna, of which the most dominant is butterflies. Tundral (arctic) faunal elements are present only in very restrictednumberswithin mountain ecosystems.Examplesincludethe bird, Ring ouzel ( ),andmorebutterflyspeciesofthe genusErebia. Caricetea curvulae Elyno-Seslerietea Dinaromys bogdanovi Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica Spermophilus citelluskaramani Talpastankovici Turdustorquatus Figure25. Julodis ehrenbergii Figure26. Pelister mountainstream withalongstream vegetationofgrasses plants (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure27. Montainmeadow (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure28. Vegetationonthemountainpasturesandquarries (Photo:V.Matevski) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 18 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Aquatic/wetlandecosystems.The group ofkeyaquatic/wetlandecosystemsincludesthethreenatural lakes, thewell-developed river network-especiallythewatershedoftheVardarRiver-andremnantsof formerlywidespreadmarshesandswamps. .ThisisthelargestlakeintheRepublicofMacedonia andissituatedinatectonicvalleyinthefarsouth-westernportionof the country. Ohrid Lake is a typical oligotrophic lake with outstandingtransparency,lownutrientcontentandlowproductivity. With its relict and endemic organisms, it represents the most significantlakeecosysteminEuropeandisundertheprotectionof theUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization (UNESCO). The diversityofphytoplankton and zooplankton in OhridLake i s relativelypoor.Thephytoplanktonisdominatedby , and whilethezooplanktonbyWaterfleas ( ), Copepods ( ) and Rotifers ( ). The benthos at shallow depthsis representedbyabundantmacrophytic vegetation(representativesof ),andatdeeperdepthsby thedominantdiatoms.Zoobenthosconsistsprimarilyofsegmented worms ( ), snails ( ), Ostracods ( ), flatworms( )andsponges( ),withahighlevel ofendemism.Amongthenektonicorganisms,themostimportantare therelictandendemicspeciesofsalmonidfish. •OhridLake Bacillariophyta Chlorophyta Cyanophyta Cladocera Copepoda Rotatoria Charophyta Annelida Gastropoda Ostracoda Plathelminthes Porifera Figure29. Floating aquaticvegetation withNymphaeaalba (Photo:M.Dzingo) •PrespaLake. Thislakeislocatedinatectonicvalleybetween GalichitsaandPelisterMountains.RichencrustinglayersofGreen and Blue-green algae and diatoms can be found on the rocky submergedsubstrate.Inaddition,significantareasofmacrophyticvegetationarepresent.LikeOhrid Lake,thezooplanktonis representedprimarilybyspeciesofCopepods,Rotifers and Water fleas, whilethezoobenthosisdominatedbyflatworms,Ostracods,segmentedworms,snailsandsponges. Therelictspeciesoffisheswhicharedistinguishedbyahighlevelofendemism arealsodominantamongthenektonic organismsofthelake. •DoyranLake. Protozoa Mollusca Characterisedbyhighfloristicandfaunaldiversityanda lowlevelofendemism,thisisatypicaleutrophiclake.Diatomsaredominant among the phytoplankton and periphyton. Among the zooplankton, Copepods, Protozoans ( ),RotifersandWaterfleasaredominant,whilewithinthezoobenthos,flatworms,Molluscs ( ), Ostracods, segmented worms and sponges predominate. Cyprinid species of fishes dominatethenektonicorganisms. Figure31. Aquatic andmarshes vegetationinthe coastalzone ofthePrespaLake (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure30. GolemGrad-PrespaLake,epiliticcommunities (Photo:Z.Levkov) The three natural lakes provide favourable conditions for the development of aquatic macrophytic (floatingandsubmersed)vegetation,aswellasthedevelopmentofshorelinemarshspecies. 19 •Wetland ecosystems Cyclopoida, Harpacticoida, Isopoda,Oligochaeta Ostracoda : Wetlandvegetation, which in thepastusedtocoverlargeareas,todayappearsmainlyas fragmentary patches along the shorelines of the three naturallakes(e.g.,OhridMarsh,PrespaMarshandStruga Marsh),aswellaswithinremnantsofotherformerlakes and marshes (e.g., Katlanovo Marsh, the marsh near Negortsi Spa, Monospitovo Marsh, the marsh near Gostivar etc.). The fauna of wetland ecosystems is characterisedbyahighlevelofdiversityandendemism, expressed especially within the taxonomic groups of invertebrate limnofauna ( and ). •Riverine ecosystems. The riverine ecosystems are character ised by well developed water mosses, as well as Algal flora, especially in the upper reaches of the Vardar River. Within these ecosystems, zooplankton is poorly represented,andthebenthoswhich does occur has very reduced populations. Nekton is character ised by rich relict and endemic fauna,especiallyfish.Figure32. Lutralutra (CourtesyofMacedonian MuseumofNaturalHistory) Within the Republic of Macedonia, many rare, relict and endemic communities occur in almost all vegetationtypes. Of specialimportancearethosewithrestricteddistributionamongtheaquatic,wetland, meadow, halophytic, steppe-like, forest, sub-alpine and alpine vegetative communities, as well as those presentwithinthevegetationofhighlandpastures.Nevertheless,someoftheseareseriouslyendangeredor threatened with extinction, while others are considerably reduced in their populations and biological viability. Thespectrumoffactorswhichthreatensecosystemdiversityisfairlybroadandofcomplexnature.The characterandintensityoftheirinfluencesvaryandarespecifictoeachindividualecosystem. 2.1.2.Threatenedecosystems Figure34. Swampvegetation NegorskiBanji (Photo:V.Matevski)Figure33. Orthetrumcancellatum BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 20 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA •Forestecosystems. Threatstoforestecosystemsarequitevaried andincludedesiccation,die-backprocesses,forestfiresandvarious diseases. For example, desiccation of the Fir-Spruce forest (assn. )alongtheTetovskaRiver,theBeech-Fir forest (assn. Fago-Abietetum meridionale) on Bistra (Senechka) Mountain, the Chestnut forest (assn. )alongtheBrajchinskaRiveronPelisterMountainetc. have been observed. The large number of forest fires is also threatening communities of Dwarf mountain pine (assn. ) onYakupitsaMountain,theBlackpineforests (assn. ) of Karadzitsa Mountain, as well as assemblages of assn. and assn. at DemirKapiyaGorgeetc.Seriousconsequencesarealsoappearingasa resultofhumanactivities.Theviabilityofspecificforestcommunities isbeinginfluencedbyinappropriatereforestationactivities( inthevicinityofLyubashnearKavadarci),water capture/extraction ( on Drevenichka Mountain near Demir Hisar), drainage ( nearNegortsiSpa; in the Polog Valley and Debartsa regions) etc.Recently, forestecosystemshavealsobeguntobethreatenedasaresultofthe construction ofroads,railroads, artificial lakes, tourist settlements, ski-lifts,rubbish tips(dumps) etc.Duetothedestructionofcertain forest ecosystems, particular species of Fungi arealsodisappearing (e.g., etc.). Many of these factors also affect the status of different related faunal groups. The reduction of the populationsofindividualspeciescanbebestseenintheOakregion. Withrespecttovertebrates,thefollowingspeciesareconsideredtobe extinctinMacedonia:Goldenjackal( ),Reddeer( )andFallowdeer( ),althoughthelasttwohavebeenreintroduced.Thespecies, Black vulture ( ), Bearded vulture ( ), Pine marten ( )andMarbledpolecat( ),exhibitthemostreducedpopulations. Abieti-Piceetumscardicum Castanetum sativae macedonicum Pinetum mugomacedonicum Pulsatillo macedonicae-Pinetum nigrae Phillyreo-Juniperetum excelsae Querco-Carpinetum orientalis macedonicum Ephedro Prunetumtenellae Tilio cordatae-Fagetum Periploco-Fraxinetum anguistifoliae-pallisae Caricielongatae-Alnetum glutinosae Antrodia juniperina, Boletus dupainii, Inonotus tamaricis, Pyroformes demidoffii, Canisaureus Cervus elaphus Damadama Aegypius monachus Gypaetus barbatus Martes martes Vormelaperegusna Figure35. Figure35a. Adzina Reka-thesouthern borderof thespruceforest Picea abies-cones (Photo:Lj.Melovski) (Photo:V.Matevski) 35a Figure36. Pyrofomesdemidoffi-verydangerous parasitontheGreeckJuniper.InEuropeknown onlyinMacedoniaandBulgaria (Photo:M.Karadelev) Figure37. ( Pulsatilla hallerisubsp. macedonica Photo:Lj.Melovski) 21 •Dryland/grassland ecosystems. In general, the dryland/grassland ecosystems are notthreatened. Exceptionsare presentwithinsomespecific communities (e.g., assns. and )whichdeveloponsalinesoilsintheOvchePolePlain, aswel las the and communities in thehighland pasturebeltwhicharefoundonsoilscontainingantimonyandarsenic(atAlshar nearKavadartsi).Thesecommunities,presentonlyinsmallareas,areinpotential dangerofdestructionduetoagriculturalactivities(inthefirstinstance)andmining (inthesecond).Someinsufficientlystudiedcommunitiesfoundonlimestoneand dolomiticsubstratesarealsobeingthreatenedbythequarryingofmarble(Pletvar, SivetsandTser). Withinthesevariousecosystems,reductionsinthepopulationsof the following faunal species have been recorded: Stone curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), Common quail ( ), Sand boa ( ), Geoffrey'sbat( ),Whiskeredbat( ),Lessermole rat ( ), Great bustard ( ), Common partridge ( ),Europeansouslik( ),Commonmole ( )andLittlebustard( ). Crypsidetum aculeatae balcanicum Pholiureto Plantaginetumbalcanicum Violaallschariensis V. arsenica Coturnix coturnix Eryx jaculus Myotisemarginatus M.mystacinus Nannospalax leucodon Otis tarda Perdixperdix Spermophiluscitelluscitellus Talpaeuropaea Tetraxtetrax Figure38. Viola arsenica-threatened speciesfrom Alshar,Kavadarci (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure39. Elaphesitula (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure40. Ablepharuskitaibelii (Photo:G.Dzukic) Figure41. Gentiana luteasubsp. symphyandra threatenedspecies (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure42. Gentianapunctata-threatenedspecies byuncontrolledexploitation (Photo:Lj.Melovski) •Mountain ecosystems. Mountain and high mountain ecosystems are less threatened since anthropogenic influences are reduced (due to their limited accessibilityandunfavourableclimaticconditions). Typical activitieswhich could negativeaffectthe viabilityoftheseecosystems includeovergrazingandtheuncontrolledcollectionofcertainplantspecies(e.g., etc.). Theconstructionofski-lifts,mountaineers'towers,televisiontransmittersandotheraerialsystems usuallyinstalled on mountainpeaksoftencausethedegradationofplantcommunitieswhichhave restricteddistributionsonthesummitsofmountains. Withregardtothefaunalcomponentofmountainecosystems,indirectanthropogenicimpactsdo notthreatenthestabilityofthesepopulations.Theonlydirecthumanimpactconcernsthe Balkan alpine chamois ( ), which never reaches its optimal population numberduetouncontrolledhunting. Althaea officinalis, Anacamptis pyramidalis, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Centaurium erythraea, Dactylorhiza maculata, D. sambucina, Gentiana lutea subsp. symphiandra, Gentiana punctata, Hypericum perforatum, Juniperus communis, Origanum vulgare, Primula veris, Pulmonaria officinalis,Sideritisraeseri,S.scardica,Thymustoseviivar.Degenii, Rupicapra rupicapra balcanicus BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 22 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA •Aquatic/wetland ecosystems. Fresh water ecosystems within the Republic of Macedonia consistofflowing,lacustrine,temporaryandundergroundwaters.Ofthespeciespresentwithinthese ecosystems,thedominantgroups (based upon placeoforigin)consistofbothfloristicandfaunal elementsoriginatingfromtheBlackSea/Caspianrefugialregion(immigrantsfromthepost-glacial age),aswellasacomplexofindigenousrelict-endemicelementswhicharemostnumerouswithinthe three natural lakes.Lakesaremostsensitivetoanthropogenicimpacts,incomparisontotheother types of freshwater ecosystems, and theirrestorationis verydifficult. Therefore, theyshould be dedicatedforcompleteconservation. OhridLake Gastropoda, Oligochaeta, Ostracoda, Plathelminthes Porifera Salmo balcanicus S.letnica ThelacustrineecosystemofOhridLake,togetherwiththeoldcentreofthecityofOhrid,have beendeclaredaUNESCOWorldCulturalandNaturalHeritageSite.Themainproblemswhichhave led,toagreaterorlesserextent,tothedisturbanceoftheecologicalbalancewithinthisecosystemare excessive waterreleases - in order to provide a higher level of electricity production - and the temporaryshuttingdownoftheintegratedcollection/treatmentsystemforcommunalandindustrial wastewaters.Asaresultofwaterlevelfluctuations,onlyfragmentsoftheformerlyabundantfloating macrophyticvegetation canbeseen.Fromthestandpointoffauna,OhridLake,withits216relict endemic taxa,istherichestandmostimportantfreshwatercentreofendemisminEurope.Asisthe case withtheotherreliclakes,theprocessofintra-lacustrinespeciationisalsohighlyexpressedin Ohrid Lake, especially within the taxonomic groups of and .Althoughthedegreeofthreatstoinvertebratefaunaisstillinsufficiently studied, with regard to vertebrates, six of seven endemic Ohrid fish species (according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN]) are included within the category, "V" (Vulnerable),whileonespeciesisconsideredtobe"EX"(Extinct).Thetwospeciesoftrout( and )areparticularlycaughtforfood,sotheirpopulationsarecontinuouslybeing reduced. Figure43. Sourceof theriverCrnDrim nearSt.Naum (Photo:M.Dzingo) 23 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA PrespaLake Prespa Lake: Theconstant reduction o f thewaterlevelofPrespaLakeovertheyears hasadverselyaffectedthestateofthefloating vegetation and faunal communities in the littoralzoneofthelake.Thepresenceoflarge quantitiesoforganicsiltonthelakebottomis accelerating the process of eutrophication, whichmanifestsitselfwiththeappearanceof phytoplankton blooms during the summer period. Of the floating macrophytic vegetation, the most significant is the assn. Lemno-Spirodelletum polyrhizae subassn. aldrovandetosum,whichdevelopsonlywithin theinshoreareasofPrespaLake (nearDolno Perovovillage)andisdirectlyendangeredby the loweringof thewate r level. Of the total number of endemic species (24), the most threatenedarefishes.Amongthesixendemic species of fishes,thePrespableak( ) is the most caught;nevertheless, its population is remaining stable. Due to uncontrolled fishing, the Carp ( ) is the most endangered species in Prespa Lake and, according to IUCN, it is includedonthelistofspeciesbeingatcritical risk (CR). The establishment of the strictly protected "Ezerani"reserveandtheinitiative currently underway for proclaiming Prespa Park a transboundary park will surely contributetotheimprovementofthestateof thislakeecosystem. Alburnus belvica Cyprinus carpio Figure44. Prespa Lakewiththebay near thevillage Stenje(Pelister mountainin theback) (Photo:J.Acevski) Figure45. Prespa Lake-GolemGrad (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure46. Prespa Lake-swamp vegetation (Photo:M.Dzingo) 24 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA DoyranLake The status of Doyran Lake is the most alarming. Since 1988, the level of the water surfacehasdrastically fallen,contributing to a decrease inwaterdepthandarecessionofthe shoreline, accompaniedbyacomplete lossof the littoral zone and its related biological communities. Acceleratedeutrophicationhas led to intensive sedimentation and a dramatic reduction in the epibenthiccommunities,aswellasseriouschanges in the structure of the Algal microflora. These changes have particularly affected the Common reed( )zoneandotheraquatic macrophytic vegetation (assn. iscompletelyextinct). The zooplankton community, under the influenceofthesechanges,haslostitslimnetic character.Until1988,94zooplanktontaxawere present in the openwaters of the littoral and pelagic zones, whereas the recent status of this community shows a reduction to only 28 taxa. Comparativepopulationdensityanalysesindicatethattheabundanceofthezooplanktoncommunity withinthepelagiccomplexisone-seventhitsformerlevel,andthatofthelittoralcomplexone-tenthof itspreviousnumbers.Althoughcurrentlyseverelydisturbed,thebenthiccommunitylikelystillhas enoughgeneticpotentialtocompletelyrestoreitself.Thestatusofthebenthoscanbeinferredfromthe amountoftheannualfishcatch,whichinoptimalconditionsusedtobeasmuchas500tonnes. Inthe pastfewyearsithasbeenreducedto70tonnes,droppingtoonly25tonnesin2002.Theaccelerated succession of this lake ecosystem is evidenced by the appearance of the Calanoid copepod ( ),atypicalrepresentativeofmarshecosystems,whichwasrecordedinDoyran Lakeforthefirsttimein1995.Inordertorestorethedisturbedenvironmentalbalance,effortshave beenmadetobringadditionalquantitiesofwatertothelake,whichisexpectedtoimprovethestateof thebiologicalcommunitieswithinthelakeecosystem. Phragmitesaustralis Myriophyllo Nupharetum Eudiaptomusgracilis Figure47. Doyran Lake-“island” ofdeadshells (Photo:P.Stojanovski) Riverineecosystems. Gobiobanarescui, Salmopelagonicus S.peristericus Wetland ecosystems. Cypero-Caricetumacutiformis Glycerietummaximae Scirpo Alopecuretumcretici Asthemajorrecipientsforalltypesofwastewater,theseecosystemsareundergreat anthropogenicpressures.ThesituationwiththeriversBregalnitsa,Crna,PchinyaandVardararethemost alarming.Someoftheartificiallakes(reservoirs),suchasKalimanciandTikveshLakes,functionassinksfor persistent substances. Others, whichprovide drinking or industrialwater(e.g.,Mavrovo,Strezhevoand Turiya), have experienced a deterioration in water quality due to excessive water extraction. Benthic communitiesintheriverineecosystemsareshowingreducedabundance, which will ultimately lead to a declineinfishpopulations.Sixofthe20endemicfishspecieswithintheRepublicofMacedoniaarefoundin riverineecosystems.Three of theseare considered to be globally threatened species ( and ). Marsh communitiesarethemostreduced,despitethefactthat,inthepast,they coveredverylargeareas.Asaresultofdrainageactivitieswithinthelast50-60years,mostwetlandhabitats have been either totally converted to agriculturalproduction orremaininonlyafragmentedstate.Such communitiesinclude: (Gostivar), (Pelagonia), (MonospitovoMarsh)etc. Mountain marshes and peat bogs are also under anthropogenic pressures as a result of the capture/extractionofwaterfrommountainspringsandstreamsforuseindrinkingwatersystems.Therefore, themarshcommunitiesofthevegetativeclasses and aswellasthediversityofAlgae,havebeendegraded. Montio-Cardaminetea Scheuchzerio-Cariceteafuscae, 25 From a faunal standpoint, impacts to most of the swamps and marsheshavecausedareductioninthepopulationsofallAmphibians, as well as individual species of other invertebrate and vertebrate groups. The most affected are: Water vole ( ), Eurasian bittern( ),Europeanpondterrapin( ), Otter ( ), Balkan terrapin ( ), Dice snake ( ), Miller's water shrew ( ),Watershrew( ),Balkanspadefoottoad ( ), Eurasian Spoonbill ( )andGreekmarshfrog( ). OnlyBelchishtaMarshstillexistsinitsoriginalstate,wherethe populationofOtters,agloballythreatenedspecies,isthelargest. Arvicola terrestris Botaurus stellaris Emys orbicularis Lutra lutra Mauremys rivulata Natrix tessellata Neomysanomalus N.fodiens Pelobates syriacus balcanicus Platalea leucorodia Ranabalcanica Figure49. Partof thestrictnatural reserve“Ezerani” (Photo:S.Petkovski) Figure48. Plathalea leucorodia (Photo:V.Anastasovski) Figure50. Pelobatessyriacus (Photo:V.Sidorovska) 2.2. Diversityofspecies 2.2.1. Micro-organisms 2.2.2. Algae Fromataxonomicaspect,micro-organismsarepoorlystudied.Themainbodyofresearchdealswiththe quantitativestructureofindividualphysiologicgroupsofbacteria. DataonboththequalitativeandquantitativestructureofthebacterialcommunityofOhridLakedoexist, however. By contrast, there areonlydata on thestructureofsomephysiologicgroups ofbacteriawithin riverineecosystemsandreservoirs. Withregardtothelowerplantgroups,theGreen,Silicate(diatoms)andBlue-greenalgaearedominant, withothergroupsfoundinsmallernumbers.Todate,1,580speciesofAlgaehavebeenidentified,ofwhich diatoms- (40.1%)andGreenalgae- (35.3%)formamajority.TheothergroupsBacillariophyta Chlorophyta BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 26 Table4. Numberofspecifictaxaofknown algalgroupsin theRepublicofMacedonia 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ( and ) are rarely studied and, consequently, it will be necessary toinitiatebasicresearchon their structure, distribution and eco logy. The most important centres of Algaldiversity are OhridandDoyran Lakes.Therearenocurrentsystematic studiesforPrespaLake.Inadditionto the relic lakes, mountain aquatic ecosystems (especially post-glacial lakes)appearto beequally important centresof Algaldiversity. Chrysophyta, Euglenophyta, Pyrro phyta Xanthophyta Fungi represent a very heterogeneous groupoforganisms;however,studiestodate have dealt mainly with and Theotherordersarepoorly studied. Thereareapproximately1,250recorded speciesofFungi.Mostbelongtotheorders (130), (1050), (10), (20) and (35). Lichens (lichenoid Fungi) ( ) numberapproximately340species. Ascomycota Basidiomycota. Ascomycota Basidiomycota Myxomycota Oomycota Zygomycota Lichenes 2.2.3. FungiandLichens Figure51. Navicula oblonga ararespecies inthealgalflora intheRepublic ofMacedonia (Photo:Z.Levkov) Table5. NumberofFungalandLichen families, generaandspecieswithintheRepublicofMacedonia. Figure52. Witchesheart(Clathrusruber) inthecliffofthePchinjaRiver (Photo:M.Karadelev) Taxonomic Group Families Genera Species Varieties Forms Total Taxa 16 48 204 10 58 273 5 8 12 3 1 16 4 7 10 4 - 14 13 69 512 109 12 633 - - - - 2 2 9 - - 9 3 5 23 3 1 27 29 90 398 124 35 557 2 2 18 - 3 21 6 7 7 - - 7 1 1 1 - - 1 1 1 1 - - 1 82 240 1195 256 128 1580 Cyanophyta Pyrrophyta Chrysophyta Bacillariophyta Phaeophyta Xanthophyta Euglenophyta Chlorophyta Charophyta Rhodophyta Glaucophyta Eustigmatophyta Total TypesofFungi Families Genera Species Ascomycota (without Lichenes) Basidiomycota Chytridiomycota Myxomycota Oomycota Zygomycota 35 49 5 7 5 9 60 284 6 7 9 12 1.050 130 10 10 20 35 Taxa TotalFungi 110 378 1250 Lichenes 11 73 340 TotalFungiandLichenes 121 451 1590 27 • • • • Mosses. Peatmosses. Horsetails Ferns. Mosses are represented by 67 families, 167 generaand349species.Theclass includesone species and theclass , 52 species, whiletheclass possesses 296 species. It seems likely that future studiesofmossesintheRepublicofMacedoniawillincrease thesenumbers. This groupisrepresented by six species which mainly inhabit moist areas and bogs in mountain and high mountainareas.Theyareonlyrarelyfoundin lowlands (mostoftenonsilicatesoils).The species and haveveryrestricteddistributions. .Horsetailsarerepresentedbysevenspecieswhichmaybefoundinverymoistplaces, fromlowlandstohighmountainareas(bygorges,marshes,moistmeadows,mountainstreams,rivers andvalleys).Themostfrequentspeciesare and withtherarestbeing and . IntheRepublicofMacedonia,42speciesofferns in15familiescanbeobserved.Themostpolymorphicgenera are (11species)and (6).Thefollowing species are characterised by a restricted distribution: and , as well as the endemic species (inthevicinityof Prilep).Thisgroupalsoincludesthetwospeciesofaquatic ferns( and ). Anthocerotae Hepaticae Musci Diphasium alpinum, Huperzia sellago, Isoetes phrygia Lycopodium clavatum Equisetumarvense E.palustre, E. fluviatile E.Sylvaticum Asplenium Dryopteris Adiantumcapillus-veneris,Blechnumspicant,Crytogramma crispa,Ophioglossumvulgatum,Osmundaregalis,Phyllitis scolopendrium Thelipteris palustris Aspleniummacedonicum Marsileaquadrifolia Salvinianatans The flora of the higher plant groups is quite rich, possessingdiverse floral elements (arctic-alpine, Caucasian, Eurasian, Greek-Anatolian, Illyric, Mediterranean, Middle-European, Tertiary relict and cosmopolitan) and a large number of endemic species (Balkan, Macedonian, south Balkan etc.). It is representedby210families,920 genera and approximately3,700species.The mostnumerousgroupis flowering(Angiosperm)plants,withabout3,200species,followedbymosses(350)andferns(42). 2.2.4.Higherplantgroups Figure53. Buxbaumiaviridis-uniquespeciesofmoss fromtheRepublicofMacedoniaontheredlistofIUCN Figure54. The relictplantIsoetesphrygia ofSelechkaPlanina (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure55. Macedonianfern-Aspleniummacedonicum onitsLocusclassicus-MarkoviKulinearPrilep (Photo:V.Matevski) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 28 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA • Angiosperms. Angiosperms are represented by120families,720genera andapproximately3,200 species (5,000 taxa).Themostpolymorphicfamiliesof theclass are the families (345 species), (c. 470), (264), (c. 260), and ( 4 5 7 ) , w h e r e a s of the c l a s s , the families (c. 280) and (c. 130)aremostpolymorphic. Dicotyledonae Caryophylla- ceae Compositae Cruciferae Labiatae Leguminosae Monocotyledonae Gramineae Liliaceae •Gymnosperms. Thesearerepresented byfourfamiliesandsixgenera,including 15 indigenous species (the most polymorphicarethegenera and ,each with fivespecies). Juniperus Pinus Figure56. Blackpineonlimestonerocks (Photo:J.Acevski) With regard to higher plant groups, complete studies exist on peat mosses, horsetails, gymnosperms and 78 families of angiosperms( ). There are 24 families of the group , as well as 16 families of the class that stillneedtobestudied. Dicotyledonae: Choripetalae Dicotyledonae: Sympetalae Monocotyledonae Group Famillies Genera Species Totalmoses ) Peatmoses( ) Horsetails( ) Ferns( ) Gymnosperms ( ) TotalAngiosperms ( ) Totalhigherplants ( Bryopsida Hepaticae Anthocerotae Musci Lycopsida Sphenospida Filicinae Gymnospermaae Angiospermae Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae Subspecies Varietes Forms Total Taxa 67 1 25 41 3 1 15 4 c.120 c.102 c.18 c.210 167 1 36 130 5 1 21 6 c.720 c.565 c.155 c.920 349 1 52 296 6 7 42 15 c.3200 c.2600 c.600 c.3700 13 18 7 c.1700 c.1500 c.200 c.1740 6 20 60 22 c.4900 c.4100 c.800 c.5350 Table6. Numberoffamilies,genera,species andlowertaxaofhigherplantsintheRepublicofMacedonia Figure57. Lilliumalbanicum (Photo:V.Matevski) Withregardtothestatusofselectedfaunalgroups,thesituationisasfollows: (Protozoans)-Thediversityofthisgroupoforganismsismainlyconcentratedinthewatersof thethreenaturallakes(Ohrid,PrespaandDoyran).Atotalof113specieshasbeenrecorded,ofwhich79 belongtothegroupoffree-livingProtozoans.OftheparasiticProtozoans,therearefivesubphyla;however, onlythesubphylum hasbeenstudied(34species). (sponges)-Todate,ninespeciesandonesubspecieshavebeenrecorded,allinhabitingthethree naturallakes. Protozoa Ciliophora Porifera 2.2.5.Fauna 29 Plathelminthes Turbellaria Tricladida Rhabdocoela Allocoela- Trematoda Cnidaria Hydrozoa Nemertea Stichostemma graecense Nemathelminthes Rotifera Nematoda Mollusca Gastropoda Bivalvia Annelida Oligochaeta Hirudinea Arthropoda Chelicerata Arachnida Chelicerata Arachnida Pseudoscorpiones Opiliones Scorpiones Solpugida Acarina (flatworms) - Within this group, 85 species have been recorded.From the class of Turbellarianworms( ),65specieshavebeenrecorded,withthedominantrepresentativescoming fromtheorder (atotalof40species).Theothertwoordersinclude25species( 24; one).Twoclassesofthisphylum, and Cestoda, are representedby10specieseach. The largest centreofbiodiversityforthisgroupoforganismsisOhrid Lake,with48recordedspecies. (Cnidarians)-Thesearerepresentedbytheclassof Hydroid zoophytes ( ) in freshwater ecosystems, of whichtwospecieshavebeenrecorded. (Nemertineworms)-Foundinthesublittoral zone of Ohrid Lake, is the only recordedspecies. (roundworms)-Ofthe roundworms,studieshavefoundonlytwoclasses, (Rotifers)and (Nematodes),representedby613 species.ThedataonRotiferaoriginatefromtheanalysesof theplanktoncommunitiesofthethreelakesandrecognise 60species.Asplanktonicorganisms,theyarecharacterised by a wide area of distribution and possess no endemic species.Researchtodatehasidentifiedatotalof553species ofNematodesinMacedonia,whichislikelytobemuchless than the actual number of species. In the first study of roundworms in Ohrid Lake, 23 aquatic, free-living Nematodeswerefound.Later,greaterstresswasgiventothe studyofterrestrialNematodes,mainlyinforestecosystems (450species),aswellasNematodeswhichparasitiseearly vegetables,animalsandhumans(80species). (Molluscs)- Molluscsarewellstudied,witha totalof282knowntaxa(276speciesandsixsubspecies).Theclassofsnails( ) isrepresentedby 267taxa(262speciesandfivesubspecies),with102(97speciesand5subspecies)belongingtotheaquatic Gastropods.TheterrestrialGastropods, althoughincompletely studied, show a greatdiversity of species, with165recordedtodate.FromtheclassofBivalves( ), 15specieshavebeenrecorded.Themost importantcentreofdiversityforthisgroupisOhridLake. (segmentedworms)-Thisisarelativelywellstudiedgroup,withatotalof182recordedtaxa (160speciesand22subspecies).Withregardtotheclass (Oligochaetes),139taxahavebeen recorded(123speciesand16subspecies),whiletheclass (leeches)isrepresentedby35taxa(29 speciesandsixsubspecies).Centresoftheirdiversityarenaturallakesandotheraquaticbiotopes. (Arthropods)-Thisgrouphasnumerousrepresentativesintheanimalworldandisalsowell representedwithintheRepublicofMacedonia,withalargenumberoftaxa(7,743),including7,574species and169subspecies. Withregardtothesubphylum (Chelicerates),representativesof theclass (Arachnids)total825taxa(819 speciesandsixsubspecies).Withregardto the subphylum (Chelicerates), representatives of the class (Arachnids)total825taxa(819speciesand six subspecies). Among the six orders in this class, the order Aranea (spiders) is dominant with 558 species. The order (Pseudo-scorpions) is representedby37taxa(36speciesandone subspecies) and the order (Daddy longlegs) by 40 taxa (38 species andtwosubspecies).Theorder (Scorpions)isrepresentedbythreespeciesandtheorder (Sunspiders)byonespeciesonly.The order (ticksandmites)isrepresentedby196taxa(193speciesandthreesubspecies),mostofwhich belongtothegroupofterrestrialmites(123species),withtheremainderbeingaquaticmites(70speciesand threesubspecies).ThewesternportionofMacedoniaisanimportantcentreofbiodiversityforthisgroup, whichispresentinvarioustypesofhabitats. Figure58. Endemic Planarias fromLakeOhrid (Photo:S.Stankovic,1956) Figure59. Lycosa praegrandis fromBabuna, nearVeles BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 30 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA The subphylum (Branchiate arthropods), with its unique class (Crustaceans), representsoneofthemostthoroughlystudiedgroupsoforganisms,withatotalof513taxa(486speciesand 27subspecies). The subclass (Copepods) is represented by140taxa(136 species and four subspecies),separatedintothreeorders.Theorder isrepresentedby60taxa(57speciesandthree subspecies), the order by50taxa(49speciesand one subspecies)andtheorder byasmallnumberofspecies(30). Fromthesubclass (Branchiurans),onlyonespecieshasbeen recordedtodate-theCarplouse( )inDoyran Lake.The subclass Ostracoda (Ostracods) possesses 172knownspecies.Within the subclass Branchiopoda (105 species), the order Anostraca is representedbysevenspecies,theorderNotostracabytwospecies,the order Conchostraca by three species and the order by93 species.Thesubclassof (Malacostraca)isrepresented by95taxa(72speciesand23subspecies),separatedintothreeorders. The order is represented by 47 taxa (34 species and 13 subspecies), the order by 43 taxa (33 species and 10 subspecies)andtheorder byfivespecies. Since the Branchiate arthropods in Macedonia are linked with freshwaterecosystems, thelargestcentresofbiodiversityoccurinthe threenaturallakes,especiallyOhridLake. Thesubphylum (Tracheates)isrepresentedbyatotalof 6,405 taxa (6,269 species and 136 subspecies).The class (Myriapods)includes72taxa(71speciesandonesubspecies),separated into two orders: the order (millipedes) with 59 taxa (58 speciesand onesubspecies)andtheorder (centipedes)with 13species. TheclassInsecta(Insects)hasatotalof6,333taxa(6,198speciesand 135subspecies),separatedintotwosubclassesThesubclass (true wingless insects) has a small number of recorded species (18) belongingtothreeorders: (6), (2)and (10). Thesubclass (wingedinsects)has6,315taxarecordedwithin Macedonia(6,180speciesand135subspecies).Oneofthebeststudied groupsoftheclassInsectaistheorderLepidoptera(butterflies),witha totalof2,295taxarecorded(2,261speciesand34subspecies). The other orders have the following number of recorded taxa: (mayflies) - 63 taxa, (dragonflies) - 52taxa, (stoneflies) - 93taxa, (grasshoppers) - 178 taxa, (termites) - two taxa, (book-lice) - 48taxa, (thrips)-4 taxa, (true bugs)-778taxa, (Homopterans)- 332taxa, (Caddisflies)-73taxa, (fliesandmosquitoes)-606taxa, (antsandbees) 264 taxa and (beetles) - 1,527 taxa. The most importantbiodiversity centres for (Tracheata)arethemountainmassifsofSharPlanina,Galichitsa,Yakupitsa,andtherefugialcentresinthe gorgesoftheTreska,Babuna,TopolkaandVardarRivers. Branchiata Crustacea Copepoda Cyclopoida Harpacticoida Calanoida Branchiura Argulusfoliaceus Cladocera Malacostracans Isopoda Amphipoda Decapoda Tracheata Myriapoda Diplopoda Chilopoda Apterygota Collembola Protura Diplura Pterygota Ephemeroptera Odonata Plecoptera Orthoptera Isoptera Psocoptera Thysanoptera Heteroptera Homoptera Trichoptera Diptera Hymenoptera Coleoptera Tracheates Figure60. Centipede ofthegenusJulus (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure61. Caterpillar oftheHyleseuphorbiae (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure62. Apolon’sButterfly Parnassiusapollo (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure63. Sub-endemicspeciesofthe groundbeetlesfamilyCarabuscavernosus forthecentralpartoftheBalkan (Photo:Lj.Melovski) 31 Phylum (Chordates)-ThefaunaofMacedoniaisrepresented bythesubphylum (Vertebrates),separatedintofourclassesand onesuperclass. The superclass (fishes) isrepresented by58indigenousspecies, withcentresofbiodiversityinthethreenaturallakes,aswellasintheVardar Riveranditswatershed.Theclass (Amphibians)is Chordata Vertebrata Pisces Amphibia representedby 15 species and two subspecies, while the class (Reptiles) by 32 speciesandeightsubspecies. Themostimportantcentresofbiodiversityfor Amphibians are the marsh ecosystemsand the temporal aquatic biotopes. With regard to Reptiles, the most important biodiversity centres for the MediterraneanandAral-Caspianfaunalelementsarethelowlandareasofthelower courseoftheVardarRiver andDoyranregion.ForthecentralEuropean,borealandoreo-tundralherpetofauna-themountainmassifsof Galichitsa,Pelister,SharPlaninaandYakupitsaareimportantcentres. The class (birds) is also well studied, with 338 recorded taxa (319 species and 19 subspecies).Of the total number of recorded taxa, 213 species breed locally, while the others appear during the winter or in periods of migration. The most importantcentres of biodiversity for ornithofauna are the three naturallakes(forwaterbirds)and the gorges of the Babuna, Topolka, Treska and Vardar Rivers (for birds of prey). The mountain massifs in western Macedonia are the most importantcentres of biodiversity for the boreal and arctic-alpine complex of ornitho faunal elements. Reptilia Aves Figure64. Stream trout-inhabitant onthemountainstreams Figure65. Common salamander Salamandra salamandra (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure66. Hyllaarborea (Photo:J.Acevski) Figure69. Pelicanus crispus (Photo:M.Schnaider Jakobi) Figure67. Testudohermanni-inmating (Photo:S.Petkovski) Figure68. Viperaammodytes-viper (Photo:Lj.Melovski) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 32 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Theclass (Mammals)isrepresented by 82 speciesandonesubspecies, belongingto six orders,18familiesand51genera.Eightspecieshave been introducedbyhumans,either deliberately or accidentally.ThreespeciesareextinctinMacedonia, ofwhichtwohavebeenreintroducedintothewild. The largest centres of biodiversity for the Mediterraneanelementsofthisclassarethelowland areasinsouth-easternMacedoniaand,forthecentral Europeanfaunalandborealelements,themountain massifsofwesternMacedonia. Mammalia TaxonomicGroup Phyl um Phyl um Phyl um Phyl um Phyl um Phyl um Phyl um Phyl um Phyl um Phyl um Protozoa (Protozoans) 113 - 113 Porifera (sponges) 9 1 10 Plathelminthes (flatworms) 85 - 85 Cnidaria (Cnidarians) 2 - 2 Nemertea (Nemertineworms) 1 - 1 Nemathelminthes (roundworms) 613 - 613 Mollusca (Molluscs) 276 6 282 Annelida (segmentedworms) 160 22 182 Arthropoda (Arthropods) 169 7,743 Chordata (Chordates) 506 30 536 Total 228 9,567 7,574 9,339 Figure70. Brownbear-Ursusarctos (CourtesyoftheMacedonian MuseumofNaturalHistory) Table7. Diversity ofanimalsbygroup 2.3.Endemicandrelictspecies 2.3.1.Micro-organisms 2.3.2. Algae 2.3.3.FungiandLichens Accordingtothestudiestodate,endemicspecies ofbacteriahavenotbeendiscovered. Among the lower plant groups, Algae are represented by the greatest endemism, with 135 endemic taxa,or8.5%ofthetotalAlgalflora.Most havebeenrecordedinOhridandPrespaLakes,but thesedataareoldandshouldberevised. TherearenoknownendemicspeciesofFungior LichensintheRepublicofMacedonia. Figure71. Cyclotellafottii endemicdiatomforLakeOhrid Total Glaucophyta - - - Phaeophyta - - - Pyrrophyta 1 - - 1 Rhodophyta - - - Xanthophyta - - - Total 87 24 24 135 Table8. Numberof endemicAlgaltaxa intheRepublcof Macedoniaby Algaltypes Taxonomic Group Species Varieties Forms Bacillariophyta 62 16 7 85 Charophyta 1 1 5 7 Chlorophyta 10 5 1 16 Chrysophyta 2 - - 2 Cyanophyta 10 2 11 23 Euglenophyta 1 - - 1 Eustigmatophyta - - - 33 2.3.4.Higherplants Amonghigherplants,inadditiontothenumerousBalkanandsouth-Balkanendemicspecies,alarge numberofMacedonianendemicsarepresent.MostofthemarerepresentativesoftheAngiosperms(114). Certainofthehighmountains(GalichitsaandSharPlanina)andrivergorges(Vardar,TreskaandBabuna),as wellassomeportionsofthelowlandbelt(Mariovo,vicinityofPrilepetc.),areconsideredtobecentresof endemism. The relict species which are old from an evolutionary standpoint (i.e., taxa with very restrictive distributions)areofspecialinterestwithinthefloraoftheRepublicofMacedonia.Theyhavebeenusefulas biologicalindicatorsofpastclimatechangeswithinthegeographicarea.Consideringthegeologictimescale, relicts can be classified as Tertiary, glacial, boreal and steppic. Group Mosses ( )Bryopsida Peatmosses ( Lycopsida) Horsetails( )Sphenopsida Ferns ( )Filicinae Gymnosperms ( )Gymnospermae Angiosperms ( )Angiospermae Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae Totalnumberofendemictaxa NumberofEndemic Species 2 1 109 5 117 Table9. Numberof endemicspecies amongthehigher plantswithinthe RepublicofMacedonia Tertiary relicts may be observed in almost all parts of the country, especially in the deep river gorges locatedmainlyinthesouthernandwestern regions,wheretheinfluenceoftheIceAgewasmuch lesser.Suchrelictsinclude: etc. • Aesculushippocastanum, Buxus sempervirens, Ilex aquifolium, Isoetes phrygia, Osmunda regalis,Pinuspeuce, Ramonda nathaliae, R. serbica, Taxus baccata, Thymus oehmianus,Violakosaninii Figure73. TertiaryrelictRamondanathaliae inthecliffofPchinjaRiver (Photo:O.Matevska) •Glacialrelictsareremnantsof IceAgefloraandaredistributedin high mountain regions in refugial and alpine habitats, such as neve (snow/ice formed by repeated freezingandthawing),erodedcliffs andmountainpastures( , etc.). Dryasocto petala Loiseleuria procumbens, Salix herbacea, S. reticulata, Saxifraga opositifalia, Selaginella selaginoides Figure72. Crocuscvijiciion themountain Galichica (Photo:V.Matevski) •Borealrelictsarefloraoftheconiferousforests andpeatbogs whichdeveloped during glacial and interglacial phases and which still remain on the BalkanPeninsula.Thesespecieshadtheirmaximum distributional extent within the southernportions of Europe. During the Tertiary Period, the boreal elements were widespread within the extreme northernzoneoftheHolarcticRegion,whileduring the Ice Age, they descended into the Balkan Peninsula.Currently,intheRepublicofMacedonia, borealelementsarerepresentedbyconiferousforests (mainly Spruce and Spruce-Fir), as well as bythe plants of mountain peat bogs ( etc.). Coralorhiza trifida, Cypripedium calceolus, Goodyera repens, Listera cordata BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 34 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA •Steppic relicts are remnants of the steppic flora that developed duringparticularly dry and hot periodsof the interglacial phases. Currently, these relicts can be found within the steppic regions of Macedonia, as well as at certain locationsinthewesternpartofthecountry( etc.). Adonis vernalis,Comandraelegans,Irispumila,Morina persica, Onobrychishypargyrea, Prunustenella, Ranunculus illyricus, Sternbergia colchiciflora Figure74. Tulipamariannae endemicspeciesfrom theverydry(steppe) regionsofthe RepublicofMacedonia (Photo:E.Mayer) Withatotalof674endemictaxa(602speciesand72subspecies),the Republic ofMacedoniarepresentsoneofthemostimportantcentresof endemisminEurope,inspiteofitssmalllandarea.Theendemictaxaare distributedinthefollowingdifferentfaunalgroups:Twoendemicspecies of free living Protozoans are found in Ohrid Lake. Of the parasitic Protozoans (subphylum ), there are 30 endemic species which,togetherwiththeirhosts(Oligochaeta),representrelictspecies. Thedegreeofendemismin isashighas88%.Comparative analyses betweenparasitic fromOhridLakeandfrom Baikal Lakepointtogreatsimilarity. Out of 10 taxa (nine species and one subspecies) of sponges ( ),fivespecies and one subspeciesareendemic;thedegreeof endemism is 60%. The species rotunda is the best known of the four endemic sponges found in Ohrid Lake, and it represents a relict genus and species, with its spherical shape closely resemblingtheendemicspongesoftheSeaofGalileeandBaikalLake. With regard to the phylum (flatworms), the highest degreeofendemismisfoundintheclass (order - 25 taxa and order - 10). There are only three endemic (roundworms) species; all are restricted to OhridLake. The phylum (Molluscs) shows the greatest degree of endemism in the aquatic Gastropods, with a total of 76 endemic taxa consistingof71speciesandfivesubspecies(degreeofendemism,74.5%). In contrast,terrestrial snails,whicharestillinsufficientlystudied, have a limitednumberofendemicforms-21.Ofthe15recordedbivalvetaxa,four areendemic(threespeciesandonesubspecies),allofthegenus . Segmentedworms,thephylum ,include54recordedendemic taxa,thedominantamongthembeingtheclass (Oligochaetes), with39endemics.Itisfollowedbytheclass (leeches),with11 endemics, and the taxonomically non-differentiated group of ,withfourendemictaxa. Thelargestanimalphylum, ,has419recordedendemictaxa (367speciesand52subspecies).Thesubphylum (Chelicerates) has71endemicforms(65speciesandsixsubspecies),subphylum (Branchiatearthropods)-137 endemics(113speciesand24subspecies)andsubphylum (Tracheates)-themostendemicforms 211(189speciesand22subspecies).Thehighestdegreeofendemismamongthe isseeninthe ordersPseudoscorpiones(73%)andOpiliones(47.5%).Among ,the highestdegreeofendemism isshownbythesubclass (orders [85%]and [81.4%]),butisalsoseenin Ciliophora Ciliophora Ciliates Porifera Ochridospongia Plathelminthes Turbelaria Tricladida Rhabdocoela Nemathelminthes Nematodes Mollusca Pisidium Annelida Oligochaeta Hirudinea Branchiobdellidae Arthropoda Chelicerata Branchiata Tracheata Chelicerates Branchiata Malacostraca Isopoda Amphipoda thesubclass (26%).Ostracoda 2.3.5.Fauna Figure75. Someendemicsnails fromLakeOhrid (Radoman,1973) Figure76. Calosomarelictum sub-endemicspecies ofthegroundbeetles, foundonsome mountainsinwestern Macedonia 35 Within Tracheates ( ), class (order ) shows the highest degree of endemism(37%)andwithinclass ,theorder hasthelargestnumberofendemics(90). Tracheata Myriapoda Diplopoda Insecta Lepidoptera WithregardtoVertebrata,thesuperclass (Fish) hasthe highest degreeofendemism(34.5%). Amongtheotherclasses,onlyfourendemicmammalsareknown( ). Ofthemajorcentresoffaunalendemism,thethreerelictlakesareespeciallynoteworthy.Thelargest, Ohrid Lake, with216endemic taxa, has beendescribedasthemostimportant centre for endemism in Macedoniaandnearbyareas.NolessimportantarePrespaandDoyranlakeswhich,duetotheirshallower depths, have fewer numbers of endemic andrelict species. Of particular interest is the presence of six endemictaxa(fourspeciesandtwosubspecies)commontobothOhridandPrespalakes,whichconfirmsthe commonoriginoftheselakesfromtheformerPlioceneDesaretLake. Thegroundwater,springsandcavesofMacedoniaaresecondinimportanceas centresof endemism. Theyarecharacterisedbythepresenceofthalassophreatic(i.e.,fromsalinewaters),limnophreatic(i.e.,from freshwaters)andterrestrialrelictfaunawhichdatefromtheUpperTertiary. Pisces Mammalia Figure77. Ohridtrout-letnica,endemicspeciesofOhridLake Table10. Numberofendemictaxaofvarious faunalgroupsintheRepublicofMacedonia Restrictedto: TaxonomicGroup Phyllum Protozoa (Protozoans) 32 Phyllum Porifera (sponges) 4 Phyllum Plathelminthes (flatworms) 32 Phyllum Nemathelminthes (roundworms) 3 Phyllum Mollusca (Molluscs) 61 Phyllum Annelida (Segmentedworms) 26 Phyllum Arthropoda (Arthropods) 51 Phyllum Chordata (Chordates) 7 Totalnumber ofendemictaxa 216 - - 32 1 1 - 6 2 - 1 35 - - 3 8 1 31 101 3 5 20 54 4 4 360 419 6 1 10 24 24 12 422 674 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 36 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Duetoinsufficienttaxonomicstudies,itisnotpossibletomakean assessmentregardingthedegreeofthreatstospeciesortaxaofbacteria. Therearemanyendemic,rareandthreatenedAlgaltaxawithinthe RepublicofMacedonia,butsofarnonehasbeenplacedunderanysort ofprotectionregime.TherisksthreateningAlgalspecies(especially periphyton) arise fromhabitatloss duetodecliningwaterlevels(in naturallakes),aswellasfromtheaccumulationoforganicsediments which cover macrophytes and rock-encrusting communities (this situationisparticularlyserious inDoyranLake).Thenumbersofthe populationsofoligotrophicandoligosaprobicindicatorspecieswithin the aquatic ecosystems are constantly decreasing as a result of intensiveanthropogenicimpacts. Data concerning the degree of threats toAlgaltaxa exist only for diatoms.According totheresearchtodate,manyimperilledspeciesare found in Ohrid and Prespa Lakes ( and ), DoyranLake( and ) and the glaciallakes onSharPlanina and Pelister Mountains ( etc). Achnanthes inflata, A. minuscula, Diploneis domblitensis, Eucocconeis quadratarea Hippodonta rostrata Navicula oblonga, Nitzschiaelegantula N. reversa Decussatahexagona,Naviculaamphibola,N.concentrica,N.tridentula, Pinnulariaalpina,P.infirma,Planothidiumperagallii,Stauroneisobtusa 2.4. Rare,threatenedandextinctspeciesandassemblages 2.4.1.Micro-organisms 2.4.2. Algae Figure78. Decussatahexagona rareandthreatened diatomspecies (Photo:Z.Levkov) Figure79. Naviculabalcanica rareandthreatened species (Photo:Z.Levkov) Extinctorprobablyextinctspecies Category Threatenedspecies Rare species Endemic species NumberofSpecies 9 107 107 85 Table11. Numberofdiatomspeciesaccording todegreeofthreatintheRepublicofMacedonia ThePreliminaryRedDataList of Fungi within theRepublicof Macedonia has been prepared and includes 67 species of the order .ThefollowingspeciesofFungiweredeterminedtobe rare: and . Of the 67 species of potentially threatened, of particular concern are and . Within the ,thefollowingspeciesare consideredtobethreatened: and . Basidiomycota Amanitha vitadinii, Basidiodendron caesiocinereum, Battarea phalloides, Creolophus cirrhatus, Dichomitus albidofuscus, Dichostereumdurum,Mycoacianothofagi Myriostomacoliforme Basidiomycota Amanita caesarea, Antrodia juniperina, Apoxona nitida,Battareaphalloides,Boletusregius, Chroogomphus helveticus,Hygrophorusmarzuolus,Inonotustamaricis,Pleurocybellaporigens,Peniophoratamaricicola, Poroniapunctat,Pyrofomesdemidoffi Suillussibiricus Lichens Everniadivaricata,Hypogimniaphysodes,H.tubulosa,Lobariapulmonaria, Nephroma resupinatum, Parmelina exasperatula, P. omphaloides, P. pastillifera, P. sorediata,Parmelia sulcata,Peltigeracanina,P.venosa,Pertusariacoccodes,Pseudeverniafurfuracea,Ramalinacarpatica,R. polymorpha,R.farinacea,Staurotheleclopimoides,Stereocaulonpaschale,Usneacarpatica,U.hirta,U. florida,U.glabrescens U.causasica 2.4.3.FungiandLichens Figure80. Poroniapunctataand Battarraeaphalloides rarespecies,some ofthe50macromytes suggestedfor monitoringand mappinginEurope (Photo:M.Karadelev) 37 TheRedDataListofthreatenedplantspecieswithintheRepublicofMacedoniahasnotyetbeenprepared, althoughthereissufficientdatatodoso.GreatnumbersofhigherplantspeciesexistwithinMacedonia,represent ingaportionofthegloballythreatenedspeciesincludedinmanyinternationaldocuments-internationalRedData Lists,conventionsanddirectives(IUCNGlobalRedDataList,BernConvention,EuropeanUnion[EU]CORINE [CO-oRdinationofINformationontheEnvironment]BiotopesProgrammespecies),listsofspeciesofnational importance (local endemic and relict species), lists of endangered speciesand,unfortunately,acertain number within the list of extinct species. The IUCN Global RedData List1997(WalterandGillet,1998) contains 70taxafromtheRepublic ofMacedonia(ofwhich19arelocal endemics). Of these, one species has theworldstatus"EX"(Extinct) Ronninger& Soska (it is our belief that this information is incorrect sincevital populationsofthisspeciesstillexist withintheRepublicofMacedonia;amoresuitablecategorywouldbe"EN"[Endangered]);twospecieshave worldstatus"EX/EN"(Extinct/Endangered)- Fischand Kummerle& Jav.;whileonespecieshasworldstatus"V"(Vulnerable)- Strid&Papan.Oftheremaining 66taxa,61haveworldstatus"R"(Rare)andfivehavestatus"I"(Indeterminate). Appendix1oftheBernConvention*includes12species(11vascularspeciesandonespeciesofmoss)with portions of theirrangeslocatedwithinMacedonia and .Ofthespecieslistedinthe EU Habitat Directive† Annex II, two species of vascular plantsand one species of moss are present within Macedonia. Three species ( and ) are also present from AnnexIV. From theEuropean CORINElist, ninespeciesarepresentinMacedo nia: and ,whereasfromthenationalCORINElist,19 are present Thymus oehmianus Astragalusphysocalyx Ranunculusdegenii Ranunculuscacuminis Aldrovandavesiculosa,Astragalusphysocalyx,Buxbaumia viridis, Campanula abietina, Fritillaria graeca, F. gussichiae, Galium rhodopeum, Lindernia procumbens, Marsilea quadrifolia, Ramonda serbica,Salvinianatans Trapa natans F. gussichiae, L. procumbens R. serbica Coeloglossumviride,Jurinea taygetea,Narthecium scardicum, Orchis coriophora,Ramonda nathaliae, R. Serbica,Ranunculus cacuminis,R.fontanus Silene vulgaris Aldrovanda vesiculosa, Aspleniummacedonicum,Astragalus cernjavskii,A.physocalyx,Colchicummacedonicum, Crocus cvijici, C. pelistericus,Drosera rotundifol ia,Isoetesphrygia, Osmundaregalis,Potentilladoer fleri,Ranunculusdegeni,Salvia jurisicii,Sambucusdeborensis, Silene paeoniensis,Thymusoeh mianus, Tulipamariannae,Viola arsenica V.kosaniniiand . 2.4.4.Higherplants Figure81. Thymusoehmianus threatenedspecies fromthecanyon ofRiverTreskanear Zdunje(Map:location ofThymusoehmianus) (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure82. Astragalusphysocalyx endemicinsouthern Balkan(Map: theuniquelocationof Astragalusphysocalyx nearBogdanci) (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure83. Ranunculuscacuminis localendemicon Kaymakchalan mountain (Map:locationof Ranunculuscacuminis) (Photo:V.Matevski) 38 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Theexistinglegalregulationsaddressingtheprotectionofplants include portions of theimportant floristic areasofthe Republic o f Macedoniaand,withinthisframework,acertainlevelofprotection has been achieved. Explicitly protected populations of species coveredundertheseactsconsistof: (Braychino), (GarskaRiver,DrenachkaRiverandSuvi Dol), (Gevgeliya), (Neprtka), (Kaloyzana), (villageofKozhle), (Bansko), (SharPlaninaMountain Popova Shapka), (Yakupitsa), the forest (Mariovo), the forest (Iberliska River and Mokrino), (Trpeytsa) etc. All of the important floristicsiteshavenotbeencompletelyprotected,however(although someareintheprocessofbeingaddedtotheprotectedlist). DrainageactivitieswhichwereundertakeninthepastinmostofthevalleysofMacedonia,aswellasthe construction ofhydropowerreservoirsetc.,haveresultedinaconspicuousreductioninthepopulationsof certainspeciesand,insomecases,apparentextinction.Suchextinctspeciesincludethefollowing: Struga:CrniDrimRiver DC( Rafin)-OvchePolePlain MavrovoPlain MavrovoPlain PelagoniaMarsh-villageofNovaci Abiesborisii-regis Aesculushippocastanum Arbutus andrachne Betula pendula Fagussylvatica Juniperusexcelsa Osmunda regalis Picea abies Pinus mugo Pinus nigra Platanus orientalis Quercus trojana Acoruscalamus Alliumobtusiflorum A.maritimum Gentianapneumonanthe Lysimachiathyrsiflora Sagittariasagittifolia Extinctorprobablyextincthigherplantspecies Figure84. Ranunculusdegenii threatenedspeciesin thewesternpart ofthecountry (Map:localitiesof Ranunculusdegenii) (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure85. OhridLake (nearKalishta) fragmentsoffloating communitesof Myriophyllo Nupharetum stillexist (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure86. Acommunityof Osmundaregalis, nearBanskoin theStrumitzavalley (Photo:V.Matevski) 39 assn. Lemno- Spirodelletumpolyrhizae subassn. aldrovandetosum Prespa:Ezerani Limiteddistribution, waterreceding assn. Mariscetum NegortsiSpa Limiteddistribution, fragmentation assn. Micromerio -Violetumkosaninii Yakupitsa,Kozyak Limitedarea assn. Myriophyllo - Nupharetum DoyranLake:Nikolich Waterreceding assn. Osmundo-Thelipteretum Bansko Limiteddistribution,land usurpation assn. Periploco-Alnetumglutinosae MonospitovoMarsh Drainage assn. Phillyreo-Juniperetumexcelsae DemirKapiya Forestfires assn. Pholiureto -Plantaginetum balcanicum OvchePolePlain Limiteddistribution, directdestruction assn. Pinetummugomacedonicum Yakupitsa Forestfires assn. Pulsatillomacedonicae-Pinetum nigrae Karadzitsa Forestfires assn. Querco-Carpinetumorientalis macedonicum Forestfires assn. Scirpo-Alopecuretumcretici MonospitovoMarsh Limiteddistribution,drainage assn. Sclerantho -Biserruletum pelecinae Mariovo:Gorgeof CrnaRiver Constructionofartificial reservoir assn. Rindero- Acantholimonetum Galichitsa Limitedarea assn. Seslerietumkorabensis Korab,Bistra Limitedarea Community Location TypeofThreat assn. Abietti -Piceetumscardicum TetovskaRiver Forestdesiccation assn. Aesculohippocastani -Fagetum VillageIzvor:SuviDol Relict,rare assn. Camphorosmetummonspeliacae OvchePolePlain Limiteddistribution, directdestruction assn. Caricetumelatae subassn. Lysimachietosum OhridLake: Studenchishte Limiteddistribution, desiccation assn. Caricetummacedonicae Bistra,Pelister Watercapture/extraction assn. Castanetumsativae macedonicum Forestdesiccation assn. Crypsidetumaculeatae balcanicum OvchePole Plain Limiteddistribution, directdestruction assn. Cypero-Caricetumacutiformis Gostivar Limiteddistribution, drainage assn. Dianthojakupicensis - Elynetum Yakupitsa Limitedarea assn. Dianthokaimakczalanicensis Festucetum Kaymakchalan Limitedarea assn. Dianthoscardici- Festucetum SharPlanina Limitedarea assn. Edrayantho -Oxytropetum Bistra Limitedarea assn. Ephedro-Prunetumtenellae Kavadartsi -Lyubash Reforestation assn. Glycerietummaximae Pelagonia:village Chepigovo Drainage assn. Hordeo-Caricetumdistantis Gevgeliya,Skopye areas Limiteddistribution, loweringofthe groundwatertable Rareandthreatenedcommunities in theRepublicofMacedonia 40 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Figure87. Droserarotundifolia-intheRepublic ofMacedoniaexistsonlynearPehchevo (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure88. Chestnutdiebackisfrequent inwesternpartsofthecountry (Photo:K.Sotirovski) Figure89. Yakupitca-SolunskaGlava,upperlimit ofPinusmugo;Populationsofpinusoftencatchfire (Photo:J.Acevski) The European Red Data List includes 113 of the vertebrate species present within the Republic of Macedonia(30fishes,66birds,16MammalsandonespeciesofReptile).Seventeenofthe20endemicfishes are included within the category of globally threatened species. Seven are restricted to Ohrid Lake ( and ), sixtoPrespa Lake ( and ), one to Doyran Lake ( ) and three endemic species occur within other aquatic ecosystems ( and ). Acantholingua ohridana, Phoxinellus epiroticus, Rutilus ohridanus, Salmo aphelios, S. balcanicus, S. letnica S.lumi Alburnus belvica, Barbusprespensis, Chondrostoma prespense, Cobitis meridionalis Rutilus prespensis Sabanejewia doiranica Gobio banarescui, Salmo pelagonicus S. peristericus BecausetheNationalRedDataListforMacedoniahasyettobeprepared,themostimportantspeciestobe protected at the national level are considered to be the endemic fish species. The remaining endemic vertebratespeciesshouldalsobeincluded,aswellassomeotherspecificvertebratespecieswhoserangesend in or pass through Macedonia (Algyroides nigropunctatus, Coluber gemonensis, Cyrtopodion kotschyi, 2.4.5.Fauna 41 Lacerta agilis, Pelobates syriacus, Rana balcanica, R. graeca, R. temporaria,Testudograeca,Triturusalpestris,Viperaberusetc.). Thereasonforthedisappearanceofspeciesand/orthereductionoftheir populations is due primarily to human activity, but there are also global causes which have not been completely identified. If global factors endangering biodiversity,includingchangesinclimate,areexcluded,then all remaining essential factorshaving directorindirectimpactsonfaunal diversity,theobservedchangeswithinecosystems(especiallyaquaticand foresttypes),changesintheozonelayer,somefungalpandemicsetc.,areof anthropogenicorigin. Regardingtheconservationofaquaticsystemsandtheirenvirons,where thegreatestfaunaldiversityhasbeenrecorded,itisnecessarytonotesome keyfactorswhichcausedisturbancestonaturalconditionswithinbiotopes and,thus,thereductionofbiodiversityasawhole.Theseinclude: Figure90. Ranabalcanica (Photo:S.Petkovski) Figure91. Testudograeca (Photo:S.Petkovski) • • • • Changes made in localised or wider areas through habitat destruction,fragmentationandisolation; Huntingforcommercialpurposesandcollectionforscientific, hobbyandothernon-scientificuses; Colonisationbyinvaderspecies; Insufficientknowledgeregardingbasicpopulationparameters andthedistributionofindividualfaunalgroups. Table12.Threatenedvertebratespecies intheRepublicofMacedonia ThreatenedspeciesofFishes ThreatenedspeciesofReptiles ThreatenedspeciesofBirds ThreatenedspeciesofMammals Totalnumberofthreatenedspecies 30 1 66 16 113 Figure92. Algyroides nigropunctatus (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure93. Falcoperegrinus (Photo:M.Velevski) 42 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Pastures. Other species. Mushrooms. Although pastures are used in livestock production and represent the most important economic non-cultivated plant resource, their total productivity, which is directly influenced by seasonal climatic conditions, has not been calculated to date. PasturesaremanagedbythePublicEnterprise for Pasturesatthenationallevel.Mostarenot utilised,beingpresentinthehighmountains.In some of these high mountain pastures on the larger mountains (Shar Planina Mountain, Bistra,Korab,Yakupitsa,SuvaGoraMountain etc.),aninventoryhasbeenundertakenforthe purpose of determining carrying capacities. Thisprocessshouldbecontinuedinthefuture. Thelackofsignificantgrazinginthesepastures hascontributed toachangeinthecomposition of herbaceous vegetation, the invasion of woodyshrubsandthedegradationofthehumic layer. There are legalregulations coveringthisgroup(RegulationsontheManner of Use of Other Forest Products, Official GazetteoftheRepublicofMacedonia13/00), but they do not provide a mechanism for obtainingapreciseassessmentofthecurrentstatus of wildplantspecies. Thus,oneoftheprioritiesisto preparenewregulationsdefiningthesustainableuseofthesespecies. Species ofplantsintendedforhumanconsumptionyieldbothfresh,whole,semi-processedandfully processedproducts.Thefollowinggroups of wild plants are of greatest economic importancefortheRepublicofMacedonia: Mushrooms appear to possess an enormous economicvalue for thelocalpopulation;however, there i s n o publisheddataonthenumberofcollectors or the quantity of fresh wildmushrooms purchased domestically. Of the species collectedlocallyforfood,some( and ) can also be foundinmarketsacrossthecountry. The mushroom species most often purchased for export are: and Theyrepresentanimportantexportproduct(328,693kg/year;estimatedvalue$2,000,000)forthecompanies registeredtopurchasewild-collectedmushrooms,buttherealquantitycollectedperyearisneverknown. Althoughapermitfortheexportofcommercialspecies(i.e.,notonthelistofendangeredspecies)canbe obtained from the Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning (MoEPP), no regional or local productivitydataexistonwhichtobasesustainableuserestrictions. Agaricus spp.,Amanitacaesarea,Boletusspp.,Can tharelluscibarius,Craterulluscornocopo ides, Lactarius deliciosus, Macrolepiota procera Morchella spp. Boletus aereus, B. edulis, B. pinophulus, B. reticulatus, Cantharelluscibarius Morchella spp. 2.5.Speciesofeconomicimportance(wildplantsandanimals) 2.5.1.Usageofwildplantsandfungi Figure94. Mountainpastures areusedfor sheepgrazing (Photo:M.Dzingo) 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Figure95. Ceasar’sMushroom,oneofthetastefulmushrooms (Photo:M.Karadelev) 43 Herbal teas. Wildfruitsandnuts. Timber/fuelwood. IntheRepublicofMacedonia,thereisvirtually no cultivated tea production. The little that does exist is insignificant compared with the wild collection performed by localcitizensforpersonaluseandforsaletovariouscompanies (e.g.,Alkaloid,Bilka,Jaka,Koroetc).Theamountofteaexported in 2001 was1,127,825kg,withatotalvalueof$1,453,052.In otheryears,asmuchas$4.5to5millionwererealisedfromtea exports. Theseconsistmainlyofhighmountain fruits, the most importantofwhichistheblueberry( ),aproductusedchieflyforexport(in2001,83,284kg worth$86,196).Blueberriesarefoundinalmostallhighpastures (over1,300mmsl).Inrecentyears,therehasbeenanincreasein thecollection of juniper berries ( ) fo r the productionofessentialoils.Byintensityofcollection,afterberriesfollowDogrose( ),Raspberry ( ),blackberry( ),Corneliancherry( )andBlackthorn( ). Wildapples,pearsandcherriesareusedasingredientsinthe fruit teasverymuchindemandforexport.Inaddition,the collection of Chestnuts ( ) is very widespread, with approximately250,000kgcollectedper year,intendedmostlyforthehomemarket. According to data obtained from MacedonianForestsin2001,thelegaltimberharvestinthe RepublicofMacedoniawas520,915m (ofwhich463,840 m were cut by local Macedonian Forests branches and 57,075m byprivateindividualsinpublicforests).Thetotal quantities of timber harvested included 417,355 m of fuelwood and 97,837 m of commercial timber. The tree species primarily harvested are: Beech (fuelwood and commercial timber), Oak (fuelwood and commercial timber) and Pine (commercial timber). Other species (Chestnut, Fir, Poplar and Walnut [ sp.]) are of significantlylesserimportance. The deterioration of the security situation during the courseof2001and2002contributedtoamarkedincreasein illegaltimbercutting, especially in the regions of Bitola, Kumanovo, Resen, the Shar Planina Mountain group, Skopye,Strugaandothers.Atthepresenttime,itwouldbe difficult to make an accurate assessment of the actual magnitude of illegal harvesting, but it is assumed to be ongoingatthesameintensityasbefore. Vaccinium myrtillus Juniperus communis Rosacanina Rubusidaeus Rubusspp. Cornusmas Prunusspinosa Castanea sativa Juglans ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ Horticulture. Medicinaluses. Traditionally,wildspeciesofflowers,as well asdecorativeplants,aregrowninhome gardens.Asmallpercentagearecollectedandsoldinlocal markets, such as: etc. Thereareapproximately3,500vascularplant species in Macedonia,of which700havemedicinalproperties; however,only120speciesaregenerallyutilised.Theirqualitative and quantitativedistributionswithin theRepublichavenotbeen fullydetermined(i.e.,achorographicatlasofthemedicinalplants hasyettobepublished).Availabledatadonotreflectthecurrent situationwithmedicinalplants,duetoalackoflegalregulations for their collection, use, care, conservation, trade and export. Existingdataregardingmaximumannualquantitiesofmedicinal plantmaterialexportedinthelastdecade( [5,000 tonnes], [1,200 tonnes], [80 Buxus sempervirens, Colhicum autumnale, Crocusspp.,Cyclamenhederifolium,Galanthusnivalis,Geranium spp.,Helleborusodorus,Narcissuspoeticus,Primulaspp.,Syringa vulgaris,Violaspp. Hypericumperforatum Lichenes Altaheaofficinalis Figure96. Sideritisscardica (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure98. Spruceforest (Photo:J.Acevski)Figure97. Decorativespecies Edraianthushorvatii (Photo:O.Matevska) 44 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA tonnes], [75tonnes], [60tonnes]and and [3-4 tonnes]),indicateanalarmingsituation. Thecollectionanduseofmedicinalplantscanbedividedinto three categories: personal use, retail/wholesale trade and other economicpurposes.Amechanismforregulationandclassificationis necessarybeforetheamountofdryplantmaterialanindividualcan collectfromanareacanbedeterminedandbeforeapermitforthis collection can be issued. The collection of medicinal plants for economic purposes in Macedonia varies widelywith the species collected,thecollectorsthemselvesandtheseasonalquantityofthe collectedmaterial.Thelargeseasonaldemandbyforeignbuyersfor specificplant species is mostseriousandisfacilitatedbycertain local trade companies whichhavenopreviousexperience in this field.Plantspecieswhichareusedwhole(i.e.,withrootandbark)are mostthreatened. Accordingtodistributionpatterns,themostthreatenedplantsare those with limited ranges (i.e., they are present only in certain restrictedareas;e.g., and ). Based upon data from the past ten years, the most troubling situations are with the species ,variousspecieswithinthefamily (whose partsareusedintheproductionofsalep), andothers. Wildspeciesaresometimesusedinthecosmetics, alcoholandconstructionindustries.Lichensusedinthecosmeticsindustryarecollectedintheeasternand westernmountainsofMacedoniaandthenexported(theannualpurchasereaches600-800tonnesdryweight; theexportedamountin2001was83,334kg,valuedat$79,624).Essentialoilsareextractedfromcones, needlesandseedsofPineandotherplantspecies.Theexportedamountin2001was991,067kg,valuedat $758,463.Theannualpurchaseofjuniperberriesbyvariousorganisationsis3,000-4,000tonnes.Cattails, reedsandWillowsareusedinconstruction,eitherdried,woven,asthatchorinhandicraftproducts.Theyare mainlycollectedonthelakes(Doyran,OhridandPrespa);however,thisactivityisonthedecline. In2002,thetotalamountofexportedplantmaterial,withtheapprovaloftheMoEPP,was1,035,025kg. AccordingtodatafromtheDepartmentofPlantProtection (within the Ministry ofAgriculture,Forestry and Water Management[MoAFWM]),thetotalquantityofmedicinal plantmaterialexportedwas1,244,959kg. Hunting is conducted through hunting associations combined under the Hunting Union of Macedonia. Macedonia is divided into 11 managed huntingareas,with107huntingsitesforlargegame(47% ofthetotalarea,excludinglakes)and145huntingsitesfor small game(49%ofthearea).Thesehunting leases are managedbothbythehuntingassociationsthemselvesand by organisations working in the field of forestry. In addition, five enclosed areas totalling 4,041 ha for the breedingoflargegameandonepheasantfarmwithayearly production capacity of 40,000 two-month-old pheasants havebeenestablished. The greatest portion of the land area licensed for huntingconsistsofforestsandforestedareas.WiththeLaw onHunting,127speciesofgame(24fur-bearinganimals and 103 birds) have been given special consideration. Unfortunately,protectivemeasuresforthecareofforests and for thecareofgameoftendonotagree.Therefore, thereisaneedtocoordinatesuchmeasureswithinthetwo sectors. Chamomillarecutita Tiliacordata Gentinalutea G. punctata Acoruscalamus,Salviaofficinalis Sideritis scardica Adonis vernalis, Arctostaphyllosuva-ursi,Colchicumautumnale,Gentianalutea,G. punctata, Herniaria glabra, H. hirsuta, Hypericum perforatum, Lichenes Orchidaceae Sideritisraeserii,S.scardica,Thymusspp. Otheruses,includingspeciesusedinforeigntrade. Hunting. 2.5.2.Useofwildanimals 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Figure99. Thymustosevii-one ofthemostfrequent medicalhergbinthe RepublicofMacedonia (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure100. Hunting (Photo:M.Dzingo) 45 Fishing. Licensed fishing is allowed on all natural lakes, reservoirs and rivers, and encompasses both commercial and sportfishing. Fish species that are commercially important include: Bleak ( ), Eel ( ) and Ohrid trout ( ).Thegreatestpercentageofthetotalannual catch is from thesethreespecies. In thepast,the annual catch in Ohrid Lake was 220-240 tonnes, 50%ofwhichwastrout.Atpresent,thisquantityis considerably less (under 100 tonnes). The trout catchhasdeclinedmarkedly,fromtheperiodswhen over140tonneswerecaughtannuallytothepresent catchofonly35tonnes. :Prespablea k ( ) and Carp ( ). Theannual catch in PrespaLakeis100tonnes. Bleak, Carp, Perch ( ), Roach ( ), and Rudd ( ).Traditionally,these speciesamountto98%ofthetotalfishcatch.While theannualcatchinDoyranLakewasformerlyover 500tonnes,inthelastfewyearsithasrangedfrom 70-90 tonnes/year.The annual catch in2002was only25tonnesandwasdominatedbyCrucianCarp ( ),withminoramountsofCarp andPerch. Asregardsthefishcatchinreservoirs,thereare no valid statistical data. There are estimates that over200tonnes/yeararecaughtfromTikveshLake alone, mostly Roach, followed by, in decreasing order,Carp, Wels ( ), Bleak,Perchand,toalesserextent ,Nase ( ) and Balkanvimba( ). Withrespecttosportfishing,inadditiontothosespecieslistedpreviouslyundercommercialfishing, important species also include: Balkan vimba, Barbel ( ), Mediterranean barbel ( ),Browntrout( ),Chub( ),Vardarchub( ),Gudgeon ( ),NaseandWels.Again,therearenorelevantdataonthetotalfishcatchbysportsanglers. Occurrencesofillegalfishingandtheuseofprohibitedfishinggearcausegraveconcern.Usingthebasicdata onthenumberofwaterbodiesandtheirareas, estimatesarethattheannualfishcatchintheRepublicof Macedoniarangesfrom800to1,200tonnes;however,amajorportionofthecatchisnotrecorded. Ohrid Lake: Alburnus alburnus Anguilla anguilla Salmo letnica PrespaLake Alburnusbelvica Cyprinus carpio Doyran Lake: Perca fluviatilis Rutilus rutilus Scardiniuserithrophthalmus Carassiuscarassius Silurisglanis Chondrostomanasus Vimbamelanops Barbus barbus B. meridionalis Salmotrutta Leuciscuscephalus L.delineatus Gobio gobio .Incomparisonwithplants,thecollectionofanimalsformedicinal usesisratherinsignificant.TherestrictedpopulationoftheMacedonianendemicsubspeciesoftheEuropean souslik( )isfoundonYakupitsamountainatthesite,"BegovoPolePlain." TheMacedoniancommonnameforthissubspecies(Stobolka)isrelatedtoitsuseintraditionalmedicine,that is,itwasbelievedtobeabletocure100aches(stobolki).AlthoughthecollectionofEuropeansouslikhas declinedinrecentdecades,itdoesstilloccur,directlythreateningthesurvivalofthisMacedonianendemic subspecies. Otheranimalsusedprimarilyasforeigntradeitems consistofseveralsnails.Twooftheseareparticularlyimportant: Collectionformedicinalpurposes Otheruses,includingspeciesusedinforeigntrade. Spermophiluscitelluskaramani Figure101. Fishing (Photo:M.Dzingo) •TheEdible(French)snail, ,thecollectionofwhichisforbiddenaccordingtothe internationalBernConvention.Inaddition,incompliancewithIUCN,itbelongstothecategoryof "vulnerable"species.Thefactthatthisspeciesislistedaspurchasablebuthasareducedpopulation makes it very likely that its futurecollection andsalewillbeprohibited in order to rebuild the populations. Helixpomatia 46 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA The Roman (Turk) snail ( ), for which there was no purchase limit until recently, is present throughout Macedonia. Approximately 200 tonnesusedtobepurchasedannually,butitsnumbers have declined due to uncontrolled collection. This specieshasbeenrecommendedforprotectionandits collection, purchase and export will be regulated through the imposition of a temporarybanonthese activitiesevery twoyears.Duringthealternateyears when collection, purchase and export (1 June - 1 October)areallowed,aquotaof40,000kgofwhole livespecimenswillbeintroduced.In2001,1,323,795 kg of whole snails (valued at $3,063,991) were exportedfromMacedonia. • Helix lucorum Figure102. Helixlucorum •PermanentprotectionwillalsobeprovidedtotheCommonsnail( ),asouth-Balkan endemicspecies,theStripedsnail( ),asouthernandeasternEuropeanspecies, andthespecies ,asouth-Balkanendemic. Helixvulgaris Cepaeavindobonensis Helixfigulina Duetotheimportanceofbiologicalresources,aswellastheexcessiveanduncontrolledexploitationof wildplantandanimalspecies,thereisaseriousdangerthatmanywilldisappear.Becauseofthis,thereisa pressingneedtoadoptregulationsconcerningthesespeciesandtospecifyannualcollectionquotas. Theimportanceofplantgeneticmaterial(includingwildspecies,aswellasthemanylocalvarietiesand wildrelativesofvariouscrops)forthedevelopmentofplantgeneticsandselectionwasemphasizedforthe first time within the Republic of Macedonia during the 1960s. Besides the collection, investigation, maintenance and use of genetic material from various local crops (which had a priorityforstudyduetotheirimportancein human nutrition), activeinvestigationson thegeneticdiversityofnaturalpopulations ofAngiospermswerealsobegun. Since numerous endemic and relict species of national significance within Macedonia are actually or potentially threatenedintheirnaturalhabitats,alossof genetic diversity could become a reality. On the other hand, appropriate genetic investigationsandmaintenanceofagene fund can, in large measure, be used as a means for the appropriate future reintro ductionoflostspecies;conversely,thelack of such reintroduction could also be con sideredaseriousthreattogeneticdiversity. Fromaconservationstandpoint,deter mining genotypes through defining the chromosome number in natural popula tionsofhigherplantsisveryimportantfor thepreparationofRedDataListsandRed DataBooks,aswellasforthegene-banks withtheirvariouscollections. 2.5.3. Assessmentsofsustainability 2.6. Geneticdiversity(gene-fund) Figure103. Cyto-genetic laboratory (Photo:S.Andonov) 47 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA OfthefloraofMacedonia,theChromosomeAtlasofAngiospermsindicatesthat548taxaof171genera and30familieshavebeenstudied.The existenceofsuchasurveyofthechromosomenumbersofthese Angiospermsisasolidfoundationforestablishingacontemporaryinformationtechnologydatabase. Biological diversity in agriculture is one of the mostcriticalareasofoverallglobalbiodiversity,with 75%ofallfoodproductionbasedupononlyabout100 plant species and domesticated animals. A s civilisationsdeveloped,humansstrovetocreateplant varieties anddomesticatedanimals with moreuseful traits.Theprocessofdeliberatecreationofvarietiesandbreedshasbeenoccurringforatleastthepast50-100 years,andmorespecialisedgenotypescharacterisedbytheterm,"highinput-highoutput,"arenowbeing promoted.Asaresultofthetendencytoneglecttraditionalbreeding,manyoldvarietiesandbreedshavebeen permanentlylostasgeneticresources.WithinMacedonia,thebiologicalresourcesrepresentedbyindigenous varieties, breeds and species need to be preserved for the sake of economic, scientific, cultural, socio economicandenvironmentalinterests. Macedonia possesses significant agrobiological plant diversity due to its favourable geographic location and climatic conditions. The diversity of a largeportionofthelocalspecieshasnotbeenadversely affected because agricultural production is not intensive inmany regions. In such areas, indigenous species and locally-bred varieties are still grown, representinganimportantsourceofgeneticmaterialno longer appearing within thegenotypeofcommercial species Themajorportionofthetotalarablelandisused for field and garden production (84.2%), fruit and grape production (7.1 %) and pastures (8.5%). The trends in the productionofindividualcropsvaryby year,asevidencedbythedisappearanceofsomecrops Accesstoplantgeneticresourcesstoredingene-banksisnotlegally regulated in theRepublicofMacedonia.Thecollections in thegene banksarefreelyavailableforexchangeswithanyothergene-bank.All one must do ismakearequestbyordinaryletter,sincesuchcases are generallyarranged throughpersonalcontacts.Macedonian collections cannotbefoundontheinternet,norareanyportionsofthedatabases presentonotherplantnetworks. The number of varieties/species used in agricultural production withinMacedoniaisevidenceofitsgreatbiologicaldiversity.Thereare 129 recogniseddomestic varieties and2,205importedvarieties used domestically. The InstituteofAgricultureinSkopye,the Institutefor SouthernCropsinStrumitsaandtheTobaccoInstituteinPrilepmaintain collectionsoflocalvarieties. With regard to domesticated animals, concrete measures for conservationofthePramenkasheep"Karakachanska"havealreadybeen undertaken.WiththeassistanceprovidedbytheMoAFWM,acollection of100sheepand12ramshasbeenestablished.Theheadswereplacedin two independent locations for morphological characterisation. They are now also undergoing biochemicalanalysesofDNAandproteinsinorderto determine polymorphism within the micro-satellite bandsandgeneticmarkers.Inthefuture,itisplanned to cryogenically preserve a sufficient quantity of spermandfertilisedembryos,inordertofacilitatethe long-lastingconservationofgeneticmaterial. 2.7. Agrobiodiversity 2.7.1. Crops Figure104. Collectionofdifferent ryevarieties (Photo:S.Ivanovska) Figure105. Karakachanska strainofPramenka breed (Photo:S.Andonov) Figure106. Wheat (Photo:M.Dzingo) 48 (E.g.,poppy,flax,hempandcotton).Thebulkofthecropsproducedconsistsofcommercialvarieties,the major portionofwhichareimportedfromabroad,with a m inor number of locally-developedvarieties, mainlycreatedbytheInstituteofAgricultureinSkopye.Alargenumberofsmallproducersdocontinueto growlocalvarietiesandindigenousspecies. Domesticated animals con tribute 30-40% of the world's food production. Many of the breeds developed for specific climatic regimes or breeding zones appear not to beable to thrive under the conditions of modern livestock production. During thepast50years,new, more productive breeds have been imported. Although the original imported breeds are still present in Macedonia, crosses between indigenous breeds/strains and imported breeds are known in several species: .Localbreedofcattle foundinhighlandandmountain areas. During the last 30-40 years,itwascrossedwithmany imported breeds. According to officialstatistical data, Bushas comprise 50% of the total numberofcattleraised. MostofthecropsinMacedoniasti l lhavelocalwildrelatives( etc.).Infruitproduction,wildrelativesareused mostoften,bothforfoodandasrootstocks.Foddercrops,mainlydistributedwithinploughedfields and meadows (naturalorsown),werecreatedbyselectionandcultivationofwild species. Some have been cultivatedsincelongago,andothersbegantobecultivatedonlyrecently. Wild relativesof crops. Avena spp., Cannabissativa,Hordeumspp.,Papaverspp.,Triticumspp. Busha 2.7.2. Nativebreedsoflivestock 2.BIODIVERSITYWITHINTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Figure107. Localcucurbitvarities (Photo:S.Ivanovska) Figure108.. Localbeansvarities (Photo:S.Ivanovska) Figure109. Busha (Photo:S.Andonov) 49 Pramenka. Domestic (Balkan) goat. Local breed of sheep represented by three strains: Karakachanska, Ovchepolska and Sharplaninska.TheKarakachanskastrain is considered tobeendangered,whiletheothertwostrainsare widelyusedinsheepproduction. Although its numbers are on the increase, it is difficult to make a clear distinctionbetweenthisandotherbreeds.Localprimitivepig.Slowgrowingbreedraisedonrangesinseveral regionsofMacedonia.Althoughitisaveryprimitivebreed,morefieldandlaboratoryresearchareneededin ordertoclearlydefineitsstatus. Figure110. Domestic (Balkan)goat (Photo:S.Andonov) Localprimitivepig. Sheepdog-Sharplaninets. SlowgrowingbreedraisedonrangesinseveralregionsofMacedonia.Althoughitis a veryprimitivebreed,morefieldandlaboratoryresearchareneededinordertoclearlydefineitsstatus. Thisindigenousbreeddevelopedinanindependent,naturalandauthentic mannerwithoutanyparticipationbyhumans,whichisitsgreatadvantage.Itsnamederivesfromitsplaceof origin(themountainmassifsofSharPlanina,Bistra,KorabandKozhuf).UpontherequestoftheKinological Association of Macedonia (KAM),theFederationCynologiqueInternational(FCI) registeredthisanimal underthenameSheepDog-Sharplaninets.Itislistedashavingadualcountryoforigin,theRepublicof MacedoniaandSerbiaandMontenegro. Figure111. Localprimitivepig (Photo:S.Andonov) Figure112. .Sheepdog-Sharplaninets (Photo:M.Dzingo) 50 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 3. KEY THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY 3.1.Socio-economiccontext Within the Republic of Macedonia, there are many general reasons for the reduction or loss of biodiversity.They result from bothdirectandindirectimpacts and threats,as well asfromseveralmore fundamentalcauses.Thesefundamentalreasonsderivemainlyfromtheexistingsocio-economicproblems withintheState,withthedirectandindirectthreatsresultingfromimpactsbyvariouseconomicsectors. Within thelast50years,theoveralllevelofeducationoftheMacedonianpopulationhas risen.Eventhoughdifferencesineducationalapproachesbetweenurbanandruralsettingshavediminished, 62.5%oftheilliteratepopulationcontinuestoliveinruralareas.Thelowlevelofliteracyamongwomenand theruraladultpopulationconstrainsdevelopmentactivitiesinallspheres.Thereisalsoacloserelationship among education, natural population growth rate, quality of labour force and the sustainable use of biodiversity. Education is a keyfactorinthepromotionoftheeconomic,social,ecologicalandculturalvalues of biological resources and biodiversity. The education sector should promote economic and social understandingoftheimportance and role of biodiversity. Special attention shouldbeg iven to themos t threatenednaturalresources such aswaterandsoil,aswellastonaturalecosystemsandbiodiversity in general. Within their workingplansandprogrammes,institutions in the fields of education, health services, information,cultureandscienceareobligatedtoincorporatesuchmaterialconcerningbiodiversitythatwill increase general understanding and will encourage active participation in the improvement of nature conservation.InTable13,dataconcerningtheeducationalstructureandcharac teristicsofthepopulationby locationarepresented. Education. 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY Source:CalculationsusingdatafromtheCensusof1994, Population,housingandagriculturalbusinesses,BookV,Skopje1996 Strengthening the social and economic security of the population. Two of the most noticeable characteristics of the past few years are the significant changes in societal structure (i.e., economic stratificationofthepopulation)andanincreaseinthenumberofimpoverishedMacedoniancitizens. Thegreatestproportionofthepopulationofloweconomicstatusisconcentratedinundevelopedareas andruralmunicipalities.Unlessbasicconditionsarechanged,their numbersmayincrease.Thepeoplein thesecommunitiespossessandusefewmodernconveniences,donothaveaccesstocommonsocialservices andareinsufficientlyintegratedintosociety. Poverty producesagreaterintensityofnaturalresource exploitation and causeslargechanges within naturalecosystems.Thelevelofpovertyhasincreasedfrom19.0%in1997to22.3%in2000.Thoselivingin poverty include people with a low level of education, the elderly, families with small children, the unemployedandtheportionofthepopulationlivinginhillormountainsettlements.Ahighproportionofpoor householdsareinruralareas.Thegapbetweentherichandthepoorisalsoincreasing.Morethanonethirdof thepopulationoftheRepublicofMacedonialivesinpoverty,andmanyarehungryeveryday(23%haveno Table13. Structureandcharacteristicsofthepopulationbylocationandeducationlevel(1994). 5.4 6.6 18.4 33.4 32.3 8.7 2.9 3.5 9.2 25.2 46.7 15.1 3.6 4.4 14.8 30.6 38.4 11.3 8.6 10.5 27.4 41.1 17.7 2.5 Unknown 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.8 Censusof1994 Macedonia CityofSkopye Other Towns Villages Illiterate* Withoutschooleducation Notcompletedprimaryschool Primaryschool Secondaryschool Advancedanduniversity *age10andolder;†age15andolder 53 moneytobuyfood)(Reportoftheprojecton"SocialExclusion and Insecurity of the Citizens of Macedonia," Institute of Sociological and Political-Legal Research, Skopje, 2000). In 2000, around77,000 households (or 15% of the totalnumber) received socialassistance,whichamountsto57%oftheincome establishedasthepovertylevel. Graph1. Numberofhouseholdsthatreceived Socialassistanceduringtheperiod1995-2000. Most of the poor have restricted access to income, education, health care and food, especially the populationsinhilly,mountainousand undevelopedareas.Theyfacepoverty due to their limited access to arable landandbecauseofmigration,which seriously reduces the portion of the population capable of working. One of the factors that keeps people in poverty is the lack of adequate infrastructure, which particularly affectsthepopulationinundeveloped areas.Thislimitstheiraccesstothose institutionsprovidingpublicbenefits health, educational and cultural services;publicadministrationetc. Little progress has been made in theareaofdisposableincome.Funds available for personal consumptive usewithintheRepublicofMacedonia decreased by 30% per household duringtheperiod1998-2000.Thishas broughtaboutchangesinthestructure and manner of consumption. Food, housing, fuel, lighting, health and hygienecostshaveincreasedwhile,at the same time, funds available to purchaseclothes,shoesandhouseholditemsortobesetasideassavingshavedecreased.Thisisindicativeof alowlivingstandardandqualityoflife. Theunemploymentrateishighandcontinuestorise.Incomparisontothebeginningoftheperiodof transition,unemploymenthasdoubled.In2000,accordingtoofficialstatistics,theunemploymentratewas 32.1%,whichindicatesthebreadthandseverityoftheproblem.Thetimespentsearchingforajobaverages overfouryearsfor59.4%ofunemployedpersons(1999data). Because poverty is a complex, multidimensionalproblem,thereisnotone,universalsolution.Povertyislinkedtoalackofcontrolover Possibilities for social security and poverty eradication. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Figure113. Domesticfireplacein amacedonianvillage (Photo:M.Dzingo) 100 80 60 40 20 0 Numberofhouseholds(in1000s) Figure114. Traditionalwayofwheat grindinginruralareas-watermill (Photo:M.Dzingo) 54 resourcessuch asskills,knowledgeandcapital.Therefore,inordertomakeadvancesagainstpoverty,itis necessarytoapplyamultidimensionalapproachaddressingthoseeconomic,socialandnaturalfactorsthat willgenerateanacceptableincomeandcreatebasicsocialservicesforthecitizens.Inordertoachievethis goalitisnecessaryto: • Introduceequalopportunitiesforallcitizens,whilepromotingeconomicandsocialdevelopment; • Strengthentheeducationalsystemandenablethepeopletoearnalivinginasustainablemanner; • Includethelocalpopulationintheconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicalresourcesand thesharingofthebenefitsofnaturalresourceswithintheregion. Politicalpluralismandmarketeconomy. The1991ConstitutiondefinestheRepublicofMacedoniaas asovereign,independent,democraticandsocialStatewithitscivilgovernmentbaseduponthedemocratic electionofrepresentatives.Itisagovernmentwhichalsoallowsthecitizenstoexpressthemselvesdirectly throughreferendaandinothermannersandforums. Politicalpluralismhasitsmainpillarsintheformofpoliticalparties,amarketeconomyallowingprivate ownershipandlocalself-governmentbymunicipalities.TheConstitutionguaranteesthebasicpersonaland politicalfreedomsspecifiedunderinte rnationallaw:therighttolive,therighttoliberty,therighttoexpress one'sethnicaffiliation,theprotectionofone'sphysicalandmoralintegrity,theprohibitionofdiscrimination andequalitybeforethelaw.Citizensenjoyequalrightstocandidacyinelectionsandotherfunctions,bothat thelocalandnationallevels,withoutanyfearofdiscrimination. TheConstitutionguaranteeseconomicandsocialfreedomandothercitizens'rightsincluding:therightof propertyownership,therighttowork,therighttostrike,therighttoinherit,therighttosocialinsurance and social care, the right tohealth care, the right to a healthy environment, the righttoeducationetc.The principles of market freedom and entrepreneurship, fundamental values of theconstitutionalorderofthe Republic of Macedonia, allow for broad opportunities to strengthen the economy and to increase the productivityoflabourandprivateinitiativesinallareasoftheeconomicsystem.Nevertheless,thecurrent unsatisfactoryenvironmentallegislationmayacceleratebiodiversityloss. 3.2.Keyeconomicsectorsaffectingbiodiversity Thissectorhasbeenproviding a relatively stablecontribution to the GDP(by method of production) ofabout 11% over the course of the last several years (or, more precisely, 10.9% in 1997, 11.4% in 1998 and 11.0% in 1999). During this same period, capital expenditures have experienced rela tivelyhighfluctuations. Thetotalareaofagriculturalproductionhas noted a declining trend (which is the main indicator of non-sustainable and inefficient utilisation). This same trend can be seen in arableland,whichfellfrom658,000ha(1996) to598,000ha(2000).Arablelandareatypically completely covers valleyrelief.Inthecaseof pastures,whichcomprisetheremainingareasof agriculturalproduction,anoppositeorincreas ing trend has beenobserved,from 632,000 h a (1996)to636,000ha(2000). Agriculture. Thecurrentstateofagricultureisburdened withmany problems: agrarianoverpopulation inthelowlandsandtheneedfordeagrarianisa tion;fragmentationofagriculturalareasandthe needfortheirmoreeffectiveuse;poorqualityof equipmentandtheneedformodernisation;and thedegradationofsoils. Figure115. Arablelandand greenhouseswith intensiveagricultural production (Photo:M.Dzingo) 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY 55 Forestry. Forestryisasectorwhichhasbeenneglectedforalongperiodandinadequatelytreatedbythe economicpolicymakers.SuchacourseisbaseduponitslimitedcontributiontotheGDP.Thismaybefurther evidenced by thefact that,intheofficialstatisticalmethodology, forestry iscombined with agriculture, makingitimpossibletogleanexplicitinformationonitssolecontributiontotheGDP.Itispossible,however, todrawcertainconclusionsregardingthecapitalexpendituresmadeinthissectoroverthecourseofthelast several years.Ananalysisofthemagnitudeofinvestments in the forestrysectorconfirmsitslowsignifi cance. More specifically, in 1997 the modest share forestry received out of the total sum of capital expenditures in the Macedonian economy was only 0.9%. It decreased in subsequent yearsto 0.4%in1999(Source: ,StateStatistical Office,Skopje,p.397). Forests in the Republic of Macedonia cover 950,594 ha, representing37%ofthetotalland area. By growth form, high forests constitute less than30% ofthetotalforestcover,whilelow forests account for 70%. As a result, only one-third of the forests are considered to be suitable as a source of raw materialsforthelumberindustry. Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Macedonia2001 DeagrarianisationinMacedoniahas been conducted in a spontaneous, disorganised, prematureandexcessive manner.Becauseofthis,theportionof the total population working in agriculture decreased from 22% (accordingtothe1981census)to14.7% in1991andto11.8%in1994. From an economic standpoint, the poor quality of equipment and infrastructureisthenextproblemtobe solvedinthefieldofagriculture.Thisis one of the main reasons for the increasing dependence on natural weatherandlandconditions. Themostsignificantprogress over thecourseofthepastdecadehasbeen made in privatisation of the socially owned and cooperative sector and the associated denationalisation of land, thatis,thereturnofagriculturalareasto their former owners. The land was takenduringagrarianreformsin1945 andnationalisationin1953. Agriculture is a sector posing a severethreattothebiologicaldiversity of the Republic of Macedonia, espe ciallyduetothecurrentunfavourable conditions and negative development trends. Figure.116. Cultivatedfields (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure117. Exploitationsofpine logs-Kajmakchalan (Photo:Lj.Melovski) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 56 Overthecourseofthelast10years,theaveragegrossvolumeoftimberharvestedhastotalled1,033,000 m3,ofwhich76%(786,000m)originatedfromState-ownedforestsand24%(247,000m)fromprivate ones.Statisticaldataonthe timber harvested from private forests are not available. Atpresent, i t i sno t possibletomakeasatisfactoryestimateofthetreeharvest,norisitpossibletoestimatethelevelofutilisation ofharvestingequipment. Usage,bycategory,oftimberharvestedfromState-ownedforestshasalsobeeneconomicallyinefficient foralongperiodoftime.Fuelwoodisthepredominantuse,withashareofmorethan75%ofthetotalvolume ofharvestedtimber.Woodintendedforindustrialprocessing,thatis,sawingforlumber,constituteslessthan 20%. Inefficient economic utilisation isevidencedbythefactthatthehighestandbestusageoflogs,for veneer,eitherdoesnotoccurorexistsonlyinnegligiblequantities.Constructionofforestroadshasbeen increasing,allowingbetteraccesstoremoteareas. Foreigntradewithinthelumberindustryhasbeenexperiencinganupwardtrend.Thisindustryhasnoted amuchhigherincreaseinimportsrelativetoexports,whichhavealsoincreased,butatamuchlowerrate.The lumberindustryshareoftheGDPoftheRepublicofMacedoniaisverylow(0.3%). Usage offorestsduringtheperiodoftransitionhasnotexperiencedanydramaticchange,althoughthe mannerofmanagementhasundergoneatransformation(apubliccompanyforforestrymanagementwas established).Althoughthenamehasbeenchanged,thesameformerenterpriseshaveessentiallyremainedin place,controllingthesameforestareasandusingthesameforestrymanagementplanning. Impactstobiodiversity from forestry activities areprimarilymanifestedwithintheforestecosystems themselves.Impactsfromforestroads(erosion),over-harvesting(illegal),andecosystem-widechangesin nutrientcyclingresultingfromthehugequantitiesofbiomass(i.e.,waste)leftbehindafterharvestingdiffer ineachdifferentforestecosystem. Changesoccurringwithinindigenousforesttypeswhichresultfromtheintroductionofalientreespecies orfrom modificationstonaturalvegetationcausedbytheplantingofinappropriatespecies(e.g.,Arizona cypress[ ],BlackpineandDouglas-fir[ ])areofparticularrelevance. ³ ³ Cupressussp. Pseudotsuga menziesii Figure118. Illegal woodcutting (Photo:N.Nikolov) Since 1990, considerableattentiononinvestigationofforestdiebackinMacedoniahasbeenfocused, wich hasalsobeenaprobleminrecentyearsinEuropeaswell.Accordingtocarriedoutresearches,itis concludedthatthemostthreatenedtreespeciesisoak .Forillustration,someresultsfromthe researchinwichanassessmentofoakshealthconditionismade,50%of investigatedtreeshadnosymptoms ofsrowntransparence,whileonly28,4%hadnosymptomsofdieback.Also,35%ofoaktreeshadadeadtop. Overthepast20yearsthefrequencyoffiresgraduallyincreased,particularlyduringthelast13years.The totalnumberofoccurredfires(1989-2000) is3272withannualaverageof272.7fires.Thelargestnumberof fires occurredintheyearof2000(1187),thanin1999(452),1993(390)etc.Thetotalburntareais83,928.3 ha(1989-2000)withannualaverageof6994.0ha. Thisshowingthattheproblemswithforestdiebackandforestfiresareseriousthreatforthebiodiversityin theRepublicof Macedonia. Quercusspp. 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY 57 Fisheries. TherearenopublisheddataonthetotalincomefromthefisheryindustryintheRepublicof Macedonia.Accordingtoofficialstatisticaldata,theconsumptionoffishintheRepublicamountstoaround 7,500-8,000tonnes/year,orconsumptionof3.4-3.7kgpercapita.Officially,domesticproductionmeetsonly 13.2-13.5%ofthistotalannualdemand. Thecurrentpoliticalandeconomiccircumstanceswithinthecountryandregionhavehadanadverse impactonfisheries.Totalfishproductionin1999wasabout420tonnes(249.3tonnesofTrout,138tonnesof Carpand30.3tonnesofotherspecies).Unfortunately,thisislessthanhalfofthefishproductionrecordedfor 1990,whentotalproductionamountedto1,000tonnes.Thegeneralassessmentofchangestofishinginopen waterbodieswithinMacedoniaisnegative.Drasticreductionsintheannualfishcatchinthethreenatural lakeshavebeennoted. DoyranLake,recordedinworldscientificliteratureasoneofthemostproductivelakesinEurope,usedto haveaverageannualfishproductionof180kg/ha.Inthepast,asanintegralpartoftheStatefisheriesecon omy,itplayedanimportantroleinsupplyingthepopulationwithfish.Itsaverageannualcatchrepresented 50% of the total national fish catch (prior to the beginning of more intensive construction of artificial fishponds).ThemainreasonforthedrasticreductioninfishstockswithinDoyranLakeisitscatastrophic hydrologiccondition. Although fishing isthemainmannerforutilisingthe fish stocks of aquaticecosystems,plannedand organised fishing does not significantly adversely impact biodiversity. The current trend of intensive, uncontrolled fishing, however, does impactf ish populations and leads to an unbalanced ecosystem by reducingthepopulationsofonefishspecieswhilefavouringothers.Theintensivecultureoffishinartificial fishpondsisrecordingasteadyincrease,andmayhelpmeetsomeofthedemandforediblefish. Thestatusoffishbiodiversityinriversissignificantforseveralreasons.Adrasticdeclineinthepopula tion densities of certain species has been recorded, other species that used to be integral parts of the ichthyofaunaofsomewatercoursescannolongerbefoundandtherehasbeenachangeinthehorizontal distribution of somespecies.Inaddition,inseveralla kesandreservoirs, exotic speciesarenowpresent, introducedwithoutanyjustificationeitherbyerrororasaresultofignorance. Figure119. Traditionalfishing houseinDoyranLake (Photo:M.Dzingo) Industry. IntermsofitscontributiontotheMacedonianGDP,industrystilloccupiestheleadingposition intheMacedonianeconomy,despitethefactthat,fromthebeginningoftheprocessoftransition,industry's average sharehasbeendeclining.Itisinterestingthat,duringthelastyearsofthe pastdecade,industry contributed about 18%totheMacedonianGDP.Capitalexpenditures in industry tend to maintain rather stablelevelscomparedwithtotalinvestmentsintheMacedonianeconomyasawhole. SomeofthecurrentproblemsfacedbyindustryinMacedoniainclude:adisproportionatesharebycertain industries(traditionalandrawmaterialsrelatedbranches,whicharecharacterisedbylowproductivity,low levelsofcapitalreserves,lowrevenuesandfewexports);laggingtechnicalknowledgeandtechnologies,a lowlevelofmodernisationandahighincidenceofage-relatedequipmentfailure;lowproductivityandover employment;insufficientutilisationoffacilities;andpoorexportcapability. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 58 Thedeclineintheproductivityof thissector reached -15%/yearatthe beginningofthelastdecade.More recently, industry has experienced somewhatofarevitalisingtrend,that is, many years have seen positive growth(4.5%in1996,2.9%in1997, 4.5% in 1998, -2.5% in 1999 and 5.0%in2000). The industrial sector ofMace donia contributes both direct and indirect adverse impacts to the environment(air, water and soil). Industry also significantly adver selyaffects bothhumanhealthand biodiversity due to its geographic distribution,old technology,failure toapplytechnicalandtechnological standards for the treatmentofgas eous pollutants, poor management ofeffluentsandwastes,useoftoxic production materials and dirty energy resources, non-compliance withenvironmentalcodesetc. Figure120. Industrialcapacity ceimentplant (Photo:M.Dzingo) Construction. Construction is a significant sector, holding a distinct position in Macedonia. In terms of available capacity, it exceeds the marketwithinthecountry,whichwas asituationinheritedfromtheformer Socialist Federal Republic o f Yugoslavia. TheconstructionsectorinMace doniahasundergoneagreatupheaval during the last several years. Its contribution to the generation of domestic macroeconomic aggregate variableshasexhibitedadecreasing trend,from10.4%in1980to4.6%in 1990. A minor improvement was recorded in 1995 (7.3%), when the firstmodestsignalsofaMacedonian economic recovery appeared; however,inthecourseofthenexttwo tothreeyears,itscontributiontothe GDPhadstabilisedatabout5%. Theconstructionsectoradversely affects biodiversity through: air pollution, new impacts to natural land areas, use of mechanisation, noise, pollution of aquatic ecosys temsandsoils(duetothedisposalof waste materials from construction and demolition activities), destruc tion of habitatsandtheir fragmenta tion and isolation. There are no specific dataavailable on the extent of these impacts in the Republic of Macedonia. 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY Figure121. KozyakDam (inconstruction) (Photo:M.Dzingo) 59 Mining. There is no relevant economic information specific to the mining sector, becausethissectorisincorporatedwithinthe established category of metallurgy. In the Republic of Macedonia, this sector is representedbytheextract ionofboth metals andnon-metals.Theminingofleadandzinc ore(easternMacedonia),ironore(centraland western Macedonia), coal (south-western Macedonia) and non-metals, mainlymarbles and travertines (central and north-eastern Macedonia), dolomites, lime, silicates, ceramicclay,feldspar,gypsum,diatomaceous earthetc.,isofparticularimportance. In the past, the non-metals industry contributed 2.2% toward the economic structure of the country;however,since the establishment of the value-added tax (VAT) forindustryandmetallurgy,itnowrepresents 2.7%oftotalcurrentproduction. The main activities causing negative impacts on biodiversity are excavation, the openingofnewminesandpollutioncausedby wastewater from the flotation process and fromslagpiles. Figure122. Surface coalmining-Suvodol (Photo:M.Dzingo) Energy. Theenergysector(togetherwith gasandwatersupplies)participatesintheGDP of Macedonia with a modest 4.5%. This percentage was maintained throughout the second halfofthe1990s.Theshareofcapital expendituresin electricity (25%)isrelatively highcomparedwithoverallinvestmentsinthe social, cooperative, mixed and State-owned sectors. The most important domestic energy resources available for use in the future are coal reserves (for the next 10-15 years), fuelwood,hydropowerandgeothermalenergy. Itisnecessarytodecreasetheconsumptionof fuelwood, to be accompanied by a gradual increase in the areas of solar energy, wind power,biomassetc.Thisiscertainlyrelatedto the statusofthe paymentbalancethatwould eitherprovidefororpreventtheimportationof adequate technologies for utilisation of these typesofenergy. This sector impacts biodiversity through electricitygeneration(pollutionofair,soiland water), transportation and distribution (fragmentationof habitats).Figure123. Refinery plantforoilprocessing inMiladinovci nearSkopye (Photo:M.Dzingo) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 60 Transport. Thetransportationsectorof theRepublicofMacedoniaisexperiencing conditions similar to thosepresentwithin theoverallMacedonianeconomy,thatis,a lagging behind the current trendsseenin othercountries.Ingeneral,itcanbestated that the existing transportation and communicationsystemsintheRepublicof Macedonia are not yet fully developed. Oneofthissystem'smostseriousproblems isitslackofmodernisation. Another major problem faced by the transportation sector is its configuration, thatis,theroutesofthemaintransportation lines. Due to Macedonia's multi-decade existence within the confines of a wider community (the former Socialist Federal Republic o f Yugoslavia), itsoveralltrans portationinfrastructureischaracterisedby marked development of the main, north southhighwaycorridor(apartofEuropean Corridor 10). In contrast, the east-west corridor(partofEuropeanCorridor8)hasbeenalmostcompletelyneglected.Inaddition,Macedoniahasa relativelylowdensityofrailwaynetworks(27kmof railwaylinesper1,000km,i .e. ,339kmoflinesper millioninhabitants). Despitealloftheseproblems,transportationasasectorhasbeengraduallyincreasingitscontributionto theGDPoverthelastseveralyears.Thus,froma6.1%GDPsharein1997,itsshareincreasedto7.3%in1998 andto8.2%in1999. Thetransportationsectorimpactsbiodiversitythroughthefragmentationofhabitats,aswellasthrough airpollutionandnoise.ConsideringthecurrentcircumstancesintheRepublicofMacedonia,theseimpacts arelowbycomparisonwiththoseofdevelopedEuropeancountries.Nevertheless,thisisoneofthemost severepotentialthreatstobiodiversityinMacedonia. ² Figure124. Thehighwayfrom DemirKapiya toGevgeliya (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Tourism and recreation. At present, touristic and catering activities employ around10,000 people (2,895ofwhomarefemale),oronly3.2%ofthetotal number of employed persons in Macedonia. Total revenuesgeneratedbytourismandcateringactivities during2001amountedto€8.5millionor2.0%ofthe GDP. With regardtotouristturnover,thetotalnumber oftouristsintheRepublicofMacedoniain1990was 974,537,spendingatotalof3,099,508nights.Since this period, primarily due to social and political eventsinthisregionoftheBalkans,touristturnover appearstohaveexperiencedapermanentdecrease, reaching itslowestvaluein1997,whenthecountry wasvisitedbyonly476,025touristswhospentatotal of1,587,146nights. Consideringthescopeoftheterm'biodiversity,'it is absolutely undisputable that tourism and biodiversityareinanuninterruptibleinteractionwith eachother.Whilebiodiversityhasapositiveeffecton tourism, tourism has a negative impact on biodiversity. One notable case is the illegal construction of various touristic structures on the shoresofMacedoniannaturallakes.Adverseimpacts areevidentnotonlyinthedegradationofsurrounding uplandecosystems,butalsointhedirectpollutionof the lakes themselves. There are many specific examples of this (Lagadin on Ohrid Lake, 1,200 weekend houses around Mavrovo Lake within MavrovoNationalParketc). Figure125. Mavrovo recreationalcentre cabletrolley (Photo:M.Dzingo) 3.KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY 61 Sectoralanalysis. Acarefulanalysisofthepreviouslypresenteddatawillshowthatnotallsectors impactbiodiversityequally.Apreliminaryrankingofthemaineconomicsectorsbytheirimpacton biodiversityincludes: • Agriculture,whichhadaparticularlysevereimpactonbiodiversityinthedecadesfollowingWorld WarII.SeriousthreatstofishdiversityintheRepublicofMacedoniaarecausedbyover-fishing (especiallyinOhridLake); • Transportationsector,especiallyduetothefragmentationofhabitats; • Energy sector,whichrepresentsathreattobiodiversityforseveral reasons,includingpollution, constructionof hydropowerreservoirsand,especially,thetransmissionofenergy; • Industryandmining; • Tourism,which alsoposesaseriousthreattobiodiversity.Inthiscontext,illegallyconstructed weekendsettlementsandincompletecommunalinfrastructureinthemaintouristresortsareof particularconcern; • Construction,whichcreatesathreatduetotheuseofagriculturallandofhighcadastralclassfor non-productivepurposes.Thissectorwouldnotberankedveryhighly,however. The most important secondary benefit related to the protection of biodiversity in the Republic of Macedoniawouldbetheadoptionofaninter-sectoralapproach.Suchanapproachtowardproblemsolvingis consideredtobeamatterofsomeurgency.TheStrategyandtheActionPlanforbiodiversityprotectioncanbe consideredafirststeptowardthisgoal. 3.3.Underlyingcausesofbiodiversityloss ThebasicfactorswhichhaveledtothecurrentunfavourablestateoftheenvironmentintheRepublicof Macedoniainallspheres,includingbiodiversity,includegeneralhistoricalprocesses,abadsocio-economic situation,anunstablepoliticalsituation,inadequatespatialplanningandinappropriatelanduse. Severalmainreasonsforthepermanentlossofbiologicaldiversitycanbedistinguished: • Alowlevelofeducationandalackofinformation,especiallyinruralareas,whichhascontributed toalowawarenessamongthegeneralpublicoftherelationshipbetweenhumanactivitiesandthe environment, the sustainable use of biological resources and the sustainable transfer of bio technology; • ReducedandunstableeconomicinfluencebytheState,inadditiontothemilitaryactionsthathave beenconvulsingthe regionforalongperiodoftime; • Growing poverty, which does not recognise the principles of sustainable development. It is manifestingitself throughillegalforestandotherresourceoveruse,huntingandfishingexcesses, non-sustainabledevelopmentofagricultureetc.; • Inadequate and incomplete legislation which fails to clarify duties or address the overlap in responsibilitiesand competencieswithintheagenciesliableforenforcement; • Non-compliancewithexistingregulations; • Lackofspatialplanningregulationsforareaswithspecialnaturalvalues; • Uncontrolledurbanisation,deagrarianisation (inthetraditionalsense)andindustrialisation.These arethemainprocessesthatdisturbtheenvironmentalbalance(consideringthecumulativeeffects ofpollution); • The continual process of migration of the population from villages to towns. Increased concentrationsofpeopleinurbancentresrepresentagrowingproblemnotonlyfromaglobal, socio-economicaspectbutalsofromaspatialaspect; • Themechanismofearningaprofitunderhighlycompetitivemarketconditions,thepermanent trendtowardglobalisationandthefavouringofnewer,moreprofitableplantvarietiesandanimal breedswhichhave fully supplanted theindigenous, low producing and less profitablegenetic types. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 62 3.4.Maindirectthreatstobiodiversity Severaldirectthreatstobiodiversity,distincttoMacedonia,canalsobeidentified.Allplayaspecificrole inthereductionofbiodiversity,buttheyarenotallequallysignificant. 3.4.1.Habitatloss,modificationandfragmentation In the Republic of Macedonia, habitat loss,modificationand fragmentation have been occurring from prehistoric times to the present;however,theseprocesseshaveintensifiedoverthepastfew decades, and aremainlyrelatedto conversion anddegradation of land,togetherwiththefragmentationofhabitats. • Landconversion. Thelossofnaturalhabitatsduetoconver sionismostevidentwithinaquatichabitats,particularlyswamps andmarshes.DuringthedecadesfollowingWorldWarII,almost allofthemajorswampsandmarshesweredrained,chieflyfortwo reasons:toacquirenewagriculturalareasandtocombatmalaria. Because of this, marsh biocoenoses became seriously endan gered,fragmentedorthreatenedwithextinction. Anothermethodofhabitatmodificationisthroughtransfor mation. In Macedonia, this isseen particularly as a result of artificial reservoirconstruction.Inthepast,duringtheconstruc tionofmorethan20majorreservoirs,noregardwasgivenasto whethervaluablehabitatswouldbedestroyed. Currently,theconversionofnaturalhabitatsintoagricultural usesdoesnotrepresentaseriousthreattobiodiversity. Figure126. Salvinianatans-treatened speciesduetolandconversion (Photo:V.Matevski) • Landdegradation. Oneofthemostseriousreasonsforthe lossofhabitats (orportionsthereof) is inadequateplanningfor the expansion of urban centres, weekend homes and tour ist/recreation zones. The situation issimilarwithrespecttothe major and minor industrial complexes which, due to lack of adequate controls, are constructed in various naturalorsemi naturalhabitats. • Fragmentation of habitats. The main cause of habitat fragmentation is traffic infrastructure. Some main roads, for example, intersect habitats that serve as biocorridors for vertebrates,especiallylargemammals.Anincreaseintrafficor the construction of new, limited access highways could com pletelydisruptsuch corridors. Railways are very underdevel oped compared withroadsand do notrepresenta significant threattonaturalhabitats. Fragmentationofaquatichabitats(e.g.,theupperandmiddle coursesofriversandstreams)isafrequentoccurrencewithinthe country. Additionally, recommendations for biological mini mumsforwatercoursesandfortheconstructionoffishpassages are not observed.Afurther example of habitat fragmentation concernsaerialtransmissionlines,someofwhichpassthrough nationalparks. Itisobvious,then,thattheloss,modificationandfragmenta tion of habitats have negative impacts and jeopardise the inventoryof biodiversity. Figure128. RegionalroadBitola-Resenisbreaking bio-corridorofBrownBear(fragmentationofhabitats) (Photo:M.Dzingo) 3. KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY 63 Figure127. Abandonedantimonymine land degradation-Alshar (Photo:V.Matevski) Figure129. Winterpasturesinlowland (Photo:M.Dzingo) 3.4.2.Overuseofbiologicalresources • Overgrazing ofgrasslandsand pastures. The Republic ofMacedoniahasapproximately650,000 haforuseassummerandwinterpastures(hillyand high-mountain zones). Pasture degradation is chieflyduetotheexpansionofshrubbyvegetation, resulting from a lack of grazing rather than from overgrazing. The increasing dominance of shrub vegetation reduces biodiversity because grass communitiesaremoreheterogeneous and richer in species.Inthismanner,thetypesofhabitats in the landscapearechanging. • Even though hunting managementplansandaPublicEnterpriseforGame WardensandHuntingInspectionsexist,poachingis stillatahighlevel.Inaddition,occurrencesofillegal fishing and the use of prohibited fishing gear (including certain types of nets, chemicals and explosives)causegraveconcern. Over-hunting/fishing. • Trade in wildlife (animals, fungi and wild plants). Unfortunately, completecurrentdataonthecommerce innaturalproducts do not exist; there fore,itisnotpossibletomakeanassess ment of how trade in wildlife affects biodiversity.Priorto2002,therewasno information on the export of wild species,noranysanctionstopreventit. Implementation of the and Flora (CITES),whichregulatesthecontrolof internationaltradeinwildspecies,faces many difficulties in the Republic of Macedonia. These are due primarily to anoverlapinadministrativeresponsibil ities, especially within the MoAFWM, butalsoduetoalackofpersonnelinthe departments responsible for the inspectionandcontroloftrade. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna Figure130. Arctostaphyllosuva-ursi-oftenlyusedmedicalplant (Photo:J.Acevski) • Waterextraction.AsaresultofthearidclimateandthehydrologicregimewithintheRepublicofMacedonia, extractionofwaterfromtheupperandmiddlecoursesofriversandstreamsisverycommon.Unfortunately,the priorityofprovidingsafedrinkingwaterseldomtakesprotectionofnaturalwatercoursesintoconsideration.Water extraction (i.e., water supply systems) is under the purview of the MoAFWM (Administration for Water Management).Incasesofmajorwaterwithdrawals,newconstructionprojectsmustprovideforthecontinuanceof anecologicalminimumwaterflow,whichisoftencalcula tedastheflowofthesmallestrecordedwatercourseinthe watershed.Withsuchprojects,severalseriousproblemscanoccur: • AccurateflowmeasurementsareunknownformostofthesmallwaterwaysinMacedonia; • Inadequateecologicalminimumsmaybechosen; • Control(orcompliance)mechanismsandmethodsforsanctioningarelacking. Agenerallackofmonitoringforanytypeofwaterextractionoperationisalsowidespread.Theproblemofwater extractionisseriousenoughtoberankedamongthebasicthreatstobiodiversityinMacedonia. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 64 3.4.3. Pollutionoftheenvironment • Water pollution. Surface waters in the Republic of Macedonia are ser iously endangeredbyvarioussources of physical, chemical and biologicalpollution. The trend toward the dramatic deteriora tionofwaterqualityinriverine ecosystems was first noted in the mid-1970s.Itresultedfrom the development of heavy industry and an increase in urban populations on the one hand,andacompletedisregard for the problem of communal and industrial wastewaters, on theother.Thestateofeutrophic aquatic ecosystems is also alarming. Although direct effortshavebeenundertakenfor the protection of Ohrid Lake, little has beendonetoprotectPrespa Lake, even though they areone uniquehydrological,relict system.Inaddition,themajorreservoirsStrezhevo,TikveshLakeandTuriyaarealsoundergreat pressure. Ingeneral,thereisnocontinuousmonitoringofthestateofthegroundwater,withanalysesbeing madeonly on an as-needed basis. Only thoseaquaticsystems locatedhighinthemountainsare relatively unspoiled, butpastmilitaryoperationswhichtookplaceonSharPlaninaMountainare likelytohavehadsomeadverseimpactsoneventhese. Figure131. Pollutionof VardarRiver (Photo:S.Krstic) • Terrestrialandsoilpollution. SoilpollutioninMacedoniaisextensiveandrepresentsaserious threattobiodiversity.Thereareseveraldistinctsourcesofpollution,characteristicoftheconditions in Macedonia - industry and mining,overuse of pesticidesandfertilisers (in thepast), improper disposalofwastes,transportationetc. • Airpollution .Airandsoilpollutionarecloselyrelated.Themostfrequentpollutantsoftheairin urbanorindustrialcentresareSOx,NOx,COx,chloro-fluorocarbons(CFCs),smokeandbreathable dust(<10µm)andhighconcentrationsofheavymetals. Accordingtotheeconomicindicators, industrial productionin theRepublicofMacedoniahas experienced a steady decrease over the pasttenyears,resultinginareductioninair pollution (except in theregionofVeles). Thereverseistrueregardingtraffic,which has seen a steady increase in passenger vehicles and a corresponding increase in thetotalamountofairpollutiongenerated. Thiscontinuestobeaproblem,especially in urban centres, primarily Skopye.Add itionally,theageandpoormaintenanceof the vehicles and the low quality offuel increasingly burden the air with pollut ants. Even so, it can be concluded that air pollution is not a key threat to the biodiversityoftheRepublicofMacedonia. Figure132. Pseudotsugamenziesii, frequentlyintroduced andinvasivespecies inbeechforests 65 3. KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY 3.4.4.Introducedandinvasivespecies In Macedonia, most of the invasive plant species are found on ruderal sites and in some aquatic ecosystems.AnexampleisthespeciesElodeacanadensis(Elodea),whichwasfirstintroducedintoOhrid LakethroughthechannelStudenchishtein1957.Itisaninvasiveweedyspecieswhichrapidlyreproduces andexpands,out-competingtheindigenoussubmersedmacrophyticspeciesandoccupyingtheirhabitat. AnotherinvasivespeciesistheAsian , whichhasspreadthroughoutlargeareas of lowlandsandischaracterisedbyahighreproductivecapability.Overthepastfewyears,alarge numberof new American species have also been recorded. With regard to forestry and reforestation, careful considerationmustbegiventotheexcessiveplantingofmonoculturesofDouglas-fir. Mostoftheintroducedandinvasivespeciesoffaunabelongtothesuperclass (11)andclass (8).Invasivespeciesfromtheothervertebrateclasses( and )havenotyetbeenfound amongtheintroducedspecieswhichareperiodicallyrecorded. Ailanthusaltissima Pisces Mammalia Amphibia,Reptilia Aves 3.4.5.Climatechange Onthebasisofanevaluationoftheimpactsofclimaticchangesonbiodiversity,thefuturehorizontaland verticaldistribution of plantandanimalspecies areexpectedtochange,(i.e.,migrationtowardthenorth and/or migration to higher elevations). Such changes will particularly affect the relict plant and animal specieslivinginhighmountainzones. AccordingtoresultspresentedbytheMoEPPintheFirstNationalReportonClimateChange,theareas most sensitive to climatic changes are the refugial zones: Taor Gorge; TreskaRivergorge;Crna River, includingthegorgesoftheRaetsandBlashnitsaRivers;Jama;Mavrovo-Radika;Pelister;Ohrid-Prespaand Nidze-Kozhuf.Withinthesezones,manyrefugialphytocoenosesarepresentwhichwouldbeendangeredby temperature increases and bydistributionalchangesinprecipitation.Increasesintemperaturewouldalso dramaticallyaffectalpinepastures. In contrast,thermophiliccommunities,suchasthe (atypeofMediterranianshrubland), wouldexpandtheirrangesintonorthernregionsandhigheraltitudes. pseudomaquis BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA Figure133. Refugial Scotspineforest onKaymakchalan (Photo:Lj.Melovski) 66 3.4.6.Naturaldisasters Naturaldisastersdooccur,butonlyinfrequentlyandwithminorintensity.Nevertheless,Macedoniaisa seismicarea,alargepartofitsterritoryisaridorsemiaridandtherearefrequentlandslides,avalanchesetc. Droughts are frequent natural calamities. In addition to the droughts of short duration which are characteristicforamajorportionofthecountry,therearealsoextendedperiodicdroughts,whichcausegreat economichardshipsforagriculture,aswellasseriousdamagetothenaturalinlandmesophilicecosystems. Examplesofthisincludeareductioninthegrowthratesofforests,defoliationandincreasedsusceptibilityto parasites andotherpests,thedesiccation of marsh ecosystems, disturbances to the hydrology of aquatic ecosystems(DoyranandPrespalakes)etc. Due to the low intensity, low frequency or narrow scope of avalanches, floods and landslides; the ecosystems' ability to adapt to arid conditions; and the limited extentoffires,natural disasters are not consideredtobeseriousthreatstobiodiversityintheRepublicofMacedonia. Figure135. Postburning actioninpineforest inBerovo-Pehchevo (Photo:N.Nikolov) Figure134. Firein beech-fir-pineforest JavorskaReka, Kavadarci (Photo:P.Ristevski) 67 3. KEYTHREATSTOBIODIVERSITY There are other less important factors which can also cause a chain of effects negatively impacting biodiversity,includingvariousformsofnon-sustainableusesofnaturalresourcesinalleconomicsectors. Thespecificdirectcausesofbiodiversityloss aremanyandvaried.Mostofthemarecommontoal l typesof biodiversity,whilesomearecategoryspecific.Verycommoncausesinclude: • Inadequatemanagementofaquaticecosystems; • Drainageofmarshesandswamps; • Constructionofhydropowerreservoirsinrivergorges; • Lackofwatertreatmentplants(forriverineandlakeecosystems); • Mineexcavationsandothergeologicalworks; • Constructionofskilifts,transmissionlines,televisiontransmittersandotherantennasystems; • Lossofhabitats(orportionsthereof)duringunplannedexpansionofurbancentres,weekendsettlementsand tourist/recreation zones; • Modificationofhabitats; 3.4.7. Otherfactors Otherfactorsthatcanhavenegativeimpactsonbiodiversityorcauseachainofeffectsare: • Lackof,orinappropriate, legalregulationsontheconservationofbiodiversity,lackofclarityininstitutionalauthority, overlapofresponsibilitiesandauthoritiesandlackofenforcementofthelegalregulationswhichdoexist; • Lowpublicandinstitutionalawarenessoftheimportanceofbiodiversityandinsufficientlydevelopedawarenessamong non-governmentalorganisations(NGOs); • Economicinstability,lowstandardoflivingandunemployment,whichstronglycontributetotheoveruseof biodiversity; • Inappropriateimplementationofspatialplanningguidelines; • Armed conflicts in certainregions within thecountry, which pose serious anddirectthreatstonaturalresources.The governmentoftheRepublicofMacedoniadoesnotyethavefullcontroloversomeoftheseareas; • Erosion,aseriousproblemdevelopingasaresultofpreviousandcurrentagriculturalpracticesinMacedonia; • Incompleteresearch on variousaspectsof biodiversityinMacedonia:therearenoRedDataListsorBooks,vegeta tion maps, pedologic maps, maps of ecosystems and habitat distribution, lists of characteristic and endangered species, information systemsnordatabases,andtherearefewprofessional,scientificandinstitutionalpersonnelwork ing in the fieldof biodiversity; • Insufficientpersonnelintheinstitutionsofthegovernmentalsystem:MoEPP,inspectionservices,customs,Fundforthe Environmentetc.; • Poorinteragencyco-operation; • Nomonitoringsystemforbiodiversity(exceptforpartialmonitoringinthethreenationalparks). Figure136. Stonefigures inerosivearea Kuklicanear Kratovo (Photo: O.Matevska) • Fragmentation of habitats, due mainly to taffic infrastructure, where highways intersect habitats that are important as vertebrate corridors (particularly for large mammals). When aquatic habitats are artificially fragmented,recommendations for maintaining ecological minimum flows in watercoursesarenotfollowed; • Destruction of areas with natural halophytic andmeadowvegetation; • Uncontrolled destruction of forests, forest fires,clearing for building sites,construction of roads and railroads, expansion of touristsettlementsandforestdesiccation; • Uncontrolled collection of medicinal plants andwildanimals; • Illegal collection of rare plants (especially endemic plants) by professional and commercial collectors, illegal collection of birds' eggs and certainspecies of butterflies etc. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 68 4. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION Theterm"biodiversity" isnotusedinMacedonia'shighestlegalframework-TheConstitutionofthe RepublicofMacedonia.ThewordingoftheConstitution,however,isbroadenoughtoprovideprotectionfor those resources includedwithinthis concept.Such constitutional phrases include: environment, nature, naturalheritage,floraandfauna,goodofthecommoninterestetc. The constitutional mandate for the protection of biodiversity in the Republic of Macedonia consistsofsevenkeyelements,towit: (Article8,Paragraph1,Item10); (Article43,Paragraph1); (Article43,Paragraph2); (Article43,Paragraph3); (Article55,Paragraph3); (Article56, Paragraph1); (Article56,Paragraph3). Asaresult,theconstitutionalframeworkseemstobeasolidplatformforestablishinganddevelopinga coherent system of natureconservation, under which a clear modelofbiodiversityconservationcanbe promoted. • • • • • • • Environmentalprotectionandrestorationarefundamentalvaluesoftheconstitutionalorderof theRepublic Everyonehastherighttoahealthyenvironmentinwhichtolive Everyoneisobligedtopromoteandprotecttheenvironment TheRepublicprovidesconditionsfortheexerciseoftherightofcitizenstoahealthyenvironment Thefreedomofthe marketandentrepreneurshipcanberestrictedby lawonly for reasons of defenceoftheRepublic,protectionofnature/wildlifeorpublichealth AllthenaturalresourcesoftheRepublicofMacedonia,thefloraandfauna,amenitiesin common use,aswellastheobjectsandbuildingsofparticularculturalandhistoricalvalueasdetermined by law,areitemsofcommoninterestfortheRepublicandenjoyparticularprotection Thelawregulatesthemodeandconditionsunderwhichspecificitemsofcommoninterestwithin theRepubliccanbecededforuse 4.LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION 4.1.Constitutionalbasis 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Conservationandpromotion oftheenviromentandnature Conservationanduse offloraandfauna Landrestoration andconservation Biodiversity Protectionof naturalrarities Protection againstpollution Otherrelevant sectoralregulations Graph2. Schemeoftheexistingmodelofbiodiversityprotection 71 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA PreviousMacedonianConstitutions (inchronologicalorder) 1946ConstitutionofthePeople'sRepublicofMacedonia 1963ConstitutionoftheSocialistRepublicofMacedonia 1974ConstitutionoftheSocialistRepublicofMacedonia Nospecificlegalprovisionsaddressingbiodiversity Protectionofnaturalrarities(Article32) Specialprotectionofthegoodofthecommoninterest(Article104-107) ProtectionofHumanenvironment(Article108) Conservationofnature,naturalsitesandrarities(Article244,Paragraph2) • • • • • IntheexistinglegalsystemoftheRepublicofMacedonia,mattersofbiodiversityconservationareneither separated nor identified as particular objects of regulation. On the contrary, the existing legislative implementationofbiodiversity conservation is a fragmentary approach, splitting some of its provisions amongmultipleseriesofregulationsandincludingotherswithintheregulationsofnotclearlyrelatedsectors. Someregulationsareunintelligibleorevencontradictory. Suchanapproachhascomplicatedanyacknowledgementoftheexistenceofabiodiversityconservation system as a distinct entity. In addition, it has negatively influenced the implementation of the subject regulations. Theseissuesnotwithstanding,thelegislativebasisfortheexistingsystemofbiodiversityconservation containsover100regulations,ofwhichthemostnumerousarethelawsoftherelatedsectors(Table14). Generallyspeaking,Macedonianlegislationdealing with biodiversity conservation is in serious need of reformation both from the aspect of the legislative concept itself, as well as from the standpoint of its structure within the related sectors. The legislative protection ofbiodiversity shouldbeestablishedupona highstandardofconservation. In ordertoestablishtheconstitutionallyguaranteed rightofcitizenstoahealthylivingenvironment,theLaw ontheConservationandPromotionoftheEnvironment and Nature was adopted in 1996. It contains general guidelinesfortheconservationoftheenvironmentand nature,andestablishestherequirementforwiseuseof Macedonia's natural heritage. At the same time, it establishes the rights andobligations of the State to create appropriate conditions for conservation and improvementoftheenvironmentandnature,aswellastherightsanddutiesofotherlegalandphysical entitiesinthissphere. Thislawalsoregulatesthemethodofdisposalofhouseholdandtechnologicalwastesandthemannerin whichthelong-termuseofnaturalresourcesmustbeconductedinordertosafeguardthelifeandhealthof humans,aswellastheplantandanimalkingdom. Thelawwaspassedwiththeambitiousgoalofrepresentingan"Eco-Constitution",thatis,a general regulatorysystemthatwoulduniversallydeclarethebasisforthe"environmentalconservationsystem"and "thesystemfortheconservationofnature".Thisgoalnotwithstanding,withinthelegalconceptionofthelaw, these two systems are actually presented as a whole legislative unit (i.e., as one unique system for conservation).Throughoutthetextofthelaw,noclearlegaldistinctionbetweentheterms"environment"and "nature"ismade.Consequently,theexistinglegalsystemhasmanyweaknessesanddeficiencies,especially fromtheaspectsoftheconservationanduseofnature. LawontheConservationandPromotionof the EnvironmentandNature 4.2. Legalbasis TypeofAuthority Number Constitution Laws Internationalagreements Regulations Statutes Decisionsbylocalcommunities Total 1 45 20 3 15 25 109 Table14. Normativebasisfor thesystemofbiodiversityconservation 72 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Keydeficienciesinthecurrentlaw Problem with differentiation between the terms "environment" and "nature" (i.e., using them merelyasgenericterms); Problemwithdifferentiationbetweentheterms"conservation"and"promotion"(i.e.,usingthem merelyasgenericterms); Invalid terminology identifying protected objects under the category "natural wealth" and categorisingthemunderthenon-constitutionalterm"specificnaturalwealth"; Invaliddefinitionofthephrase"conservationofnature"andequatingitwith"conservationofthe naturalheritage"; Marginalisingthevalueofandnecessityformoreappropriatesystematicregulatorymeasuresfor nature conservation as a whole, but especially biodiversity conservation, geodiversity conservation,maintenanceofthenaturalbalanceandconservationofthenaturalheritage; Inappropriate methodologies, lack of comprehensive legislation and inefficiency of basic instrumentsfor conservation of thenaturalheritage,biodiversityandotherelementswithinthe systemofnatureconservation; Inappropriateorganisationofnatureconservationatthenationalgovernmentallevel,especially concerning biodiversity and natural heritage conservation (i.e., management andoversight of protectedareas); Insufficientnumberofdeclarativeanddirectiveregulations. • • • • • • • • Figure137. LakeOhrid (Photo:V.Matevski) It is recommended that the provision on nature conservation be excluded from the Law on the ConservationandPromotionoftheEnvironmentandNatureandberegulatedseparately. Theprotectionanduseoffloraandfaunaarenotcoveredbyonlyonelaw.Onthecontrary,thereareeight lawsforthispurpose,eachadoptedaccordingtothetypeofobjectortypeofeconomicactivityitgoverns. Theselawsare: Lawsonfloraandfauna 73 • • • • • • • • Law onFishing LawonHunting LawonCattleBreeding LawonForests LawonPastures LawonPlantProtection Law on Veterinary Health Law on Seeds, Seedlings and Materials for Propagation, Recognition, Approval and ProtectionofVarieties (1993):regulates theuse,directionandconservationoffishstocksinwaters wherefishingisallowed. (1996):regulatesthekeeping,breeding,conservation,huntinganduseofgame animals. (1997):regulatesthekeepingandtradeoflivestock,receiptoflivestock products,andproductionofandtradeinlivestockfodder. (1997):regulatesthecare,useandconservationofforests. (1998):regulatesthemanagement,promotionanduseofStatepastures. (1998):regulatestheprotectionofplantsfromdiseases,healthcontrol related to thetradeofplants,productionanduseofmaterials for theprotectionofplantsand equipment/measuresforpreventingharmfulconsequencestohumanandanimalhealthfromthe useofsuchmaterials,aswellasprotectionoftheenvironmentandnature. (1998): regulates the protection of animalhealth from diseases, veterinaryexaminationsandprocedures,protectionandpromotionoftheenvironmentandnature, fees and expenses for veterinary services, and the manner in which veterinary activities are conducted. (2000):regulatestheproductionandtradeofseedmaterial,seedlingsand plantbreedingmaterial,aswellas theacceptance,approval,andconservationofplantvarieties (exceptseedmaterialandseedlingsfromforests). Allcitedlawshavebeenadoptedinordertorevivetheconstitutionalconceptof"specialprotectionforthe goodofthecommoninterest,"bywhich,activitiesharmingthisconstitutionalcategorymaybecurtailed. Thefactisthat,inalmosteveryspeciallawcited,anattempthasbeenmadetoachieveabalancebetweenthe public's interest in"conservation" and"use"of"naturalwealth"asan "economic category." It must be stressed, however, that in this scheme, the scales have been tipped toward "use" at the expense of "conservation.” Thecurrentmannerinwhichfloraandfaunaareregulateddemandsthattherebecertainadjustmentsto the legislativeconcept, especially in light of the needforthecreationofaharmonisedsystemofnature conservation. Figure138. RareplantsintheRepublicofMacedonia-upfromlefttoright:Violaalchariensis, Liliumheldreichii,Asperuladoerfleri;downfromlefttoright:Crocusscardicus, Phelipaeaboissieri,Pulsatillahallerisubsp.macedonica,Gentianaverna (Photo:V.Matevski&Lj.Melovski) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 74 Elementsofthesystemforconservationoffloraandfauna Forests: Game: Fisheryresources: Plants: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Prohibitionagainstdestroyingforests* Prohibitionagainstcuttingrarespeciesoftreesinforests* Prohibitionagainstdestructionofmarksandsignsinforestsorcuttingoftreespossessingmarksorsigns ProhibitionagainstovergrazingbylivestockandgatheringofacornsinForests* Prohibitionagainstsettingfiresinopenareaslessthan200mfromthemarginofaforest* Prohibition againstproducing sparksorsimilaractivities lessthan200 m from themargin of a forest* that could accidentallystartafire Prohibitionagainstpollutingforestsbydepositingwastematerials· Prohibitionagainstpurchasingorprocessingtreeswhichhavenoforestrystamporspecialidentifyingdocuments Prohibitionagainstsellingorresellingbypersons*ofwoodcutfromforestsownedbytheState Prohibition againsthunting, pursuing or disturbing gameduringanyperiodtemporarilyorpermanently closed to hunting Permanentprohibitionagainsthuntingofspeciallyprotectedspeciesofgame Prohibitionagainstkilling,takingyoungordestroyingthenests,lairsoreggsofprotectedgame Prohibitionagainstsettingfiresinfieldsofstubble,weedsorotherplantwasteswithinhuntingreserves Prohibitionagainstfishingduringspawningseasonsorperiodsclosedtofishing Prohibitionagainstfishingwithinwaterbodiesthataretemporarilyorpermanentlyclosedtofishing Prohibitionagainstharvestingfishesthatareundertheminimumlegalsize Prohibitionagainstfishingwith"osti,"speargunsortheuseofhandsalone Prohibitionagainstfishingforrareorvulnerablefishspecieswithinsomeorallwaterbodies Prohibitionagainstpollutingwatersusedforfishingwithharmfulordangeroussubstances Prohibition,withinwatersusedforfishing,againstfencingwithpermanentortemporarystructureswhichrestrictthe freepassageoffishes Prohibitionagainstextractionofwaterfromfishingareas In order to prevent the appearance and dispersal of plant pests, the authorised Minister can conduct the following prohibitions: Temporarybanoncertainareasand/orraisingofcertainspecies/varietiesofagriculturalandforestplants Prohibitionagainsttradeofplantsoriginatingfrombothinfectedandnon-infectedareas ProhibitionagainstimportationortransportationthroughMacedoniaofcertainplantspecies *Exceptionsareallowedonlyincasesdefinedbythespecificlaw 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Figure139. Upfromlefttoright:Zygaenacarniolica,Papiliomachaon,Argiopebruencihi; Downfromlefttoright:Agrodiaetusamanada,Pterostickubruckii,Manthisreligiosa,Chlorophorusvarius 75 Foroverfivedecades(since1945),thevaluableobjectsthatcomprisethenaturalheritageoftheRepublic ofMacedoniahavebeenofficiallycalled"naturalrarities."Itisakeyconceptthatencompassesbothmobile andstationarycomponents,aswellaslivingandedaphicnaturalelementswhich,accordingtotheirscientific, aesthetic,health,cultural,educational,tourist/recreationalandothervaluablefunctionsasculturalobjects, areunderthespecialprotectionofthecommunity.Conversely,insomenewerlaws,theterminologicaland conceptualidentification o f these selfsame objects is replacedbyanewlegislat ivephraseandconcept "specificnaturalwealth."Inaddition,accordingtothevariousratifiedinternationalagreements,theterms "natural heritage," "protected areas" and similar phrases are also in use. In short, from the aspect of terminologicalidentificationoftheobjectsinquestion,thereisagreatdealofconfusion. Activities connected with natural rarities conservation are organizedintothreelaws: (1973) (1980) (1977),whichalsohasaprovisionforpromulgating regulations. In accordance with the cited Laws, the conservation of natural rarities has been established based upon a model of individual protection (i.e., according the status of "protected object" within a particular category), by which a natural raritymaybedesignatedonlybymeansofa specialactforprotection.Thus,thetypeof actforprotectionandtheprocessbywhich theactisadoptedarerelatedtothetypeof natural rarity to be protected. It then follows that sometypesofnaturalrarities areprotectedbynationallaw,whileothers by decision of the local community on whose territory the specific object is situated.Beforeaspecificactorresolution is passed determining the category of a natural rarity, there must first be an investigationofthenaturalcharacterofthe area. WithintheRepublicofMacedonia,the experiences of the past 50 years demonstrate that there has not been an appropriatepolicyfortheconservationof natural rarities, especially because of the failuretogivefullattentiontothenecessary "promotionofnaturalrarities"fromwithin the category now known as "protected areas.” According to official information, whichwasbaseduponpreviousscientific research, there are116designatednatural rarities, covering about 18% of the land surfaceoftheRepublicofMacedonia.The actualnetworkofprotectedareascurrently includes only 77, however, covering an areaof184,187haor7.14 % of the land surface. Currently protected natural properties andthoseyettobeprotectedaredistributed throughoutMacedonia. Most of themarelocatedinthewesternpartofthecountry,withsomealsobeing presentinregionswithhighlevelsoftourism. LawontheProtectionofNaturalRarities LawontheProtectionofNationalParks Law on the Protection of Ohrid, Prespa and Doyran Lakes • • • Acts Number Objects NumberType Laws Localcommunitydecisions Resolutions Total 6 27 42 75 8 27 42 77 Table15. Actsdealingwith naturalrarities conservation Figure140. LakePrespa (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure141. DobraVoda beechforest (Photo:V.Matevski) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 76 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Table16. Numberofobjectscurrentlyprotectedandobjectproposedforprotection Theclassificationsystemforconsideringprotectedpropertiesasnaturalraritiesdoesnotcorrespondto the scheme developed by IUCN or the United Nations Environmental Programme's (UNEP) World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). In this regard, harmonisation of the national classification system for protected areas with international standards (number, name and definition of categories of protectedareas)willbeoneoftheprioritytasksindevelopingnewlegalmeasuresfornatureconservation, specificallyofbiodiversity. Takenasawhole,thecurrentlegislationaddressingnaturalraritiesconservationisgenerallyoutdated.In addition,theexistingsystem has many legislativegapscreatedbythe nullificationofagreatnumberof regulationsandthedelayedpassageofnewregulationstotaketheirplace. Deficiencies in legislationregardingnaturalrarities • • • • • • • • • • Outdatedregulations; Existenceoflargelegalgaps; Outdatedprotectionmodel; Lackofefficientinstrumentsforprotection; Problemsindelineatingjurisdictionbetweenthecentralandlocalgovernments; OverlappingofresponsibilitiesamonggovernmentalMinistriesandotherbodiesandinstitutions atthecentralgovernmentallevel; Lackofimplementinglegislation; Lackofreviewofdeclaratoryacts; Lackofcorrelationwithinternationalterminologyandprotectionstandards; Inappropriatetreatmentofmatterspertainingtothemanagementofprotectedareas. AreasoutsideNature ReservesContaining CertainPlantandAnimal Species NaturalSitesofHistoric Importance Local Community Local Community State Local Community SitesofSpecialNatural Character Local Community Scientific Research Reserves Code Classification Authority NaturalObjects Protected Not Protected 01 NatureReserves 011 CommonNatureReserves 0111 NationalParks State 3 2 0112 StrictNatureReserves State 2 9 0113 State 14 0114 3 14 0115 CharacteristicLandscapes 012 SpecialNatureReserves State 02 NaturalMonuments 48 03 04 State 21 Total 77 39 77 Lawsonlanduseanddevelopment LawonAgriculturalLand LawonProtectionagainstDamagetoFarmFields LawontheReorganisationofLand LawontheRedistributionofLand LawonConstructionSites Law onSpatial and Urban Planning Lawsonpollution LawonWater Law onWaste LawonHazardousWasteTransport LawonPublicUtilities Law on Public HygieneMaintenanceand theCollection and Transport of Communal Solid and Technological Wastes LawonProtectionagainstAirPollution LawonProtectionagainstIonisingRadiationandonRadiationSafety ForcertainaspectsofbiodiversityconservationintheRepublicofMacedonia,thefollowinglawsregardingdevelopment andlandarepertinent: (1998),whichregulatestheuse,managementandprotectionofagriculturallands; (1990); (1976); (1990); (2001); (1996), according towhichmeasuresforconservationofthe environment and natureareobligatoryineverytypeofplan.Inaddition,thereisaprovisionforthepassingofspecial"SpatialPlan sfor NationalParks.” Withregardtobiodiversityconservation,thisgroupoflawsisespeciallyrelevant: (1998),whichregulatesthelegalstatusofwaters,theirmannerofuse,protectionofwatersfrompollution, interstatewatersetc.; (1997),whichregulatesthetransportationandstorageofwasteinordertoprotecttheenvironmentand nature; (1990); (1997); (1998); (1974),whichregulatestheconditionsandmeasuresforthepreventionofair pollutioninordertoprotectfloraandfauna; (2002),whichregulatesthesystemofcontrols over sources ofionisingradiation,as well asprotectingthepopulationandtheenvironmentfrom exposuretoionising radiation. • • • • • • • • • • • • • Otherrelevantsectorlegislation Law on Concessions Law on Energy Law onMineralRawMaterials LawonPublicRoads CriminalCode LawonInvestment LawonPropertyandOtherMaterialRights LawontheOrganisationandOperationofPublicAdministrativeBodies LawonLocalSelf-Government LawonFireFighting LawonProtectionagainstNaturalCatastrophes LawonForeignTradeOperations Otherrelatedlawswhichdirectlyorindirectlyaffectbiodiversityinclude: (2002),whichregulatesthemanner,processandgeneralconditionsforobtainingconcessionsfor itemsofcommonnationalinterest,aswellasthedevelopmentofrelatedactivities,butonlywhereaspeciallawhasbeen passedprovidingtheopportunityforsuchconcessions; (1997), whichregulates protectionoftheenvironmentandnature from adverseimpacts arising from energy-relatedobjects,devicesandinstallations; (1999),whichdeterminestherequirementsfor geologicexploration, exploitation of mineralrawmaterialsandmeasuresforenvironmentalprotection,aswellasthestipulationthatgeologicexplorationwithin protectedareasbedoneonlywithgovernmentalapproval; (1996); (1996),whichestablishes17relatedcriminalacts; (1990); (2001); (2000); (2002); (1986); (1977); (1996),whichprovidestheopportunityforthegovernmenttoprohibittheimportation andtransportationofwastethroughthenation'sborders,ortodeterminespecialconditionsforthistypeofimport/export. • • • • • • • • • • • • BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 78 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Crimesdealingwithmattersofbiodiversity WithintheCriminalCode,thefollowingcrimesdealingwithmattersofbiodiversityhavebeen established: (Article218); (Article220); (Article221) (Article222); (Article223); (Article224); (Article225); (Article226); (Article227); (Article228); (Article229); (Article230); (Article232); (Article233); (Article264); (Article265); (Article266). • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Pollutionoftheenvironment Productionofharmfulproductsfortreatinglivestockorpoultry Misrepresentationinprovidingveterinaryservices Transmissionofinfectiousdiseasesamonganimalandplantlife Pollutionoflivestockfodderorwater Destructionofcropsbyusingharmfulsubstances Unauthorizedseizureoroccupationofrealestate Destructionofforests Causingofaforestfire Huntingunlawfully Fishingunlawfully Endangermentoftheenvironmentwithwastematerials Bringingofdangerousmaterialsintothecountry Tortureofanimals Damageordestructionofnaturalrarities Unauthorizedseizureoroccupationofnaturalrarities Carryingabroadofnaturalrarities 4.3.Internationalagreements TheRepublicofMacedoniahassignedadditionalbilateralactswhichaddresstheconservationof biodiversity: Memorandum of Understanding and Cooperation in the fields of environmental conservationandsustainabledevelopment. Statementaddressingtheintentiontoestablishfriendlyrelationsandco-operationinthe fieldofenvironmentalconservationwiththeprovince,LowerAustria. :Contractforcooperationinthefieldofconservationoftheenvironmentandnature. :Contractforcooperationinthefieldofconservationoftheenvironmentandnature. : MemorandumofUnderstandingandCooperation. : Agreement for cooperation in the field of conservation of the environmentandnature. :Agreementforco-operationinthefieldoftheenvironment. : ContractforamonitoringsystemforriversintheRepublicofMacedonia. :Memorandum ofUnderstandingfortheconservationofthefourspeciesof Europeanvulture. Bilateralcooperation Albania: Austria: Bulgaria Croatia Greece Russian Federation, The SerbiaandMontenegro Switzerland NGOConsortium • • • • • • • • • CooperationwiththeEU IntheStabilisationandAssociationAgreementbetweentheRepublicofMacedoniaandtheEU,it was established that both parties to the Agreement would develop and strengthen ways for co operationindealingwiththedegradationoftheenvironmentandinsupportingsustainableuse,aswell asinprotectingandconservingforests,naturalhabitants,flora,faunaandbiodiversity. 79 Internationalcooperation The 30 international andregional conventions, protocols and their amendments (multilateral acts) applying to matters of biodiversity conservation areanintegralpartofthe internallegal systemofMacedonia. Inratifyingthesubjectacts,theStatehasacceptedagreatmany obligations. While some of them have alreadybeen undertaken, mostareyettobediscussedinthenationallegislature.Asaresult,it iscorrecttostatethattheexistingnationallegislationconcerning biodiversity conservation is not in accordance with the ratified internationalconventionsandprotocols.Thus,alegislativepriority inthesphereofbiodiversityconservationshouldbeapplicationof thevariousprovisionsoftheinternationalagreements. Figure142. Neophronpercnopterus Egyptianvulture (Photo:B.Grubac) Ratifiedinternational agreements ConventiononWetlandsofInternationalImportanceParticularlyasWaterfowlHabitat ConventionontheProtectionoftheWorld'sCulturalandNaturalHeritage ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora ConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals ConventionontheConservationofEuropeanWildlifeandNaturalHabitats AgreementontheConservationofBatsinEurope AgreementontheConservationofAfrican-EurasianMigratoryBirds Basel Convention on the Control o f Transboundary Movements ofHazardous Wastes andthei r Disposal ConventiononBiologicalDiversity Convention on Access to Information, PublicParticipation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters ConventiononEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentinaTransboundaryContext Convention onLong-Range Transboundary Air Pollution ConventionontheProtectionoftheOzoneLayer Montreal Protocol on Ozone Layer Depleting Substances United NationsConvention to CombatDesertificationinCountries ExperiencingSerious Drought and/orDesertification, ParticularlyinAfrica UNFrameworkConventiononClimateChange European Convention on the Protection of Vertebrate Animals used for Experimental and Other Scientific purposes EuropeanConventiononLandscapeDiversity (Ramsar,1971)-ratified1977; (Paris,1972)-ratified1974; (CITES) (Washington,1973)-ratified 1999; (Bonn,1979)-ratified1999; (Bern,1982)-ratified1997; (London,1991)-ratified1999(AmendmenttotheAgreement-ratified 2002); (Hague,1995)-ratified1999; (Basel, 1995) ratified1997; (RiodeJaneiro,1992)-ratified1998; (Aarhus,1998)-ratified1999; (Espoo,1991)-ratified1999; (Geneva,1979)-ratified1997,includingeightprotocolswhich werenotratified; (Vienna,1985)-ratified1990; (Montreal, 1987) - ratified 1994 (three amendments to this Protocol werealsoratified:London,1990[in1998],Copenhagen,1992[in1998]andMontreal,1999[in1999]); (UN,2000)-ratified2002. (NewYork,1992)-ratified1997; (Strasbourg,1986)-ratified2002; (Florence,2000)-ratified2003. International agreementsintheprocessofratification · EuropeanConventionfortheProtectionofPetAnimals(Strasbourg,1987). BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 80 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Non-ratifiedinternationalagreements • • • Convention on theProtectionand UseofTransboundaryWatercourses andInternational Lakes ConventiononForests CartagenaProtocolonBiosafety (Helsinki,1992); (UNForumonForests); (Montreal,2000). Governmentalagencies InadditiontotheMacedonianParliament(withitsauthorizedcommissions)and the national government, as the main responsible entities, biodiversity conservationfallswithintheresponsibilitiesoftwoMinistries,includingcertain oftheiragencies,offices,servicesandinspectorates. 4.4.Institutionalframework Figure143. Workshop CITES convention (Photo:S.Georgiev) ParliamentoftheRepublicofMacedonia NationalCommiteeforBiodiversity Governmentof theRepublicofMacedonia MinistryofEnvironment andPhysicalPlanning MinistryofAgriculture,Forestry andWaterManagement StateInspectorat fortheEnvironment AgencyfortheEnvironment Service forSpatial InformationalSystems GeodeticAdministration Veterinary Administration WaterManagement Administration Hydro-Meteorological Administration SeedandSeedling Administration PlantProtection Administration StateInspectorat forAgriculture StateInspectoratefor ForestryandHunting Graph3. SchemeofStateagencies andbiodiversityauthorities NationalCommitteeforBiodiversity TheNationalCommitteeforBiologicalDiversity,establishedbyadecisionofthegovernmentof theRepublicofMacedoniaasaStateobligationarisingfromtheConventiononBiologicalDiversity, iscomposedoftwentydistinguishedscientistsandexpertshavingmadesignificantachievementsin the field of biodiversity conservation. Its objectives are to monitor the implementation of the conventionatthenationallevel,andtocontributetothemakingofqualitydecisions. 81 Figure144. NationalPark “Mavrovo”-view fromBistra MedenicatoKorab (Photo:N.Spasenovska) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA TheMinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanningconductsactivitiesrelatedto: Monitoringofthestateoftheenvironment; Conservationofwater,soil,floraandfauna; Protectionoftheairandozonelayerfrompollution; Protectionfromnoiseandradiation; Protectionofbiodiversity,geodiversity,nationalparksandprotectedareas. WithintheAgencyfortheEnvironmentaretwospecialorganisationalunits: DepartmentforBiodiversity DepartmentforConservationofSpecificNaturalTreasures TheMinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandWaterManagementconductsactivitiesrelatedto: Agriculture,forestryandwatermanagement; Useofagriculturalland,forestsandothernaturalresources; Huntingandfishing; Protectionoflivestockandplantsfromdiseasesandpests; Otherissuesdeterminedbylaw. Theorganisationalstructureofthepublicinstitutionsauthorizedtoconductactivitiesrelatedto biodiversityisveryspecific.Theseinstitutionsmaybedividedintotwomaingroups: Publicinstitutionsinthefieldofconservationandmanagement; Publicinstitutionsinthesphereofeducationandscience The publicinstitutions for conservation and management areallundertheauspicesofthreedifferent Ministries(Table17).Ontheotherhand,someofthepublicinstitutionsinthesphereofeducationandscience havespecialorganisationalformsastheyrelatetothetopicofbiodiversity(seeGraph4). • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Publicinstitutions 82 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION ResponsibleMinistry Public InstitutionforConservation andManagement MinistryofEnvironment andPhysicalPlanning NationalParksAdministration MavrovoNationalPark PelisterNationalPark GalichitsaNationalPark MinistryofCulture MacedonianMuseumofNaturalHistory ZoologicalGarden – Skopje ZoologicalGarden – Bitola MinistryofEducationandScience Hydro-BiologicalInstitute – Ohrid Table17. Publicinstitutionsforconservationandmanagementwithrelatedministries PublicInstitutionsintheFields ofEducationandScience Faculties Institutes MASA(MacedonianAcademy ofScienceandArts) FacultyofNaturalSciences andMathematics InstituteofBiology BotanicalGarden FacultyofForestry FacultyofAgriculture VeterinaryFaculty FacultyofPharmacology InstituteofAgriculture InstituteofLivestockScience InstituteforSouthernCrops TobaccoInstitute VeterinaryInstitute Hydro-BiologicalInstitute Graph4. Schemeoforganizationofthepublicinstitutionsinthe sphereofeducationandscienceasitrelatestothetopicofbiodiversity Figure145. Herbarium-InstituteofBiologyFaculty of NaturalSciencesandMathematics(FNS)-Skopye (Photo:S.Andonov) Figure146. Violakosaniinii(ExSitu) BotanicGarden-FNSSkopye (Photo:O.Matevska) 83 Localstructures Thenewlawregardinglocalcommunities delegates the authority for environmental conservationtothelocalcommunitylevel.As of yet, however, there are noorganisational structures specifically for biodiversity conservationinplaceinlocalcommunities.In the domains where special structures for environmentalconservationdoexist,theyare incorporated withinotherrelatedareas (e.g., urbanplanning,publicutilitiesetc.). Non-governmentalstructures WithintheRepublicofMacedonia,over50 citizens' associations related, to a greater or lesser extent, to the issue of biodiversity conservationexistandwork. Figure147. BotanicalGarden FNSSkopye-facility foraclimatisation, andreproduction ofendemic,relict, rareandmedical plants (Photo:B.Veselinovski) Figure148. Ramondanathaliae(ExSitu) BotanicalGarden,FNSSkopye (Photo:B.Veselinovski) Figure 151. Reproductionofsalmonat theHydro-BiologicalInstituteinOhrid (Photo:Lj.Melovski) Figure150. MacedonianMuseum ofNaturalHistory Figure149. Sambucusdebarensiis(ExSitu), BotanicalGarden,FNSSkopye (Photo:A.Petrisevac) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 84 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION DeficiencieswithinNGOs' biodiversityprograms • • • • LackoffinancesforNGOactivities; Problemswithcreationofasuitableworkingenvironment(e.g.,workspace,equipment,suppliesetc.); Lackofemployedpersonnel; Lackofconsiderationtotheirpublicmandateunderthelaw. TheNGOswithinthisdomaingenerallyworkatalocallevel,managingparticularprogramactivities. Their work can notbedeemedveryuseful,especiallyfromthestandpointofimprovingpublicawareness aboutbiodiversityconservation.Theempowermentoftheroleofthenon-governmentalsectorinthefieldof biodiversityconservationshouldbeoneoftheState'spriorities. Deficienciesintheinstitutional frameworkfor biodiversityconservation • • • • • • • Lack of a separate body within the State administration for the protection of nature (i.e., inappropriate organisational structureregardingbiodiversityconservationandprotectionofthe naturalheritage,includingex-situconservation); ProblemswithdefiningjurisdictionsrelatedtobiodiversityconservationamongtheMinistries, otherStateofficialsandlocalcommunities; Inappropriatecontrolofinstitutesandotherpublicinstitutionsbythecentralgovernment; Lack of a network of authorities, co-ordination bodies and institutions for biodiversity conservationatthelocallevel; Avoidance by public authorities of legally permissible opportunities to delegate certain responsibilitiesforbiodiversityconservationtonon-governmentalorganisations; Lackofco-ordinationandco-operationbetweentheauthoritiesandotherinterestedgroupswithin thesystemofbiodiversityconservation; Inappropriate organisation of measures for applying the provisions of ratified international agreements. Figure152. Future NationalPark “SharPlanina” hasplentyofglacial lakes-BlackLake (Photo:Lj.Melovski) 85 Educationandpublicawareness Public institutions in the field of educationhavealegalobligation,within their working plans and programmes, toprovide conditions for acquiring knowledge and creating a positive attitude toward the conservationandrestorationofnatureandtheenvironment.Thisobligationappliestoeachpubliceducational institution,startingwithprimaryschool. Similarly,publicinstitutionsinthefieldsof education, health,information,scienceandculturehavea strictlegalobligationtodeveloppublicawarenessconcerningprotectionoftheenvironmentandnature. To date, specificresearchconcerningthepresenceofthe subjectbiodiversityconservation within the educationalplansandprogrammesofpublicinstitutionsdealingwitheducationhasnotbeenconducted.In addition,thereare no comparativeanalyses of university teaching plansandprogrammesinthefieldsof biology,forestry,agriculture,veterinarymedicine,environmentallawandothereducationalareaswithregard to the subject of biodiversity conservation. After the ratification of theAarhus Convention in 1999, a Macedonian Information Centre, which dealswithissues concerning theenvironmentandnature,andan OfficeforPublicRelationswereformedwithintheMoEPP. Electronic andpublishedmedia Mainobjectivesof theOfficefor PublicRelationswithintheMoEPP Typically, thepublishedandelectronicmediadonotgiveenoughattentiontothe problemsof biodiversityconservation,especiallywhenthereisaneedforrelevantsystematicmonitoring. Supplyinginformationtothepublicregardingdifferentaspectsoftheenvironment; Improvingeducationinthefieldofprotectionoftheenvironmentandnature; Supplyingaccurateandpreciseinformationtothepublicconcerningactivitiesundertakenbythe institutionsofthegovernment,NGOsandcitizens,includingsuccessfulecologicalinitiatives; Increasingpublicawarenessandunderstandingofimportantecologicalproblemsandoptionsfor possiblesolutions; Obtaining useful information from citizens and organisations that have personal and/or specializedknowledgeoftheresourcesandproblemsoftheenvironmentandnaturethatcannot begainedinotherways; Providing information aboutdecisionsconcerningecological priorities and resolutions which reflectpublicopinion. • • • • • • BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 86 4.LEGALANDINSTITUTIONALFRAMEWORKFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION IUCNCategoryIII - NaturalMonuments;58,084ha(2.25%) ! "! OhridLake ! "! PrespaLake " ! DoyranLake ! #"! Matkagorge ! "$ Katlanovolandscape ! $ MarkoviKuli Monospitovomarsh ! #! DemirKapiya Gazi BabaArboretum GolChovek Drenochkagorge $ KarshiBavchi Murite Konche Morodvis " Vevchanisprings # UpperSlatinocave Oak(Kochani) Oak(Orashats) Kermesoak ! Duvalo $ Zvegor $ Zrze Aspen $ BanychkoKale $ Kale $ Kalnitsa $ Karaslari ! " GradeshkaRivercanyon ! " Koleshinowaterfall ! Konopishte Macedonianoak $ Monastery $ Orashats ! Ostrovo # Mlechnikcave # ! Ubavicacave Easternplanetree(Smolare) Easternplanetree(Koleshino) Easternplanetree(Ohrid) Easternplanetree(Struga) Easternplanetree(Tetovo) $ Prevalets Rechitsa Easternplanetrees Blackpoplar Blackmulberry Black walnuts ! ! ! ! ! ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ☺ 87 IUCNCategoryI-StrictNaturalReserves; 12,730ha(0,49%) ! Ezerani ! Tikvesh IUCNCategoryII-NationalParks; 108,388ha(4,21%) Mavrovo Galichitsa Pelister IUCNCategoryIV-SitesofSpecial NaturalCharacter;2,338ha(0,09%) Leskoets Vodno Kozhle♣ ♣ ♣ The network of protected areas currently includes77,coveringanareaof184,187haor 7.14% of the land surface. According to the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Macedonia: Conservation of Natural Heritage, 116 areas andnaturalobjects covering18%of the l and surfacearedesignatedforprotection. NetworkofProtectedAreas ! Surfacegeomorphologic features # Subterranean geomorphologic features " Hydrologicfeatures Memorialnaturalmonuments ! ♣ Floristicfeatures Dendrologic/forestry features ! Faunalfeatures $ Geologic-paleontological, Minerological-petrographic features IUCNCategoryIII ExampleofIUCNCategoryIII-Natural Monuments DemirKapiya-Thisisthelongestgorgeofthe Vardar River(19km).Itpassesthroughlimestone andvolcanicrocksthatdividetheTikveshvalleyon thenorthwestandtheGevgeliya-Valandovovalley onthesoutheast.Theentranceintothegorgeisan especiallyimpressivecanyon,0.9kminlength,with various differentkarsticshapes on its slopes. The Demir Kapiya gorge is among the richest ornithologicalreservesinEurope.Therarebirdsof prey which can sometimes be seen include the Golden eagle ( ), Long-legged buzzard ( ), Short-toed eagle ( ), various falcons ( and ),Griffonvultur e ( ) and Egyptian vulture ( ). Other rare and scientifically importantbirdspeciesarealsopresentinthisarea. In the Demir Kapija gorge, important mammal, reptileandinsectspeciesarealsopresent,aswellas rare and endemic plant species ( and ). Aquila crysaetos Buteo rufinus Circaetus gallicus Falco naumanni F.peregrinus Gyps fulvus Neophron percnopterus Calodonia macedonica, Kitaibelia vitifolia Lilium martagon Figure153. LakePrespa Oteshevo,protected withlawfor protectionofthethree naturallakes (Photo:M.Dzingo) Figure154. CanyonoftheRiverVardaratDemir-Kapiya (Photo:M.Dzingo) BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 88 IUCNCategoryV-AreasoutsideNature ReservesContainingCertainPlant andAnimalSpecies;2,647ha(0.10%) GarskaRiver GolemKozyak DrenachkaRiver IberliskaRiver Kaloyzana ! Katlanovomarsh Menkova meadow Neprtka PopovaShapka Rupa Ruchitsa SuviDol Tumba ChamChiflik ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ 5. PROBLEM ANALYSIS 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS 5.1.Currentlossof,oreffectson,biodiversity The present statusofbiodiversityintheRepublicofMacedoniaisaconsequenceoftheenvironmental conditions in which its components (species and ecosystems) are developing, global changes and anthropogenicimpacts. Aquaticandwetlandecosystemsarethemostendangered.Theassn. (Doyran Lake)hasalmostdisappeared,whereasassn. subassn. (PrespaLake)isthreatenedwithextinction. Relict lowland marshcommunities canbefoundonlyinagenerallyfragmentedstate,withsixbeing particularlyendangered(assn. subassn. -OhridLake,nearStudenchishte; assn. -Gostivar; assn. -Pelagonia;assn. NegortsiSpa;assn. -Banskoandassn. -Monospitovo Marsh). Withregardtomeadows,themostendangeredarethoseassociationsdevelopingonverywetterrain(assn. GevgeliyaandSkopye).Threecommunitiesamongthehalophyticvegetation aremostendangered,particularlyassn. Amongforestvegetation,nineforestphytocoenosesareendangered:assn. YakupitsaandSharPlaninaMountains;assn. -Belasitsa;assn. Polog and Debartsa; assn. - Galichitsa and Yablanitsa; assn. - Kavadartsi and Lubas; assn. SuvDol,nearIzvor, and Yablanitsa; assn. - Monospitovo Marsh;assn. -NegortsiSpa;andassn. DrevenickaMountain. Withinthelowerplantgroups,thebestavailableknowledgeisonphylum .Ninespecies areconsideredtobeextinctand107areendangered.AsfortheFungi,aPreliminaryRedDataListhasbeen developed,including67endangeredspeciesfromphylum and12from Amongthehigherplantgroups,themostendangeredgroupisthatofAngiosperms(280-300endangered species),ferns(15),mosses(20)andGymnosperms(7).FivespeciesofGymnospermsareconsideredtobe extinct. Myriophyllo-Nupharetum Lemno-Spirodelletum polyrhizae aldrovandetosum Caricetumelatae lysimachietosum Cypero-Caricetumacutiformis Glycerietummaximae Mariscetum Osmundo-Thelipteretum Scirpo-Alopecuretumcretici Hordeo-Caricetumdistantis Camphorosmetummonspeliacae. Aceriheldreichii-Fagetum Alnetumviridis Caricielongatae-Alnetum glutinosae Daphno-Cytisanthetum radiati calcicolum Ephedro-Prunetum tenellae Juglando-Aesculetum hippocastani Periploco-Alnetum glutinosae Periploco-Fraxinetumangustifoliae-pallisae Tiliocordatae-Fagetum Bacillariophyta Basidiomycota Lichenes. 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS Figure155. NationalPark "Pelister" SmallLake (PhotoS.Petkovski) 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS 91 5.2.Directcausesofbiodiversityloss ThecurrentfaunaldiversityoftheRepublicofMacedoniaisfacinggreatpressureresultingfromdirect andindirectanthropogenicimpacts.Thus,asmanyas113vertebratespeciesareincludedinthecategoryof threatenedspecies,whichis22.3%oftheentirevertebratefauna(17areMacedonianendemicspecies). Invertebrate faunal diversity suffers from even greater anthropogenic pressure, which has led to a reduction in the populationsof largenumbers of speciesandmay eventually lead to extinction. Special attentionandcareneedstobepaidto650endemicinvertebratetaxa,manyofwhicharelimitedtothethree naturallakes(DoyranLake-11,PrespaLake-18andOhridLake-209). Despitealargeamountofresearch,thereisstillnotenoughinformationconcerningthecurrentstatusof thepopulationsofalargenumberofendemicspeciesnorthedirectthreatstotheir survival. Thedirectcausesofbiodiversitylossaremanyandvaried.Mostofthemarecommontoalltypesof biodiversity,whilesomearespecifictoeitherflora,faunaorecosystems: • Inadequatemanagementofaquaticecosystems; • Drainageofmarshesandswamps; • Constructionofhydropowerreservoirsinrivergorges; • Lackofwatertreatmentplants(forriverineandlakeecosystems); • Mineexcavationsandothergeologicworks; • Constructionofskilifts,transmissionlines,televisiontransmittersandotherantennasystems; • Lossofhabitats(orportionsthereof)duringunplannedexpansionofurbancentres,weekend settlementsandtourist/recreationzones; • Modificationofhabitats; • Fragmentationofhabitats,duemainlytotrafficinfrastructure,wherehighwaysintersecthabitats thatareimportantasvertebratecorridors(particularlyforlargemammals).Whenaquatichabitats are artificiallyfragmented, recommendationsformaintainingecologicalminimumflowsinwatercoursesarenotfollowed; • Destructionofareaswithnaturalhalophyticandmeadowvegetation; • Uncontrolleddestructionofforests,forestfires,clearingforbuildingsite s,constructionofroads andrailroads,expansionoftouristsettlementsandforestdesiccation; • Uncontrolledcollectionofmedicinalplantsandwildanimals.Illegalcollectionofrareplants (especiallyendemicplants)byprofessionalandcommercialcollectors,illegalcollectionofbirds' eggsandcertainspeciesofbutterfliesetc. 5.3.Underlyingcausesofbiodiversityloss Thebasicfactorswhichhaveledtothecurrentunfavourablestateinallenvironmentalsphereswithinthe RepublicofMacedonia,includingbiodiversity,includegeneralhistoricalprocesses,abadsocio-economic situation,anunstablepoliticalsituation,inadequatespatialplanningandinappropriatelanduse. Inthedesiretoaccomplisheconomicdevelopmentatanycost,ageneraltrendtowardtheerosionofmoral and traditionalsocietal values has been observed, neglecting the principle ofsustainable development. Instead,naturalresourcesareusedbeyondthelimitsoftheirsustainability,whichproducesatangiblethreat ofextinctionforendangeredplantandanimalspeciesandvarieties,andthusimpingesupontraditionalrural landscapes. AidinginthisprocessisthepoorawarenessbythecitizensofMacedoniaoftheissuessurroundingthe conservationofnationalbiologicalresourcesandthepossibilitiesfortheirsustainableuse.Thissituationis particularlyevidentwiththosebiologicalresources(wildplantsandanimals)whichhaveeconomicvalue. On the one hand, the State has not developed legal regulations to facilitate the sustainability of populations.Ontheother,inarushtoachievequickprofits(oftenbypeoplelivingatthebaresubsistence level),wildspeciesarecollecteduncontrollablyandwithoutanycarefortheirnormalreproductiveprocesses orforenvironmentalimpactsresultingfromtheirdisappearance. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 92 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS5.PROBLEMANALYSIS Severalbasicreasonsforthepermanentlossofbiologicaldiversitycanbedistinguished: • Alowlevelofeducationandalackofinformation,especiallyinruralareas, whichhascontributedtoalowawarenessinthegeneralpopulationofthe relationship between human activities and the environment, the sustainable use of biological resources and the sustainable transfer of biotechnology; • Reduced and unstable economic power of the State, in addition to the militaryactionsthathavebeenconvulsingtheregionforalongperiodof time; • Growingpoverty,whichdoesnotrecognisetheprinciplesofsustainable development. It is manifesting itself through illegal forest and other resource overuse, hunting and fishing excesses, non-sustainable developmentofagricultureetc.; • Inadequate and incomplete legislation which fails to clarify duties or address the overlap in responsibilities and competencies within the agenciesliableforenforcement; • Non-compliancewithexistingregulations; • Lackofspatialplanningregulationsforareaswithspecialnaturalvalues; • Uncontrolledurbanisation,deagrarianisation(inthetraditionalsense)and industrialisation. These are the main processes that disturb the environmentalbalance(consideringthecumulativeeffectsofpollution); • Thecontinualprocess ofmigrationofthepopulation from villages to t owns.Increased concentrations of people in urban centres represent a growingproblemnotonlyfromaglobal,socio-economicaspectbutalso fromaspatialaspect; • Stagnationoftheeconomy,useofoutdatedtechnologies,poorqualityof energy sources - resulting from low economic power - and lack of treatmentof wastewaterandwastegases,whichleadstodeteriorationof theair,soil,surfacewaterandgroundwaterquality; • Outdatedspatialplanningwithinsufficientcontinuity,improperlandusechanges,constructionofinfrastructure systemsandpreviousagriculturalconversion; • Themechanismofearningaprofitunderhighlycompetitivemarketconditions,thepermanenttrendtoward globalisation and the favouring ofnewer,moreprofitableplantvarietiesandanimalbreedswhichhavefully supplantedtheindigenous,lowproducingandlessprofitablegenetictypes. Figure156. Thewaterfall SmolarskiVodopad (Photo:V.Anastasovski) 5.4.Keysectorsaffectingbiodiversity OnthebasisoftheanalysisofdatainSection3.2,apreliminaryrankingofthemaineconomicsectorscanbemade inaccordancewiththeireffectsonbiodiversity: • Agriculture hadaparticularlysevereenvironmentalimpactinthedecadesfollowingWorldWarII.Mostofthe marshesandswampsweredrained,andarablelandwasexpandedintoothernaturalhabitatswithoutregardfor their importance. Another serious threat to biodiversity was the enlargement of agricultural land surfaces duringtheperiodofnationalisation,whentheareasofnaturalvegetationattheedgesofcultivatedfieldswere destroyed.This,inturn,ledtoalossofimportantbiocorridors.Inmorerecenttimes, thereductionofagricultural activitiesinrural(especiallyhilly)areashascontributedtothefulldegradationofthecenturies-oldappearanceof theMacedonianlandscape. • Thereductionoflivestockandthe gradual abandonmentoftraditionalpractices of cattle management(i.e., widespreadgrazinginfavouroffeedlots)hasreducedtheamountofcarrionintheenvironmentandmayhave alreadyledtotheextinctionoftwovulturespecies. • Uncontrolledfishingisaseriousthreattofishdiversity,especiallyinOhridLake. • Inthetransportsector,habitatfragmentationisanimportantthreattomanymammals,especiallylargeones.Ithas been the norm tousethecheapest proposed alternative and abandon the ones that arepotentiallythe most appropriatefortheundisturbedexistenceofwildspecies. 93 • Theenergysectorresultsinseveraltypesofimpacts,suchasenvironmentalpollution,construction of hydropowerreservoirsandtransmissionofenergy. • Industryandminingrankhighonthislist.Environmentalpollutioncausedbyindustryhasdeclinedoverthe past several years due to a reduction in the capacityofindustrial plants;however, in individual cases, pollutionisgrowingasaresultoftheuseoflow-qualityfuelsandthelackoffunctionaltreatmentsystems botharesultofadeficiencyinfinancialresources.Thissectorcausesthedegradationofsoilsoverlargeareas throughtheactivitiesofsurfacemining,slagdeposition,disposaloftechnologicalwastesfromsmeltingand energy complexes,creation ofindustriallandfillsofharmfulanddangerouswastesandfailuretoreclaim abandonedminingareasandlandfills.Systemsforthetreatmentofwastegasesandcommunalandindustrial watersdonotexistand,consequently,thequalityofsurfacewatersandgroundwaterdeteriorates. • Tourism affects biodiversity, especially through illegal weekend settlements and poor communal infrastructure in the main touristic lake and mountain centres. An important additional aspect is the inappropriatebehaviouroftouristswhenoutdoorsduetotheirlowawarenessofnaturalsustainability. • Constructionactivitiescontributetotheconversionofagriculturallandswithhighlevelsofproductivityto non-productive purposes, especially in the vicinity of larger settlements and cities, as well as to the abandonmentofexistingcultivatedlands,resultinginalossofagriculturallyproductiveareas.Evenso,this sectorcannotberankedhighly. 5.5.Constraintstoconservation • Astrategyforthehighqualityconservationofbiologicaldiversityislacking. • The isnowoutdated. • LegislationisnotharmonisedwiththatoftheEU. • Thereisinsufficientimplementationoftheexistinglegislationonbiologicaldiversity. • Inspectionsareinefficient. • Thejudicialsystemisinefficient. • Implementationoftheprovisionsofthesignedandratifiedconventionsrelatedtobiodiversityisinsufficient. • Implementationoftheprincipleofsustainabledevelopmentandsustainableuseofnaturalresourcesisneglected. • ResponsibilitiesoverlapwithinthegovernmentalMinistriesoftheRepublicofMacedonia. • Long-termandshort-termplanswithdefinedprioritiesforactivitiesleadingtobiodiversityconservationdonot exist. • Thereisalackofanindependentinstitutionwhichcouldbedirectlyfocusedontheproblemsofmonitoringand conservationofbiodiversity. • ContinuousmonitoringofbiologicaldiversityandhabitatsinharmonywithEuropeanandworldstandardsdoes notexist. • Institutesandlaboratoriesdealingwiththeseissuesaredetachedandlackappropriatetechnicalequipmentand personnel. • Auniquedata bankonthebiologicaldiversityofMacedonia,withananalysisofimpactsleadingtoitsincreaseor reduction,doesnotexist. • Registers(RedBooks)ofendangeredplantandanimalspeciesdonotexist. • Literatureonbiologicaldiversityisinsufficientlyavailable. • Transparencybetweenthegovernmentalsector,scientists,thenon-governmentalsectorandthebusinesssectoris low. • EffortsofNGOsinthefieldofbiologicaldiversityareinsufficient,inspiteoftheirincreasingnumber. • Knowledgeandeducationofthepublicisunsatisfactory. • Thereisashortageoffinancialresources forthedevelopmentofactivitiesforbiodiversityconservationand promotion. • Thereisalackofinterestwithintheinternationalcommunityforinvestinginbiologicaldiversityconservation duetoinsufficientinformationandalackofengagementbytheMacedoniangovernmentinthesematters. • Implementationofscienceinthepracticalconservationofbiodiversityisinsufficient. • Thereisafailuretoconductbothstrongsupervisionandlawenforcementintheareaofbiodiversityconservation. • Educationandinstructionoftheyoungergenerationisincompleteorthereispoorcoverageoftheprinciplesof biodiversityintheeducationalprocess. • Therelationshipbetweencitizensandnaturalresourcerichness,whichisthenecessaryingredientforquality primaryconservation,isnotproperlydeveloped. • Influencebyspecialinterestgroupsandthegeneralpoliticisationofenvironmentalissuesarecounterproductive. NationalEnvironmentalActionPlan BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 94 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS5.PROBLEMANALYSIS 5.6.Opportunitiesforconservation Withintheframeworkofthecurrentlyestablishedmechanisms,therearecertainactivitiesaimedat furtherextensionofthescopeandefficiencyofbiodiversityconservationintheRepublicofMacedonia. Someofthemare: • Developmentoflegalandstrategicdocumentsonbiodiversity; • ApproximationofthenationallegislationtothatoftheEUandotherinternationalconventions; • Inclusionofbiodiversityconservationwithinthespatialplanningprocess; • Development of mechanisms for impact assessment(Environmental Impact Assessment [EIA] and Strategic EnvironmentalImpactAssessment[SEIA]studies); • Increaseinthenumberofprojectsinthesphereofbiodiversitystudyandconservation,financedbyinternational andnationalsources; • StrengtheningoftheMoEPP,aswellastheaccompanyingscientificandprofessionalinstitutions; • Strengtheningofco-operationbetweentheMoEPP,NGOsandscientificinstitutions. 95 Figure157. Newstrictreserve-Litotelmi-Ploche,closetothevillageStratsin (Photo:S.Petrovski) 6. BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN 6.BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN 6.1.BiodiversityStrategyforMacedonia TheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlanarebasedontheresultsoftheCountryStudyforBiodiversity oftheRepublicofMacedonia.Forthispurpose,aseriesofworkshopswasorganized.Theproposalsand suggestions from all relevant institutions, NGOs and individuals arising through the public discussion processhavebeenincorporatedintothefinaldraft. TheNationalBiodiversityStrategyconsistsof: • TheOverallAimforbiodiversityconservationwithintheRepublicofMacedonia,whichshouldbeattained duringtheperiod2004-2008andoverwhichtheBiodiversityActionPlanwilloperate; • ThechangesthatareexpectedinkeyelementsofbiodiversityandothersectorsinsupportoftheGuiding Objectives; • TheStrategicPrinciplesfor developmentoftheBSAPcomprisingthemechanismsandtechniquesthat shouldbeusedinachievingtheproposedchanges. 6.1.1.TheOverallAim TheOverallAimoftheBSAPoftheRepublicofMacedoniaistogiveavisionofwhattheBiodiversityStrategy andActionPlanwillachieve: TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITYAND USE BIOLOGICALRESOURCES INASUSTAINABLE MANNER FOR THE WELFARE OF THE PEOPLE, TAKING IN CONSIDERATION THE UNIQUE NATURAL VALUES AND THE RICH TRADITION OF THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA. 6.1.2.GuidingObjectives 1. To incorporate conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity within all governmental policies, strategies, plans and programmesby2006; 2. Toincreasebiodiversityconservationandrestorationby30%,throughproportionateinternalandexternalinvestments; 3. Toincreasehumanresourcesandimprovetechnicalcapacitybuildingwithinthoseinstitutionsconnectedwithbiodiversity conservationby30%,inordertoengenderprojectsforresearchandwithpracticalapplication,by2008; 4. Toimprovetheco-operationandexchangeofinformationamonggovernmental,scientific,privateandNGOsectorsby30%, throughrealisationofjointprojects,by2006; 5. Toestablishadatabaseforspecies,habitatsandprotectedareasby2005; 6. Toimprovethemanagementsystemwithintheexistingprotectedareas(inaccordancewithinternationalstandards)andto extendthenetworkofprotectedareasby50%by2008; 7. Toreducethenumberofthreatenedspeciesby5%by2008; 8. Toimplementsustainableforestrymanagementby2008; 9. To approximate national legislation in accordance with EU directives, and to incorporate the provisions of adopted internationalconventionsintothelegislationoftheRepublicofMacedoniabytheendof 2007; 10.To introduceappropriatemechanismsfor stimulatingbiodiversity conservation anddeterringbiodiversityloss outside of protectedareasbytheendof2005; 11.Toincreasepublicawarenessofconservationissuesthroughoutthecommunityby100%,baseduponpreviouslyestablished levelsofknowledge,by2008; 12.ToestablishalawobligingthepreparationofEIAandSEIAstudiesforallenvironmentalprogrammes,plansandinterventions by2005. TheGuidingObjectivesestablishtheresultsthatshouldbeachievedthroughimplementationoftheBSAP.Theorderinwhich theyarepresenteddoesnotindicateanyparticularimportance: 99 6.1.3.StrategicPrinciples StrategicPrincipleshavebeendevelopedfromtheprinciplesoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity, issuesthatarespecifictotheRepublicofMacedoniaandissuesthatwereraisedduringtheBSAPplanning process. InordertoachievetheOverallAimandtheGuidingObjectives,interestedgroupsshouldbegovernedbythefollowing StrategicPrinciples: 1. Integrationoftheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityintotheoverarchingprioritiesofthecountry-economic andsocialdevelopmentandpovertyeradication; 2. Equalsharingoftheresponsibilityfortheconservation and sustainableuseofbiodiversityby everyone, because all citizens are dependent upon the full range of its important values, including ecological,social, economic, genetic, scientific,educational,cultural,recreational,aestheticandintrinsicvalues; 3. Adoptionofappropriatemeasuresforin-situconservationofnaturalecosystemsandspecies,restorationofdegraded ecosystemsandrecoveryofthreatenedspecies; 4. Adoptionofappropriatemeasuresforex-situconservationofbiodiversitycomponents; 5. Achievementofsuccessfulconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversitythroughactualandintegratedcross-sectoral planningofactivities,includingtheparticipationofallinterestedgroups; 6. Overcomingofthelackofinformationandknowledgeconcerningbiodiversity asabasicprerequisiteforsuccessful planningandconductingofconservationmeasures; 7. Notusingalackoffullscientificcertaintyasareasonforpostponingmeasurestoavoidorminimizeasignificant threatto biodiversity; 8. Usebysocietyofallmeasurestoenhanceandcomplementexistinginternational,nationalandlocalresources,including institutions,agreements,financialmechanisms,plansandprogrammesrelatingtotheconservationandsustainableuseof biodiversity; 9. Regular monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of measures for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversityinordertodeterminetheirsuccess,applyinglessonslearnttootheractivities; 10.Nationalandlocalagenciesofthecountrybeingultimatelyresponsibleforthemanagement,conservationandsustainable useofbiodiversity,withtheassistanceofexternalagenciesbeingnecessaryandwelcomed; 11.Anexpectationofabroadrangeofenvironmental,economicandsocialbenefitsresultingfromthesubstantialinvestments requiredforbiodiversityconservation; 12.Legislation taking international obligations into account, co-ordinating between sectors, andprovidingan enabling environmentforbiodiversityconservationthroughsuitableincentives. 6.2.BiodiversityActionPlanforMacedonia TheActionPlanencompassesspecificactivitieswhichshouldberealizedinordertoachievetheOverall AimandtheGuidingObjectivesenumeratedwithintheBiodiversityStrategyforMacedonia.Duringthenext fiveyears,theRepublicofMacedoniashouldimplementtheprovisionsforconservationandsustainableuse of biodiversity in accordancewiththeStrategic Principlesoutlined in theBiodiversityStrategy(Section 6.1.3.).OnthebasisoftheStrategicPrinciples,StrategicApproacheshavebeendeveloped.EachStrategic Approachconsistsofaseriesofactionsandmorespecificactivities.Theactionsmaybeconsideredasgeneric itemstobeaccomplished,withoutspecifyinghowtheyshouldbedone.Incontrast,theactivitiesexplainhow an action will be achieved, including details. Within the Biodiversity Action Plan for Macedonia, the followingStrategicApproacheshavebeendeveloped: (connectedwithStrategicPrinciple3) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciple4) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples1and5) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples5,8and10) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples6and9) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples2and6) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples6and7) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples1and8) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciple12) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples8,10and11) (connectedwithStrategicPrinciples8and10) A. In-situconservation B. Ex-situconservation C. Sustainableuseofbiodiversity D. Institutionalimprovement E. Investigationandmonitoring F. Publicawarenessandeducation G. Impactassessment H. Incentivemeasures I. Legislation J. FinancialresourcesforimplementationoftheBSAP K. Co-ordinationandimplementationoftheBSAP BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 100 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN EachofthelistedactivitiesiscorrelatedwithothercloselyassociatedactivitieselsewhereintheActionPlanandGuiding Objectives.Duration,estimatedbudget,outputs,andpriorityarealsoprovided.Allofthesedataarepresentedin separate columnsinthetabularActionPlanandareexplainedbelow: NumberoftheActivity: NameoftheActionorActivity: RelatedActivities: RelatedGuidingObjectives: Duration: Estimated Budget: Inthefirstcolumn,auniquecodeforeachactivityisgiven. Abriefheadingordescriptionofeachactionoractivityisshown. Inthiscolumn,othercloselyassociatedactivities elsewhereintheActionPlanareindicated.This informationallowscross-referencingwithotherrelatedactivitieswhichcouldhaveajointimplementationorjointbudget. Thiscolumnindicatestowardwhichoftheguidingobjectiveseachactivityisexpectedto contributeinordertoachievetheoverallaimoftheStrategy.Thenumbersinthiscolumncorrespondwithtothenumbering oftheGuidingObjectivesinsection6.1.2. Thiscolumnindicateswheneachactivityshouldtakeplaceduringthefiveyearimplementationperiod(2004 2008)oftheActionPlan.When"2004->"ispresentinthiscolumn,itindicatesthattheactivitywilllastlongerthan the durationoftheActionPlan. The estimated budgetary categoryforeachparticular activity is indicated in this column. These categoriesareapproximatelyasfollows: • CategoryI(indicatesabudgetofuptoUS$100,000) • CategoryII(indicatesabudgetintherangeofUS$100,000-US$500,000) • CategoryIII(indicatesabudgetoverUS$500,000) Outputs: Priority: Foreachparticularactivity,verifiableachievementsandoutputsarelisted. Therelativepriorityfor eachparticular activity onathree-pointscaleisgiven."I"indicatesthe highestpriority,"II"medium,and"III"thelowest.Thedeterminationofprioritywasmadebytakinginto considerationtherelationshipoftheactivitytotheOverallAimandtheGuidingObjectives,theurgencyfor undertaking activitiesaddressing threatened biodiversitycomponents,financialimplicationsetc. In some cases,theprioritymaynotnecessarilyindicateimportance;instead,itmayindicatethatotheractivitiesmust becompletedfirstbeforeitcanbeinitiated. ThemembersoftheworkinggroupinvolvedinthepreparationoftheBiodiversityStrategyandAction Plan(BSAP)forMacedonia,especially the members of the Core Team, havebeengiven the enormous responsibility of proposing a strategic document that would include all aspects of conservation and sustainableuseofbiodiversity.Moreover,thisdocumentisintendedtobetheframeworkanddirectionforall future activities thattheRepublic of Macedonia ought to undertake during the period ending in 2008. Considering that this is the first national document of its kind ever prepared within the Republic of Macedonia,itiseasytoseewhyitissovoluminous,incorporatingmostoftheactivitiesnecessaryforthe conservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity.Althoughthemembersoftheworkingteamandinterested groupsareacutelyawareoftheextentofthisdocument,theworkinggroupdecideditwouldbebetterto submitalargerActionPlanthanacceptadocumentinwhichcertainnecessaryactivitiesweremissing. 101 6.3. ImplementationoftheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan TheearnestdesireofthegovernmentofMacedoniaisthattheBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan (BSAP) be implemented effectively, based upon realistic possibilities existing within the Republic of Macedoniaandsupportedbylocalandforeignexperts,withfinancialsupportfromthenationalbudget,as wellasfromforeigndonors. Inaccordancewithitslegislativeresponsibilities,theleadingMinistryforimplementationoftheBSAP willbetheMinistryofEnvironmentandPhysicalPlanning(MoEPP). Becauseofthecomplexityoftheproblemsencompassedbytheconceptofbiodiversityconservationand alsobecausesomeoftherelated responsibilities areincludedunder the auspices of other Ministries or governmental sectors (i.e.,outsidethe purview of the MoEPP), the government will establish a Steering Committeetoprovideoversight. 102 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ThecompositionandthenumberofmembersoftheSteeringCommitteewillbeestablishedbyspecial governmental decree. In order to work more effectively, the Steering Committee, in accordance with perceivedneeds,willestablishvariousexpertgroups. TheBSAPCo-ordinatingBodywillbeaunitestablishedwithintheAgencyfortheEnvironment,a partoftheMoEPP.Thedirectorofthisagencywillbetheco-ordinatorfortheunit.TheCo-ordinating Bodywillbeauthorisedandresponsiblefor: Co-ordinationandmonitoringoftheoperationalimplementationoftheBSAP; CollaborationwiththeExpertGroupsinordertoachievemoreeffectiveimplementationofthe BSAPandnatureconservation; CollaborationwiththeExpertGroupsandresponsiblepersonsofrelatedinstitutionsinorderto developindicatorsformonitoringtheimplementationoftheBSAP; Collaboration with related institutions responsible for the implementation of the BSAP and summarisationoftheirindividualannualprogrammesandreportsintoonemainunitprogramme andreporttobepresentedtotheSteeringCommitteeforadoption; ProvidingcontinuousmaintenanceoftheinternetwebsitefortheBSAP(i.e.,regularupdating withappropriatebiodiversitydata); PlanningspecificactivitieswithintheframeworkoftheBSAP,preparingannualprogrammesand plansandharmonisingthemwithinthelimitsofthenationalannualbudget; Seekingopportunitiesforfinancialsupportfromforeigndonorsfortheactivitiesplannedwithin theBSAP; PreparationofalistofprioritieswithinspecificfieldstobeproposedtotheSteeringCommitteefor implementationandpresentationtoforeigndonors; PreparationofannualreportsconcerningthecurrentstatusofbiodiversitywithintheState,with theirpresentationtotheSecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(withpriorapproval bytheExpertGroupsandtheSteeringCommittee); SuggestingrevisionstotheBSAPbaseduponthecurrentsituation; Organisation of the meetings of the Steering Committee and the Expert Groups, including technicalandprogrammepreparation; TransferringinformationconnectedwiththeimplementationoftheBSAPtoallstakeholdersand individuals. • • • • • • • • • • • • MonitoringoftheimplementationoftheBSAPwillbecarriedoutusingindicatorspreviouslydeveloped andcompiledforthatpurpose.TheindicatorswillbepreparedbytheBSAPCo-ordinatingBodyandExpert GroupsandapprovedbytheSteeringCommittee. 6.4.MonitoringoftheImplementationoftheBiodiversityStrategy andActionPlan Indesigningthemonitoringplan,severalquestionsareworthyofconsiderationfordetermining theindicators.Suchquestionsinclude: Towhatextenthavetheplannedactivitiesachievedtheiroutputs? Towhatextenthavetheoverallobjectivesoftheplanbeenachievedthroughtheseactivities? Concerningcompletedactivities,whatlessonshavebeenlearntwithintheBSAPimplementation processor,inotherwords,whatwasdonecorrectlyandwhereweremistakesmade? WhatgapsexistintheBSAP? Howcanthefurtherdevelopmentofexistingactivitiesortheadditionofnewonesfil linthese gapssuchthatqualityconservationofnaturemightbeattained? • • • • • MonitoringandevaluationoftheimplementationoftheBSAPwillbeachievedthroughtheprocessof planning and reporting, a process whereby the previously determined indicators will be the basis for successfulassessment. 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN 103 Planningprocess Onthebasisofthefive-yearplanofactivitiesincludedintheBSAP,thenationalbudgetwillsupportthe preparationofannualprogrammesandoperationalplans. The preparation of these budget-supported annual programmes and operational plans will be accomplishedthroughasynchronisedsystemaddressingallrelevanttopicsunderthefive-yearprogrammeof activitiesincludedwithintheBSAP. TheprogrammesfortheimplementationoftheBSAPshouldbepreparedinthefollowingorder: Relatedinstitutions Co-ordinatingBodywithintheMoEPP SteeringCommittee • • • TheAnnualProgrammeandOperationalPlanpreparedbytheSteeringCommitteewillbesubmittedto thegovernmentofMacedoniaforapproval. Baseduponthespecificoperationalplanswhicharesupportedwithfinancialresourcesfromthenational budget,progressreportswillbegeneratedusingthesameorderofpreparationasintheplanningprocess. ThegovernmentwillapprovetheannualreportspreparedbytheSteeringCommittee. TheBSAPisadynamicdocument.Onthebasisoftheannualreportsforactivitiesandactionsundertaken duringeachyear,anygaps,shortagesornewpriorityissueswillbedetermined,allowingtheBSAPforthe followingyeartobeimprovedandchanged. Aftertheimplementationperiodoffiveyears,anevaluationoftheresultsachievedwillbemadeinorder tofacilitatethepreparationofanewfive-yearBSAPthatwillbeproposedtothegovernmentforadoption. Reportingprocess BIOIDIVERSITY ACTION PLAN FOR THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN 107 ActivityNo. StrategicApproachA IN-SITUCONSERVATION ActionA.1.IMPROVEMENTOFPROTECTEDAREASSYSTEMMANAGEMENT Developaspatialplanningdatabase spatialandurbanplaninngas itrelatestoprotectedareas Definitionofthepurpose, regulation,use,conservation andplanningofurbanspaces 2004-2008 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2004 2004-2006 2004-2006 2006-2008 II II II II II II II III III III I I I I I I 1,6, 7,12 1,6, 7,12 1,6, 7,12 1,6, 7,12 1,6, 9,12 A.2.1 A.2.2 A.3.1 A.3.2 A.1.1 Preparemanagement plans forprotectedareas accordingtoaccepted internationalmethodologies A.1.2 A.1.2.1 A.1.2.2 A.1.2.3 Preparemanagement plans forstrictnaturalreserves Preparemanagement plans fornationalparks Preparemanagement plans forotherprotectedareas A.3.2 I.1.3.2 I.1.4.10 A.3.2 I.1.3.1 I.1.4.10 A.3.2 I.1.4.9 I.1.4.10 Improvedmanagingof strictnaturalreserves Improvedmanagingofnationalparks Improvedmanagingof otherprotectedareas A.1.3 Developaninventoryand databaseofprotectedareas Establishmentofadatabase informationcentre 5 A.2.1 A.2.2 D.2.4 E.3.1 ActionA.2.ESTABLISHMENTOFANETWORKOFPROTECTEDAREAS A.2.1 Integrate datafromallprevious projects(CORINE,Emerald,IPA, IBA,CCetc.)Inordertoestablish aprotectedareanetwork A.1.3 A.2.3 E.3.1 Synthesisofdatafromallprevious protectedareaprojects A.2.2 A.2.3 Evaluatethevaluesandperform areviewoftheexisting categoriesofprotectedareas A.1 A.6.2 A.6.3 E.1.4 E.1.5 E.1.10 4,5 Categorisationofprotectedareas Establishacoherenteco-network ofregionswithspecific naturalvaluesinaccordance withEuropeancriteria A.2.1 E.1.10 I.1.4.10 6,7 2005-2008 Establishednetworkofprotected areas,includingdifferent typesofeco-systems ActionA.3.EXTENTIONOFTHESYSTEMOFPROTECTEDAREAS ProclaimnewprotectedareasA.3.1 JakupitsaNationalParkA.3.1.1 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3.1 1,6, 7 ProclamationofJakupitsa NationalPark 2004-2006 II I 108 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActivityNo. BelasitsaNationalPark Shar-PlaninaNationalPark Nidze-KozhuvNationalPark JablanitsaNationalPark A.3.1.2 A.3.1.3 A.3.1.4 A.3.1.5 A.3.1.6 A.3.1.7 A.3.1.8 A.3.1.9 A.3.1.10 A.3.1.11 A.3.1.12 A.3.1.13 A.3.2 Belchishta Marsh protectedarea Monospitovo-BanskoMarsh protectedarea MarshatNegortsivillage protectedarea Peshtiprotectedarea SaltedsoilsinOvchePolePlain protectedarea Slatino-MakedonskiBrod protectedarea TemporarypoolsatGolemo Konyareprotectedarea PlocheRockPoolsofStratsin protectedarea Establishprotectivebelts inprotectedareas A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3.1 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 A.2.1 A.2.3 I.1.3 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 1,6, 7 6,7, 8 ProclamationofShar-Planina NationalPark ProclamationofNidze-Kozhuv NationalPark ProclamationofJablanitsa NationalPark ProclamationofBelasitsa NationalPark Proclamationofprotectedarea Proclamationofprotectedarea Proclamationofprotectedarea Proclamationofprotectedarea Proclamationofprotectedarea Proclamationofprotectedarea Proclamationofprotectedarea Proclamationofprotectedarea 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004 2004 2 0 0 6 - > 2 0 0 6 - > 2 0 0 6 - > 2 0 0 4 - > II II II II II II II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II II A.1.1 A.1.2 A.2.3 Mitigationofimpacts ofprotectedareas Establishbio-corridors amongprotectedareas A.3.3 A.1.2 A.2.1 A.2.3 E.1.10 6,7, 8 2 0 0 4 - > II II Improvedconnections amongprotectedareas 109 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN ActivityNo. 6,7, 8 6,7, 8 II IIII II II II II II II II II II A.3.4 Prepareproposaltonominate wetlandecosystemstotheWorld RamsarList(DoyranandOhrid Lake,MonospitovoMarsh) A.2.1 A.2.3 A.6.2 A.6.3 E.1.6.1 2004-2008 2004-2008 I Preparedproposals PreparedproposalsA.3.5 Prepareproposaltonominate certainplacestotheWorld HeritageList(UNESCO) A.2.2 A.6.2 E.1.6 ActionA.4.RESTORATIONOFPROTECTEDAREAS A.4.1 Restorenaturallakes A.4.1.1 DoyranLakewatershed D.2.5.1 E.1.5 E.1.6.1 1,2, 4,7 1,2, 4,7 1,2, 4,7 1,2, 4,7 1,2, 4,7 1,2, 4,7 1,2, 4,7 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > III III III Improvedqualityof lacustrineecosystem Improvedqualityof lacustrineecosystem Improvedqualityof lacustrineecosystem I I I I OhridLake(includingStruga andStudenchishtaMarsh) A.4.1.2 E.1.6.1 E.1.6.1 E.1.6.1 E.1.6.1 A.4.1.3 D.2.5.1 E.1.6.1 PrespaLake A.4.2 Restoremarshes A.4.2.1 A.4.2.2 KatlanovoMarsh MonospitovoMarsh Revitalisedmarshecosystem Revitalisedmarshecosystem A.4.3 Restorerivers A.4.3.1 RadikaRiverandtributaries Achievementforoptimalconditions forriverspecies A.4.5 Restoreforests A.4.5.1 Chestnutforest (MavrovoNationalPark) A.5.2.3 A.5.3 E.1.7.4 Restorationofchestnutforest ActionA.5.REVITALISATIONANDIN-SITUCONSERVATIONOUTSIDEOFPROTECTEDAREAS A.5.1 Performstudytoevaluatethe currentlevelofdegradation inkeyecosystems 1,2,4, 7,8 2004-2006 E.1.4 E.1.5 E.1.6 Collectionofvaliddataconcerning the levelofdegradation Restoreandconservedifferent segmentsofkeyecosystems A.5.2 Wetlandecosystems: 1.Peatbog,Pehchevo 2.PodgorechkoLake 3.LabuneshkoLake A.5.2.1 1,2, 4,7 E.1.6.1 II I I II II II Restorationofwetlandecosystems A.5.2.2 Grasslandecosystems: 1.Lowlandmeadows 2.Hillypastures E.1.6.2 1,2,4, 7,8 2 0 0 4 - > II II II II Restorationofcertainthreatened lowlandmeadowandhillypasture ecosystems 110 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActivityNo. E.1.6.2 1,2,4, 7,8 1,2,4, 7,8 1,2,4, 7,8 1,2,4, 7,8 1,2,4, 7,8 1,2,4, 7,8 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > A.5.2.3 Forestecosystems: 1.Assesstheconditionof forestsandundertakemeasures fortheirrestoration E.1.7.4 E.1.7.3 III I I I I I I I I I I I Collectionofvaliddataconcerning the levelofthreatstoforests andrestoredforestecosystems A.5.2.4 A.5.2.5 2006-2008 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 IIII II II II II II II II III Mountainecosystems Restorationofcertainthreatened mountainecosystems Restorationofcertainthreatenedcaves andundergroundformations Cavesandother undergroundformations 1,2, 4,7E.1.5 A.5.3 Identifyandinvestigate significantforestareas C.1.1 E.1.4 E.1.5 Developmentofalistof significantforestareas A.5.4 Identifyandinvestigate significantfungiareas Identifyandinvestigate significantareasoffloraandfauna Identifyandinvestigaterefugal areaswithforestvegetation A.6.2 A.6.3 Developmentofalistof significantfungiareas Developmentofalistof significantareasoffloraandfauna A.5.5 E.1.3 E.1.4 A.5.6 Developin-situ(on-farm) conservationofagricultural cropstrainsandbreeds ofdomesticanimals A.3.1.3 A.3.1.5 E.1.4 Developmentoflegislativeconditions suitablefortheconservationof significantbiodiversityelements A.5.7 A.6.5 C.2.1 C.2.3 C.5.2.1 F.1.2.1 F.2.1.4 H.1.3 5,6, 7,10 2 0 0 5 - > Provisionoffarmmodels forthemaintenanceofindegenous breedsandstrains ActionA.6.CONSERVATIONOFSPECIES A.6.1 Conserve mostthreatenedspecies A.6.1.1 Endemo-relictspecies Thymusoehmianus B.1.3 B.2.1.1 2004 2004 2004-2006 1,2, 7 1,2, 7 Conservationofspecies ConservationofspeciesA.6.1.2 II I I I B.1.5.1 Vultures: 1.Constructfeedingsites forvulturesandbirdsofprey 2.Antidoteprogramme EvaluatedlistofthreatenedspeciesA.6.2 A.6.3 PrepareRedDataLists 1,7 1,7 A.6.4 D.1.1 D.1.6 F.1.1.1 F.1.1.2 A.6.4 D.1.1 D.1.6 F.1.1.1 F.1.1.2 PrepareRedDataBooks PreparedRedDataBook ofthreatenedspecies 111 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN ActionB.1.IMPROVEMENTOFMECHANISMSFOREX-SITUCONSERVATION ActivityNo. Completedatanecessary toundertakeappropriate conservationofspecies PrepareActionPlans regardingthreatenedspecies A.6.4 A.6.5 A.6.2 A.6.3 1,7 2 0 0 4 - > II II II I A.5.7 C.5.2.1 7 2006-2008 Reintroduceindegenous agriculturalcropsandvarieties Establishmentofconditionstogrow agriculturalcropsandvarieties StrategicApproachB EX-SITUCONSERVATION Prepareinstructionsfor thecollectionandmaintanance ofspecies B.1.1 I.1.4.1 3,7 3,7 3,7 3,7 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 I I I I I III III III III III II II Detailedinstructionsforproper collectionandmaintananceof speciesinex-situconditions B.1.2 I.1.1 Preparemethodologiesforthe reintrodutionofextinctspecies Detailedguidelinesfor reintroductionofextinctspecies B.1.3 EstablishaNational BotanicalGarden 1,3, 7 1,3, 7 A.6.1.1 D.1.5 EstablishedNationalBotanical Gardenwithsuitableconditionsfor ex-situconservationofplantspecies B.1.4 B.1.5 EstablishaNationalArboretum Organizedfacillityproviding conditionsforex-situconservation ofwoodyspecies B.1.5.2 D.1.5 Establishnational centresfor ex-situconservationof plantandanimalspecies Furtherdeveloptheexisting networkofreproductioncentres forindigenousspeciesoflarge mammals,birdsofpreyandfish Furtherdeveloptheexisting networkofplantnurseriesfor indigenouswoodyspecies B.1.5.1 A.6.1.2 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > Increasednumbersoflarge mammals,birdsofpreyandfish B.1.5.2 B.1.4 B.2.1.1 Pernamentmechanismforthe reproductionofindigenous woodyspecies 112 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActionB.2.GENE- ANDSEED-BANKS B.2.1 B.2.1.1 EstablishGeneBanks ActivityNo. Genebanksforendemic,relct,rare andthreatenedplantandanimal species: 1.Conserveplantgeneticmaterial 2.Cryopreserveplantandanimal geneticmaterial 3.Conservegeneticmaterial in-vitro 4.Establishseedcollectionsof wildplantspecies D.2.3.1 D.2.3.1 A.5.7 A.6.5 D.2.3.1 3 3 3 3 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II Formationofappropriatecentres formaintananceofgeneticmaterial Formationofappropriatecentres formaintananceofbio-material Formationofappropriatecentres formaintananceofbio-material Establishmentofappropriate conditionsformaintanance offungalspecies Establishmentofappropriate conditionsformaintanance ofmicro-organisms Formationofnationalpollenbank foralergenicspecies B.2.1.2 B.2.1.3 B.2.1.4 B.2.1.5 B.2.1.6 Genebanksforforesttreespecies Plantresourcegene-banksforfood and agriculture: 1.Establishmentofgene-banks foraromaticandmedicinalplants 2.Cryopreservationofgenetic andreproductivematerial(DNA, embryos,eggcells,spermcells) fromindigenousbreedsof domesticanimals 3.Repatriationofcollections keptex-situinothercountries II II III II II III 2 0 0 4 - > 1,3 1,3 E.1.4 E.1.4 Establishnational mycologicalcollection Establishnational collection ofmicro-organisms Establishnational pollenbank (regardingalergenicspecies) D.2.3 StrategicApproachC SUSTAINABLE USEOFBIODIVERSITY ActionC.1.ASSESSMENTANDDETERMINATIONOFLIMITSFORUSEOFBIOLOGICAL RESOURCES C.1.1 Qualitative andquantitative assessmentofbio-resources intheRepublicofMacedonia C.1.1.1 Determineeconomically valuablewildspecies C.1.2.1 E.2.2 I.1.4.1 8,10, 11 2006-2008 Acompleteevaluationofexistingdata onbio-resourcesandestablishment oftheireconomicsignificance 113 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN ActivityNo. C.1.2 Establishintegratedprogrammes fortheuseofbio-diversity Determinationofoptimalbiological thresholdsoverwhichresources shouldnotbeused Determine limitsfortheuse ofbiologicalresources C.1.1.1 D.2.2 I.1.4.1 C.1.2.1 8,10, 11 2006-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2005-2008 2005-2008 2004-2007 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 II III II II II III II IIII II II I II I I II II II ActionC.2.IMPROVEMENTOF METHODOLOGIESFORSUSTAINABLEUSEOFAGROBIODIVERSITY Supportagro-ecological programmesC.2.1 C.2.1.1 Organizedorganicproduction ofindigenousvarietiesand strains,withtheirpromotion totheconsumermarket I A.5.7 C.5.2.1 F.2.1.4 H.1.1 H.1.3 A.5.7 C.5.2.1 F.2.1.4 H.1.1 H.1.3 C.5.1.1 H.1.3 1,2, 3,4, 10 1,2, 3,4, 10 Stimulateanddeveloporganic productionasameanstoward sustainable development C.2.1.2 Organizedproductionofcultivated indigenousmedicinalandaromatic plants Stimulateanddevelopproduction ofcultivatedindigenousmedicinal andaromaticplants C.5.2.1 1,4, 10, 11 C.2.2 C.2.3 Introducelabellingofproducts whichderivefromindigenous varietiesandstrains ( qualityandorigin) Seriesofproductsobtainedfrom indigenousvarieties,breedsand strains,licensedinaccordancewith worldstandards,bearingaspecial labeloforigin 6,7 Organizeexperimentalfarmswith tradicionalagriculturalproduction Farmswithtradicionalproduction systemsandwithorganisedvisits ActionC.3.PROMOTIONOFSUSTAINABLEUSE ANDRESTORATIOJNOFFORESTRESOURCES C.3.1 C.3.2 C.3.3 C.3.4 I.2.1.2 I.2.1.2 I.2.1.2 I.2.1.2 I.2.1.1 I.2.1.3 1,4, 10, 12 1,8, 10, 12 1,8, 10, 12 1,8, 10, 12 SustainableuseofforestsConduct certificationofforests Re-establishfundsforreforestation ofbarrenterrain Fundestablished Promote programme forreforestation withindigenoustreespecies Establishindicatorswhichcanbe useddeforestationwithin theRepublicofMacedonia Restorationofforestresources usingindigenousspecies Developmentofalistofindicators ActionC.4.SUSTAINABLEUSEOFGAMEANDFISHERIES Increase populationofindigenous huntedgamewhiletaking the biologicaloptima ofspeciesintoconsideration C.4.1 2,5, 7 2004-2008 Establishmentofsustainableuse ofhuntedgame 114 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA 2,5, 7 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 ActivityNo. I I I II II III III III I.2.1.1C.4.2 Increase thepopulationof indigenousfishwhiletakingthe biologicaloptimaintoconsideration ActionC.5.PROMOTIONOFTRADICIONALUSESOFBIODIVERSITYANDECO-TOURISM Establishmentof sustainable use offish C.5.1 C.5.1.1 Preparestudiesconcerning tradicionalusesofbio-diversity C.2.1.2 1,4 1,4 Preparestudyconcerning the use ofbio-diversity intradicionalmedicaltreatments andethno-pharmacology Completedstudy C.5.2 C.5.3 Promote thevaluesofold-fashioned localvarietiesofagriculturalcrops C.5.2.1 Prepareintegratedprogramme forpromotionofhealthyfood, ethnologicalvalues,tradition andculture A.5.7 A.6.5 C.2.1.1 C.2.2 C.2.3 F.1.2.1 F.2.1.4 1,2, 4,11 Implementationofprogrammes promotingtheexpandeduseof old-fashionedlocalvarietiesand tradicionalwaysofmanaging bio-resources,includingspecial programmesfortrainingandbetter accesstointernationalmarkets Identifyandpromotelocations thataregoodforeco-tourism Developmentofalistofeco-tourism locationsandpromotionoftheiruse StrategicApproachD INSTITUTIONALIMPROVMENT ActionD.1.IMPROVENTOFINSTITUTIONSENGAGEDINTHE INVESTIGATIONANDCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITY D.1.1 D.1.2 3 3 3,4 II I I I I I I I Prepareanassessmentoftheneed forinstitutionalimprovement Preparedassessmentofthepresent situationcontainingideasfor institutionalimprovement Establishsectionsinallrelated divisionsandassignindividuals toberesponsibleforbiodiversity Establishmentofdepartmentswith individualsassignedtotrack the statusofbiodiversity D.1.3 D.1.4 1,2, 3,4, 10 Establishdepartmentsfor agrobiodiversityandsilvicultural biodiversitywithintheMoAFWM Assignementofanadvisorfor agrobiodiversityandsilvicultural biodiversityconservation withintheMoAFWM Improve technicalandpersonnel competenceofthebiodiversity departmentwithintheMoEPP Developmentofofficesforforestry, agriculture,fisheries,conventions, economy,transportand communications Improve technicalandpersonnel competencesofinstitutions involvedinbiodiversity investigations D.1.5 III3,4 Increasedoppurtunitiesfortheuse oftechnicalandpersonnelinthe studyofbiodiversity 115 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN ActivityNo. D.1.6 D.1.7 D.1.8 Developandstrenghten capacitiesformonitoring Establishmentandstrenghtening ofbiodiversitymonitoring2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2008 2003-2006 2004-2007 III I I I I I I II II II II II III III I I II I I I 3 3 3 3 3 Establishabodyofscientific expertswithinthegovernmentof theRepublicofMacedonia responsiblefortheconservation ofbiodiversity 2004 Establishmentofabody ofscientificexperts Establishmentof administratively-skilledbody Developadministratively-skilled bodyforconservation ofbiodiversity ActionD.2.CAPACITYBUILDINGFORBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION D.2.1 D.2.2 D.2.3 D.2.4 D.2.3.1 Establishnational comittees responsibleforeachratified internationalagreement Fulfilmentofnationalobligations underratifiedinternationalagreementsI.3.1 1,3, 9 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > Equipandtrainthestaff ofinspectorates Improvedbiodiversityconservation Developnewnationalinstitution GeneBank Equipacentralgenebankfor plantgeneresources Establishbiodiversitymonitoring centrewithintheMoEPP B.2.1.1 B.2.1.2 B.2.1.3 E.2.1.1 E.2.1.2 E.2.1.3 E.2.1.4 E.2.1.5 E.2.2 2,3, 4,5, 7,11 Establishmentofacentralgene-bank Establishmentofacentrefor collectinginformationandconducting monitoringwithintheentiretyof theRepublicofMacedonia D.2.5 D.2.6 D.2.5.1 D.2.5.2 Establishmonitoringstations Monitoringstationsfor DoyranandPrespaLakes A.4.1.1 A.4.1.3 E.2.1.1 E.2.1.3 3,4 3,4 3,4, 5 Establishmentofmonitoringstations EstablishmentofmonitoringstationsMonitoringstationsfor theVardarRiverwatershed Developanetworkamongall institutionsintheRepublicof Macedonia connected withbiodiversity E.2.1.4 Establishmentofco-ordination ofinstitutionalactivities 116 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActivityNo. StrategicApproachE INVESTIGATIONANDMONITORING ActionE.1.RESEARCHPROJECTS E.1.1 Preparenationalbiodiversity registersofofficially recognisedspecies Preparescientific catalogues/checklistsofspecies withincertaintaxonomicgroups Preparevegetationmap Preparestudyonendemic andrelictfloraandfauna Preparestudyonthreatenedspecies andtheirnaturalhabitats Preparestudyon endangeredhabitats Studytoevaluatethelevels ofthethreatstowetlandhabitats Studytoevaluatethelevels ofthreatstodryland/grassland andmountainecosystems Completednational biodiversityregisters Completedscientific catalogues/checklistsforcertain taxonomic groups Completedvegetationmap depictingdistributionsofdifferent vegetationtypes Collectionofdataconcerningthestatus anddistributionofthreatenedendemic andrelictplantandanimalspecies Collectionofdataforthreatened specieswithintheirnaturalhabitats Completedstudyconcerningthelevels ofthethreatstowetlandecosystems andimplementationofspecific activitiestoreducethethreats Completedstudyconcerningthelevels ofthreatstodryland/grassland andmountainecosystems andimplementationofspecific activitiestoreducethethreats E.1.2 E.1.3 E.1.4 E.1.5 E.1.6 E.1.6.1 E.1.6.2 A.6.2 A.6.3 A.6.2 A.6.3 F.1.1.1 F.1.1.2 F.1.1.3 A.6.2 A.6.3 B.2.1.4 B.2.1.5 E.1.9 A.6.2 A.6.3 A.4.1 A.4.2 A.4.3 A.5.2.1 A.5.2.2 3,4, 5 3,4, 5 3,4, 5 4 , 5 4 , 5 4 , 5 4 , 5 4 , 5 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > III III III III III III III I I I I I I I II II Preparenationalstudyregarding effortstoconserveagrobiodiversity andsilviculturalbiodiversitywithin the MoAFWM E.1.7 2004-2006E.1.7.1 Completedstudyconcerningthelevels ofthreatstoagrobiodiversityand implementationofspecificactivities toreducethethreats Preparenationalstudyon agrobiodiversityconservation 117 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN ActivityNo. E.17.3 II II II II II II II II III III III III III III I I I I I I II I 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 8 8 8 Preparestudyregarding developmentofanationalstrategy forprotectionagainstfire innaturalareas E.1.7.2 Preparestudyregardinguseof indigenousfireresistanttreesand shrubsasameansofprotection againstfireinnaturalareas Conduct studyconcerning protectionofforestsfromdiseases, pestsandhumaninfluence Applycontemporarymethods inbiodiversityinvestigations Preparechromosomalatlas ofMacedonianflora Preparestudyfordevelopment ofecologicalnetwork Determine national biodiversityindicators Completedstudyregarding developmentofanationalstrategy forprotectionagainstfire innaturalareas Completedstudyregardinguseof indigenousfireresistanttreesand shrubsasameansofprotection againstfireinnaturalareas Completedstudyforforest protectionfromdiseases,pests andhumaninfluence Establishmentofnew methodsanddevelopment ofbiodiversityresearch Completedchromosomalatlas Completedstudyfordevelopment ofecologicalnetwork Completedlistofnational biodiversityindicators E.1.7.3 E.1.7.4 E.1.8 E.1.9 E.1.10 E.1.11 A.5.2.3 E.1.7.2 A.4.4.1 A.5.2.3 E.1.4 A.2.2 A.2.3 A.3.3 2004-2008 2004-2008 3,4, 5,6 3 3,5 7,12 2006-2008 2006-2008 2004-2006 ActionE.2.MONITORINGACTIVITIES Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor the improvementofpresentstatus andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Identificationandmonitoringof priorityandthreatenedspecies, communitiesandecosystems MonitorOhridLake MonitorDoyranLake MonitorPrespaLake MonitorVardarRiver Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor the improvementofpresentstatus andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor the improvementofpresentstatus andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor the improvementofpresentstatus andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention A.4.1.2 D.2.4 A.4.1.1 D.2.4 D.2.5.1 A.4.1.3 D.2.4 D.2.5.1 D.2.4 D.2.5.2 3,5, 12 3,5, 12 3,5, 12 3,5, 12 E.2.1 E.2.1.1 E.2.1.2 E.2.1.3 E.2.1.4 118 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActivityNo. MonitorBelchishtaMarsh Monitorthreatenedwildplant speciespresentinnational andinternationaltrade (includedintheCITESconvention) Updatethenetworkofdata collectionsitesforbioindicators offorestecosystems Identifyandmonitorinvasive andallergenicspecies Monitortheinfluenceof climate changesonbiodiversity E.2.1.5 E.2.2 E.2.3 E.2.4 E.2.5 D.2.4 C.1.1.1 C.1.2.1 D.2.4 Improvednetworkofbioindicator data collectionsitesand long-terminsightinto the healthconditionsofforests Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor the improvementofpresentstatus andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledata Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor the improvementofpresentstatus andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention Establishmentofmonitoringsystem andcollectionofavailabledatafor the improvementofpresentstatus andforuseindeterminingtheneed forecologicalintervention 5,8, 12 3,5, 12 3,5, 12 3,5, 12 3,5, 12 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > II II II II III III II II I I I I ActionE.3.DEVELOPMENTOFDATABASES E.3.1 E.3.2 Developdatabaseforbiodiversity (excludingagrobiodiversity) A.1.3 C.1.1 E.1.1 5 5 2 0 0 4 - > III Establishmentof informationcentredatabase Developdatabase foragrobiodiversity E.1.1 2 0 0 5 - > Establishmentof informationcentredatabase I 119 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN StrategicApproachF PUBLICAWARENESSANDEDUCATION ActionA.1.INCREASINGPUBLICAWARENESS Publishingactivities Publishscientific-popularliterature concerningbiodiversity Preparemultimediapresentation andproduceCDaboutbiodiversity Provideincentivesfor thecollectionofdatafor awebpageonbiodiversity F.1.1 F.1.1.1 F.1.1.2 F.1.1.3 A.6.2 A.6.3 C.5.2 E.1.1 E.1.2 A.6.2 A.6.3 C.5.2 E.1.1 E.1.2 A.6.2 A.6.3 C.5.2 E.1.1 E.1.2 E.1.4.7 ActivityNo. 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > 2004-2005 2004-2005 2004-2005 2004-2005 2004-2005 2004-2005 2004-2005 II II I II II II II II II II II II IIII Preparationofpublications concerningbiodiversity ProductionofCDandmultimedia presentationaboutbiodiversity Updatedbiodiversitywebpage availabletothepublic Establishwebpageabout traditionalusesofbiodiversityfor theencouragementofeco-tourism Promote biodiversityconservation withinmassmedia Publishanddistributepromotional materialsregardinglocalvarieties andindigenousstrains Conduct programmesforengaging NGOsandlocalcommunitiesin programmesforsustainableuse andconservationofbiodiversity Increase thelevelofavailable biodiversityinformation withinmassmedia Publishbulletinonbiodiversity F.1.1.4 F.1.2 F.1.2.1 F.1.3 F.1.4 F.1.5 C.5.3 G.2.2 C.5.1 C.5.2.1 C.3.3 C.5.1 C.5.2 F.2.1.3 F.2.1.4 F.1.1 E.1 E.2 E.3 I I I I I I Establishmentofwebpage Printedpromotionalmaterials Establishmentofprogrammes On-goingprofessionalandscientific programmes,interactiveprogrammes, poll/surveys,tests,quizzesetc. Publishingofbulletin ActionF.2.EDUCATION Educationalactivities Introducethesubjectofbiodiversity inkindergartenprogrammes Introducethesubjectofbiodiversity intheprogrammesofprimary andsecondaryschools F.2.1 F.2.1.1 F.2.1.2 3,11 3,11 Productionofappropriate publicationsandgivingoflectures Developmentoflessonplansand programmes;publishingoftextbooks 120 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActivityNo. StrategicApproachG IMPACTASSESSMENT ActionG.1.ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT(EIA)STUDIES ActionG.2.STRATEGICBIODIVERSITYIMPACTASSESSMENT F.2.1.3 Organisetrainingforallinterested groupsinconservationand sustainable usesofbiodiversity F.2.1.4 H.1.3 3,4, 11 2004-2008 Organisationofshortcourses andtraining(scientificandpractical) atthegovernmental,expert andappliedlevelsI F.2.1.4 Organisetrainingforthosefarmers responsibleforon-farm conservationofagrobiodiversity A.5.7 C.2.1.1 C.2.3 C.5.2.1 H.1.3 6,7 2004-2008 Organisationofshortcourses andtrainingforfarmerswhoraise andmaintainold-fashioned localvarieties,breedsandstrains I II II G.1.1 G.1.2 Establishcriteriaanddevelop instructionsforpreparing biodiversitysectioninEIAstudies 1,12 1,12 1,12 12 2004-2005 2004-2005 2004-2005 Developmentandimplementation ofinstructions Definitecriteriaforinstitutions andindividualswhoarelicensed toprepareEIAs I I I I I Productionofdefinitecriteria forissuinglicenses G.2.1 G.2.2 Preparestudyassessing socio-economic benefits ofbiodiversityconservation A.4 A.5 C.1.1 C.1.2 C.2.1 C.3.3 C.4.1 C.4.2 Completedstudy Conduct StrategicEnvironmental ImpactAssessment(SEIA) foreco-tourismdevelopment C.5.1 C.5.2 C.5.3 F.1.1.4 2005-2006 CompletedSEIAfortheimpacts totheenvironmentfromeco-tourism IIII II 121 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN ActivityNo. StrategicApproachH INCENTIVEMEASURES ActionH.1.INITIATIVESANDPROGRAMMES H.1.1 H.1.2 H.1.3 Promote thenecessityfor biodiversityconservationamong decision-makersof macroeconomicpolicy C.2.1.1 C.2.3 2004-20051,10 1,10 Educationalseminarsinorder topromotetheneed forbiodiversityconservationI II Createfavourableconditionswithin theadministrativeframeworkfor developmentandimplementationof measuresforsupport ofbiodiversityconservation 2005-2006 II Creationofannualprogrammesin eachMinistryforincentiveactivities leadingtobiodiversityconservation Promote theuseofappropriate technologiesforbiodiversity conservation A.5.7 C.2.1.1 C.2.1.2 C.2.3 F.2.1.3 F.2.1.4 10 2004-2005 I I I I I I I Conduct educationalseminarsin ordertointroducethenewest technologicaldevelopments forbiodiversityconservation II II II II II ActionH.2.CONCRETEECONOMICMEASURESFORIMPROVEMENTOFBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION H.2.1 H.2.2 H.2.2.1 C.5.1 C.5.2 C.5.3 F.1.1.4 Introducetaxandcustoms incentivesforimplementation ofappropriatetechnologiesfor biodiversityconservation I.2.4.3 1,10 2004-2005 Adoptionofchangesintaxand customsregulationsinorder topromoteimplementation ofappropriatetechnologies Incentivemeasuresfor developmentofeco-tourism Promote thevaluesof biodiversitytodomesticand foreigntouroperators 10 2005-2008 Establishmentofsmalltourist attractionswithappropriate infrastructuredevelopment (informationdisplays,signsetc.) H.2.2.2 Introducetaxandcustoms incentivesforeconomicandlegal entitiesconcernedwith eco-tourismdevelopment I.2.4.3 1,10 2004-2005 Adoptionofchangesintaxand customsregulationsinorderto facilitateeco-tourismdevelopment H.2.3 Establishofficesfordirect exchange (buyingandselling)of seedmaterialfromlocalvarieties C.2.1 C.2.3 C.5.2 F.1.2.1 2,7, 10 2005-2008 Establishmentofsectionswithinthe localofficesofMoAFWMpossessing seedmaterialandinformationfor the typicalregionalvarietiesavailable 122 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActivityNo. StrategicApproachI LEGISLATION ActionI.1.ADOPTIONOFNEWREGULATIONS Adoptgeneralframeworklaw forconservationofnature Adoptionoflegislationproclaiming protectedareasandspecies Adoptlegislationproclaiming nationalparks Adoptlegislationproclaiming strictnaturalreserves Adoptionofsubsidiaryacts Adoptspeciallawongenetically modifiedorganisms(GMO) Adoptsubsidiaryactaddressing thecollectionofplants,fungiand theirparts,aswellasthecollection, capture orkillingofanimals Adoptsubsidiaryacttoestablish measurestopreventaccidental introductionofexoticspecies withintheRepublicofMacedonia Adoptsubsidiaryactregarding tradeinwildspeciesofplants, fungiandanimals Adoptsubsidiaryactforprotection ofwildanimals Adoptsubsidiaryactforprotection ofwildplants Adoptsubsidiaryactforprotection offungi AdoptionoflawbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionoflawbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionoflegislationbyParliament andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionoflegislationbyParliament andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia I.1.1 I.1.2 I.1.3 I.1.3.1 I.1.3.2 I.1.4 I.1.4.1 I.1.4.2. I.1.4.3. I.1.4.4 I.1.4.5 I.1.4.6 A.3.1 A.3.1 C.1.1 C.1.2 A.6.2 A.6.3 A.6.4 A.6.2 A.6.3 A.6.4 A.6.2 A.6.3 A.6.4 10 10 10 10 2,6, 7 2,6, 7 1,2, 9,10, 12 9 5,8 5,9, 10 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2 0 0 4 - > 2004-2006 2006-2008 II II II II II I I I I I I I I I I I I I II II 123 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN ActivityNo. Adoptsubsidiaryactcontaining measuresforthemaintenance ofvarioustypesofhabitats inafavourablecondition Adoptsubsidiaryactcontaining measuresforthemaintenance ofspeciespopulations inafavourablecondition Adoptregulationsestablishing internationallysignificant ecologicalareasandproceduresfor theirmanagementwithin theRepublicofMacedonia Adoptregulationsforestablishing ecologicallysignificantareas, ecologicalnetworksandasystem ofecologicalcorridorsin accordancewiththePan-European EcologicalNetwork(PEEN) AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbytheappropriateMinister andpublishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia Adoptionbythegovernmentof theRepublicofMacedoniaand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia Adoptionbythegovernmentof theRepublicofMacedoniaand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia Developnewcriteriafor certificationofvarieties andtheirincorporationwithin the listofacceptedvarieties ofagriculturalcrops Adoptmethodologiesfor preparationofmanagement plansforprotectedareas Adoptsubsidiaryactforregulation ofmedicinalandaromaticplants Preparationofmanualforcertification ofvarietiesandtheirincorporation withinthelistofacceptedvarieties Completedmethodologiesfor preparationofmanagement plansforprotectedareas I.1.4.7 I.1.4.8 I.1.4.9 I.1.4.10 I.1.4.11 I.1.4.12 I.1.4.13 A.5.2 A.6.3 A.2.1 A.5.3 A.5.4 A.5.5 A.5.3 A.5.4 A.5.5 E.1.10 C.2.1.1 C.2.2 C.5.2 A.1.2 C.2.1.2 10 7,10 5,6, 9 5,6, 9 1,10 2,6, 7 1,7, 9 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2 0 0 5 - > 2004-2008 I I I II II II II II II I I I I I I I I I I I ActionI.2.TRANSPOSITIONOFINTERSECTORALREGULATIONS Reviewandreviseregulations regardinguseofbiodiversity accordingtoaspecialprogramme ReviewandreviseLawonHunting ReviewandreviseLawonFishing ReviewandreviseLawonForests AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia C.4.1 C.3.1 C.3.2 C.3.3 C.3.4 C.4.2 9,10 9,10 8,9, 10 2004-2005 2004-2005 2004-2005 I.2.1 I.2.1.1 I.2.1.2 I.2.1.3 124 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActivityNo. Reviewandreviseregulatoryacts concernedwithorganisation anduseoflandaccordingto aspecialprogramme Reviewandrevise LawonSpatialandUrbanPlanning Reviewandrevise LawonConstructionSites Reviewandrevise LawonInvestment ReviewandreviseLawonWater ReviewandreviseLawon ProtectionagainstAirPollution ReviewandreviseLawonWaste ReviewandreviseLawonNoise Reviewandreviseregulatory actsconcernedwithother sectoralregulationsaccording toaspecialprogramme Reviewandrevise LawonConcessions ReviewandreviseCriminalCode Reviewandrevisetaxandcustoms regulatoryactsinorderto incorporatecertainincentives I.2.2 I.2.2.1 I.2.2.2 I.2.2.3 I.2.3 I.2.3.1 I.2.3.2 I.2.3.3 I.2.3.4 I.2.4 I 2.4.1 I.2.4.2 I.2.4.3 Adoptionofchangesthatfavourthe useofappropriatetechnologies forbiodiversityconservation AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia AdoptionbyParliamentand publishingintheOfficialGazette oftheRepublicofMacedonia A.1.1 A.1.1 A.1.1 H.2.1 2004-2006 2004-2006 2004-2006 12 1,9, 12 1,9, 12 1,9, 12 1,9, 12 1,9, 12 1,9, 12 1,9, 12 1,10, 12 9,12 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Reviewandreviveregulatoryacts concernedwithpollutionaccording toaspecialprogramme 125 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN ActivityNo. ActionI.3.RATIFICATIONANDIMPLEMENTATIONOFINTERNATIONALAGREEMENTS Intensifyeffortsforratificationof internationalagreementstowhich theRepublicofMacedonia isnotaparty RatifytheCartagenaProtocol Prepareco-operationagreement betweentheRepublicof Macedonia andtheCzechRepublic Prepareco-operationagreement betweentheRepublicof Macedonia andtheUkraine Establishjointworkinggroups betweentheRepublicof Macedonia andAlbania Establishjointworkinggroups betweentheRepublicof Macedonia andGreece Establishjointworkinggroups betweentheRepublicof Macedonia andCroatia Developprogrammeforexecuting ratifiedinternationalagreements Establishjointworkinggroups betweentheRepublicofMacedonia andSerbiaandMontenegro Improvementofbilateralco-operation Approvalofprogrammeby theappropriateMinister Designationofmembersfrom bothcountries,preparationof aactivitiesmanualandachievement ofregularmeetings Designationofmembersfrom bothcountries,preparationof aactivitiesmanualandachievement ofregularmeetings Designationofmembersfrom bothcountries,preparationof aactivitiesmanualandachievement ofregularmeetings Designationofmembersfrom bothcountries,preparationof aactivitiesmanualandachievement ofregularmeetings Signedandratifiedagreement RatificationoftheCartagenaProtocol byParliamentandpublishing intheOfficialGazetteof theRepublicofMacedonia Signedandratifiedagreement 9 9 2,4, 9 2,4, 9 2,4, 9 2,4, 9 2,4, 9 2,4, 9 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2006-2008 2003-2004 II I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I.3.1 I.3.2 I.3.3 I.3.1.1 I.3.2.1 I.3.2.2 I.3.2.3 I.3.2.4 I.3.2.5 I.3.2.6 126 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActivityNo. StrategicApproachJ FINANCIALRESOURCESFORIMPLEMENTATIONOFTHEBIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN(BSAP)* ActionJ.1.REVISIONOFBUDGETARYFINANCIALSTRUCTUREOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActionJ.2.OTHERFINANCIALRESOURCES ActionJ.3.DEVELOPMENTOFMECHANISMSTOSTIMULATE EXTERNALINVESTMENTINBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION Establishspecialparagraphwithin the Statebudgetregarding biodiversityconservation (estimated amount -20%of the totalbudgetforexecutionofBSAP) Providedirectsupportfromt hecentralbudgetfor activitiesinprotectedareas Obtaintaxbenefitsformeasures undertakeninorderto finance biodiversityprotection withintheprivatesector Developprogrammeforapplied projectsconcerningbiodiversity Providecompensation (orchangesintaxregulations)for useofbiologicalresources Conduct reviewofpotential externaldonorsandprogrammes Developprioritylistofprojects forforeigninvestment inbiodiversityconservation Implementthemeasure “debt-for-nature" J.1.1 J.1.2 J.2.1 J.2.2 J.2.3 J.3.1 J.3.2 J.3.3 Establishmentofspecialparagraph withintheStatebudget Attainmentofsupportfrombudget fororganisationsconducting activitieswithinprotectedareas Adoptionofchangeswithin the taxregulationsinorderto incorporateappropriateincentives Establishmentof prioritylistprogramme Paymentofcompensationand adoptionofchangestotaxregulations Preparationofalistofdonors andprogrammesexamined Preparationoflist Provisionofpossibilitiesforaccessing secondarydebtmarketsinorder toprovideforthedevelopment ofcreditcompensationfunds 2 0 0 4 - > 2005 2005 2005 2004 2004 2004-2005 2004-2005 I.2.4.3 I.2.4.3 K.1 K.4 A.1 2,10 2,10 2,10 2,10 2 2 2 2,6 II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I *Thisstrategicapproachisnotconnectedtotheotherdescribedapproaches. 127 5.PROBLEMANALYSIS6. BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLAN ActivityNo. StrategicApproachK CO-ORDINATIONANDIMPLEMENTATIONOFTHEBSAP ActionK.1.ESTABLISHMENTOFSTEERINGCOMMITTEE K.1.1 K.1.2 ActionK.2.ESTABLISHMENTOFEXPERTWORKINGGROUPS K.2.1 K.2.2 K.2.3 ActionK.3.DEVELOPMENTOFTECHNICALSUPPORTMECHANISMS K.3.1 K.3.2 K.3.3 AppointtheSteeringCommittee andensuregovernmentaladoption Createandadoptlegislative regulationsconcerningthe responsibilitiesanddutiesof the SteeringCommittee January, 2004 Approvalbymeans ofgovernmentalresolution March, 2004 Creationofstatutes,working plansandprogrammes IdentifytheExpertGroups anddeterminetheroles andresponsibilitiesforeach 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004-2008 2 0 0 4 - > 2 0 0 4 - > Specificationofappropriatedomain, workingrolesandresponsibilities foreachExpertGroup AppointtheExpertGroups (i.e.,determinemembership andselectleadersforeach) ResolutionbytheSteeringCommittee determiningmembershipandleaders All All All All All All All All All All All All All All All All All All All All I I I I I I I I I I I-III I I I I I I I I I Createandadoptworking protocolsforeachoftheExpert Groupsthatwilldefinethe frequencyofmeetingsand submissionofreports EstablishaCo-ordinatingBody withintheMoEPPthatwillbe responsibleforimplementation oftheBSAP Determine theco-operative relationshipbetweenthe Co-ordinatingBodyandtherelated institutionsresponsiblefor biodiversityconservation Maintainandregularlyupdate theestablishedbiodiversitydatabase Adoptionofprotocolsforeach ExpertGroup,definingfrequencyof meetingsandsubmissionofreports EstablishmentofCo-ordinating BodywithintheMoEPP Approvalbymeansofgovernmental resolutionoftheobligationsof the relatedinstitutionsresponsible forbiodiversityconservation Establishmentofspecialofficewithin theAgencyfortheEnvironment ActionK.4.MONITORINGOFTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFBSAP Developindicatorsformonitoring the implementationoftheBSAP Prepareannualactionplansby the SteeringCommittee, ExpertGroupsandauthorised institutionsconcerning implementationoftheBSAP K.4.1 K.4.2 Preparationofindicatorsfor monitoringbyworkinggroups approvedbyCo-ordinatingBody Preparationofannualactionplans 128 BIODIVERSITYSTRATEGYANDACTIONPLANOFTHEREPUBLICOFMACEDONIA ActivityNo. Prepareannualreportsbydifferent involvedagencies/organisations concerningtheimplementationof theBSAPandsubmitthem totheSteeringCommittee Prepareannualreportsbythe Co-ordinatingBodywithinthe MoEPPconcerningthe implementationoftheBSAPand submitthemtotheExpertGroups Prepareannualreportsby the ExpertGroupsconcerning the levelofimplementation oftheBSAPandsubmitthem totheSteeringCommittee PrepareannualreportsbytheSteering Committeeconcerningthelevelof implementationoftheBSAPand submitthemtothegovernmentofthe RepublicofMacedoniaandtheCBD Conduct annualreviewof implementation,reviseBSAP documentandsubmittothe governmentoftheRepublic ofMacedoniaforapproval Produceafullreportreviewing implementationoftheBSAPatthe endofthefive-yearperiodand submittothegovernmentofthe RepublicofMacedoniaandtheCBD K.4.3 K.4.4 K.4.5 K.4.6 K.4.7 K.4.8 All All All All All All All All All All All All 2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 2004-2008 I I I I I I III I-III I-III I-III I-III I-III Preparationofannualreports Preparationofannualreports Preparationofannualreports Preparationofannualreports RevisionoftheBSAP Productionoffullreportconcerning implementationoftheBSAP duringthefive-yearperiod