Climate Change Policy Framework 2021

1 Government of Jamaica CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR JAMAICA Updated July 2021 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ 4 MESSAGE ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................. 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. 8 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 13 1.1 Background and Rationale ............................................................................................................... 13 1.2 The international context ................................................................................................................ 16 2. SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................................... 21 2.1 Jamaica’s Climate ....................................................................................................................... 21 2.2 Threats and Potential Impacts of Climate Change in Jamaica ........................................................ 23 2.2.1 Energy ................................................................................................................................. 23 2.2.2 Transport ............................................................................................................................ 25 2.2.3 Waste Management .......................................................................................................... 26 2.2.4 Forests ................................................................................................................................. 27 2.2.5 Coastal and Marine Resources ........................................................................................... 27 2.2.6 Water Resources ................................................................................................................. 28 2.2.7 Human Settlements and Infrastructure ............................................................................. 29 2.2.8 Agriculture .......................................................................................................................... 30 2.2.9 Tourism ............................................................................................................................... 32 2.2.10 Human Health ..................................................................................................................... 33 2.2.11 Biodiversity ......................................................................................................................... 34 2.2.12 Finance ................................................................................................................................ 34 2.2.13 Impact on Youth ................................................................................................................. 35 2.2.14 Gender considerations ....................................................................................................... 36 2.3 Challenges Facing Jamaica in the Short-, Medium- and Long-term ............................................... 37 2.3.1 High Incidence of Poverty .................................................................................................. 37 2.3.2 Limited Financial Resources ............................................................................................... 37 2.3.3 Policy Frameworks and Legislative and Regulatory Support for Integrating Climate Change Considerations ....................................................................................................................... 38 2.3.4 Institutional and Individual Capacity ................................................................................ 38 2.3.5 Strengthening of the Physical Planning System ................................................................ 38 2.3.6 Limited Research Capacity and Technological Development ........................................... 40 2.3.7 Limited Integration of Environmental Considerations into Socio-Economic Policies and Strategies ............................................................................................................................................ 40 2.3.8 Labour Productivity ............................................................................................................ 41 2.3.9 Human Security and Mobility ............................................................................................ 41 3. THE CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY FRAMEWORK ....................................................................................... 43 3.1 Vision Statement ............................................................................................................................. 43 3.2 Goals ................................................................................................................................................ 43 3.3 Objectives ........................................................................................................................................ 43 3 3.4 Principles.......................................................................................................................................... 44 3.5 Policy Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 45 3.5.1. Governance ......................................................................................................................... 45 3.5.2. Adaptation .......................................................................................................................... 46 3.5.3 Mitigation ........................................................................................................................... 48 3.5.4 Finance ............................................................................................................................... 49 3.5.5 Public awareness and education ....................................................................................... 50 3.5.6 Research.............................................................................................................................. 51 3.5.7 Technology Transfer ........................................................................................................... 52 3.6 Institutional Arrangements ............................................................................................................ 53 3.7 Policy Application ........................................................................................................................... 55 3.8 Implementation .............................................................................................................................. 55 APPENDIX A – IMPLEMENTATION PLAN ................................................................................................... 57 APPENDIX B – Linkages with Vision 2030 and the SDGs ........................................................................... 70 APPENDIX C – Table of Related Policies and Legislation........................................................................... 72 GLOSSARY AND DEFINITIONS .................................................................................................................... 78 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 84 List of Figures Figure 1 Total GHG Emissions 22 Figure 2 Total Energy Supply and Alternative Energy as a Proportion of Total Energy Supply, 2011- 2016 24 Figure 3 Share of Petroleum Consumption by Activity, 2018. Source: MSET (2019) 24 List of Tables Table 1 Impact of Extreme Climate-related Events on Jamaica’s GDP 2001-2017 14 Table 2 Major Impacts Expected Across Jamaica 15 Table 3 Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (Gg CO2) 22 Table 4 Emissions of CO2 (Gg CO2) by sector 23 Appendices Appendix A Implementation Plan 57 Appendix B Linkages with Vision 2030 and the SDGs 70 Appendix C Table of Policies and Legislation 72 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Place Holder for Acknowledgements 5 MESSAGE Place Holder [Message by the Minister with Portfolio Responsibility for Climate Change] 6 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AOSIS Alliance of Small Island States CCADRR Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction Project CCCCC Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre CDM Clean Development Mechanism CCAB Climate Change Advisory Board CCD Climate Change Division CCFPN Climate Change Focal Point Network CTCN Climate Technology Centre and Network DAE Direct Access Entity DBJ Development Bank of Jamaica EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EU European Union GEF Global Environment Facility GDP Gross Domestic Product GHG Greenhouse Gas GoJ Government of Jamaica HRRACC Hazard Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change JAMPRO Jamaica Promotions Corporation JSIF Jamaica Social Investment Fund MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies MEGJC Ministry of Economic Growth and Job Creation MFAFT Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade MLGCD Ministry of Local Government and Development MOEYI Ministry of Education, Youth and Information MOFPS Ministry of Finance and Public Service MRECC Ministry with Responsibility for Environment and Climate Change MRV Measurement, Reporting and Verification MSET Ministry of Science, Energy and Technology N2O Nitrous Oxide NAMAs Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions NBSAP The National Strategy and Action Plan for Biological Diversity in Jamaica NDA National Designated Authority NEPA National Environment and Planning Agency NGO Non-governmental Organisation NIE National Implementing Entity NSWMA National Solid Waste Management Authority NWC National Water Commission NWA National Works Agency 7 ODPEM Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management PAN Policy Analysts’ Network PCJ Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica PIOJ Planning Institute of Jamaica PPCR Pilot Program for Climate Resilience RADA Rural Agricultural Development Authority REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation SAMOA Small Island Developing States Accelerated Modalities of Action SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SIDS Small Island Developing State UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USAID United States Agency for International Development 8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Significant developments have taken place since the finalization of Jamaica’s Climate Change Policy Framework in 2015 leading to the decision to update the Policy Framework to revise the strategies to effectively respond to climate change impacts over the next 10 years (2020–2030). The Policy defines Jamaica’s goal, strategies and key activities/measures for implementation. Since becoming a Party to the Paris Agreement on Climate Change in 2017, Jamaica has committed to increasing its level of ambition in mitigating and adapting to climate change. There is growing evidence that climate change is taking place at an accelerated rate due to human activities, especially those related to the use of fossil fuels and land clearing, exacerbated by population growth. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), human activities are estimated to have caused approximately 1.0°C of global warming above pre-industrial levels and global warming is likely to reach 1.5°C between 2030 and 2052 if greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase at the current rate.1 Jamaica, as a small island developing state (SID), is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change not only in terms of our natural resources, but also our social well-being and our economic development, as key sectors such as tourism, agriculture, fisheries, health, forestry and water are very climate sensitive. It is imperative that Jamaica builds its resilience to the impacts of climate change to support national development and contribute to the reduction of poverty. The severe weather events which have impacted the country over the years have severely affected the country’s economic growth and development. Between 2001 and 2017 Jamaica experienced 12 storm events (including 7 major hurricanes). The period from 2000 to 2010 was the most intense decade on record with 35 flood events (State of the Jamaican Climate 2015). These events combined resulted in loss and damage amounting to approximately J$132.54 billion.2 In one case (Hurricane Ivan, 2004), the loss was equivalent to 8.0% of GDP. Hurricane Sandy (2012) accounted for J$9.7 billion or 0.8% of 2011 GDP in direct and indirect damage (J$9.4 billion in damage and J$0.3 billion in losses, including expenditure for 1 IPCC, 2018: Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 32 pp. 2 State of the Jamaican Climate Report; Macro Socio-Economic and Environmental Impact Assessment of the Damage and Loss caused by the March to June Rains 2017 (PIOJ 2017). Vision Statement Jamaica achieves its goals of sustained growth and prosperity for its people with enhanced resilience and capacity to adapt to the impacts and to mitigate the causes of climate change. 9 vector control) as well as increased expenditure by private and Government entities. One death and 291 injuries resulted from Hurricane Sandy (Economic and Social Survey Jamaica, 2012). Jamaica has also experienced rising temperatures and severe drought events. At the international level, Jamaica as a Party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, has been active in negotiations advocating for attention to the specific circumstances and vulnerabilities of small island developing states (SIDS) to the impacts of climate change and the need for substantial reductions in the global level of greenhouse gases (GHG) as well as the provision of adequate financing to assist SIDS in undertaking adaptation and mitigation measures at the national level. It is well recognized that SIDS are not the main contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions. Jamaica is nonetheless, playing its part in reducing its GHG emissions through ‘no regrets’ mitigation actions which can lead not only to reduced emissions, but also cost savings and social and environmental benefits for the country. Jamaica will also continue to focus in the negotiations on approaches to addressing loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change, including impacts related to extreme weather and slow onset events.3 This is especially important as where there are constraints and limitations to adaptation, then other means of addressing economic loss and damage from climate change impacts will have to be identified. At the national level, a number of projects on adaptation to climate change have been implemented. These include community-based adaptation initiatives to raise the awareness of the public in general, and vulnerable groups in particular, regarding the impacts of climate change and how it can be addressed. Some of the key activities taken by the Government since 2012 include establishing a Climate Change Division within the Ministry with responsibility for the environment and climate (MRECC) portfolios, with a specific mandate to address climate change issues; the appointment of a Climate Change Advisory Board and the establishment of the Climate Change Focal Point Network to facilitate a multi-sectoral approach to climate change. It is recognized that, given the cross-cutting nature of climate change, there is an urgent need to develop an integrated approach in order to effectively build resilience at all levels and to have the required enabling policies in place. The Climate Change Policy Framework was first prepared under the GoJ/EU/ UNEP Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction (CCADRR) Project and updated under a Contribution Agreement between The Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development (DFATD) (now Global Affairs Canada) and the University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus. The policy development process involved a number of consultations, using as a basis, Vision 2030 Jamaica National Development Plan and Jamaica’s Third National Communication on Climate Change to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The first output was approved as ‘The Climate Change Policy Framework and Action Plan Green Paper’ and was subject to extensive review in accordance with Government of Jamaica guidelines, before receiving the approval of the Cabinet. 3 Slow onset events include sea level rise, increasing temperatures, ocean acidification, glacial retreat and related impacts, salinization, land and forest degradation, loss of biodiversity and desertification as referred to in the Decision of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Decision 1/CP.16. Extreme weather events include flood, drought, heatwave, hurricane. 10 Goal and Objectives The Climate Change Policy Framework for Jamaica (updated) is intended to support the goals of Vision 2030 Jamaica National Development Plan, specifically Goal 4 ‘Jamaica has a healthy natural environment’ and National Outcomes 13 and 14 on sustainable management and use of environmental and natural resources, and hazard risk reduction and adaption to climate change, respectively. This alignment to the National Development Plan is achieved by reducing the risks posed by climate change to all of Jamaica’s sectors and development goals. Specifically, the goals of this Policy Framework are as follows: 1) Strengthening of Jamaica’s adaptive capacity and resilience to reduce its vulnerability to climate change; 2) Pursuit of low carbon development and enhancement of access to and mobilization of climate finance; and 3) Promotion of public education and awareness raising, research and technology transfer towards ambitious climate action. . The Policy Framework outlines the objectives, principles and strategies that the country will employ in order to effectively respond to the impacts and challenges of climate change, through measures which are appropriate for varying scales and magnitudes of climate change impacts. The objectives of the Policy Framework are: Goal 1: Strengthening of Jamaica’s adaptive capacity and resilience to reduce its vulnerability to climate change 1.1 Governance: Improve the governance framework for climate action and ensure transparency and accountability. 1.2 Adaptation: Reduce Jamaica’s vulnerability and increase Jamaica’s capacity to respond to the harmful impacts of climate change Goal 2: Pursuit of low carbon development and enhancement of access to and mobilization of climate finance 2.1 Mitigation: Reduce Jamaica’s overall GHG emissions in support of low carbon development. 2.2 Finance: Facilitate access to and mobilization of climate financing for adaptation and mitigation 11 Goal 3: Promotion of public education and awareness raising, research and technology transfer towards ambitious climate action 3.1 Public Awareness and Education: Increase public awareness of climate change impacts, climate actions and responses at the national and local levels to facilitate behaviour change 3.2 Research: Promote research, innovation, data collection, analyses and facilitate projections at the national level on climate change, its impacts, and appropriate adaptation and mitigation measures, to inform decision-making and strategic actions at all levels 3.3 Technology Transfer: Promote the transfer of environmentally sound technologies for mitigating and adapting to climate change with other countries and international organisations and among the public sector, private sector entities, financial institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and research/education institutions It is expected that, on the basis of this Policy Framework, the relevant sectors will develop or update, as appropriate, plans addressing climate change adaptation and mitigation. In the development and implementation of sectoral climate change adaptation and mitigation plans, the following principles are to be taken into account: i. Sustainable development ii. Multi-sectoral approach to climate change iii. Public participation and collaboration iv. The Precautionary Approach v. Transparency and accountability vi. Best available science vii. Polluter Pays Principle viii. Inter- and intra-generational equity ix. Equality and non-discrimination The Ministry with responsibility for climate change oversees and supports the implementation of The Climate Change Policy Framework for Jamaica. The Climate Change Division (CCD) within the Ministry, has administrative oversight for climate change initiatives and obligations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement and serves as the Designated National Authority (DNA) for the Green Climate Fund. The functions of the CCD include the preparation of national GHG inventories, other reporting requirements such as the preparation of National Communications, Biennial Update Reports and Biennial Transparency Reports as well as the coordination and facilitation of mitigation and adaptation actions. The CCD, in its coordinating role, ensures the systematic dissemination of information among ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) and the provision of technical support and guidance to facilitate the development of sectoral adaptation and mitigation strategies and action plans. There are two coordinating mechanisms for climate action: the Climate Change Advisory Board and the Climate Change Focal Point Network (CCFPN). The Climate Change Advisory Board was established with members from the public and private sector, academia, and NGOs to provide advice to the Minister with responsibility for Climate Change. The CCD acts the Secretariat to the Board. The Climate Change Focal 12 Point Network (CCFPN) was established with focal points named within all relevant MDAs with responsibility for coordinating, monitoring, evaluating and reporting on the development of sectoral strategies and action plans. The MDAs are required to share with the CCD, relevant information and reports necessary for the proper collaboration, coordination, integration, monitoring and evaluation of climate change initiatives. Legislation will be enacted to strengthen the governance framework for climate change mitigation and adaptation and establish mechanisms for this purpose. This legislation will inter alia, institutionalize the coordinating role of the CCD regarding matters relating to climate change. The MRECC will present to Cabinet an annual report on measures that have been undertaken by the CCD to implement this Policy Framework. The Policy Framework will be reviewed every 5 years or earlier period as prescribed by the Cabinet. The Ministry with responsibility for climate change shall conduct a public review of this Policy Framework to determine its effectiveness in achieving the stated goals and objectives. 13 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and Rationale Climate change refers to a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.4 Global atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs): carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions due to human activities have grown since pre-industrial times (1750) and at 2014 were the highest in history.5 Human-induced warming reached approximately 1°C (likely between 0.8°C and 1.2°C) above pre-industrial levels in 2017, increasing at 0.2°C (likely between 0.1°C and 0.3°C) per decade.6 About half of CO2 emissions from anthropogenic sources between 1750 and 2011 have occurred in the last 40 years of that period. About 40% of these emissions have remained in the atmosphere; the rest was removed from the atmosphere and stored on land (in plants and soils) and in the ocean. The ocean has absorbed about 30% of the emitted anthropogenic CO2, causing ocean acidification (IPCC 2014). The estimated 0.74°C rise in temperatures over the past ten decades7 and the predicted increases over the next two decades will have significant impacts, including: • Sea level rise which can be expected to significantly increase inundation, storm surge, erosion and other coastal hazards, thus threatening natural buffer zones which offer protection to inland assets, vital infrastructure located in the coastal zone such as major roadways, power plants, hospitals, human settlements and other real estate assets and facilities that support the livelihood of communities; • Increased ambient air temperature; • Ocean warming and thermal expansion; • Increased acidification of oceans; • Increased threats to human health, such as the spread of vector-borne diseases due to increasingly high temperatures; • Increased variability in rainfall patterns; • Increased frequency of extreme weather events such as storms, droughts and hurricanes; and • Reduced quality and quantity of water resources due to the impacts of climate change on the hydrological cycle. 4 Climate Change definition under Article 1 of the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 5 IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp. 6 IPCC, 2018: Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 32 pp. 7 The IPCC has noted that it is expected that average temperatures will increase an additional 1.8°C which would be 4°C above pre-industrial levels by the year 2100 if no action is taken. 14 Jamaica’s vulnerability to climate change impacts is further compounded by social issues such as poverty, the location of human settlements and critical infrastructure in high-risk areas approximately 5 km from the coast, environmental degradation and instances of poorly constructed infrastructure and housing.8 The dependence on natural resources by key economic and climate sensitive sectors such as tourism, agriculture, fisheries, forestry and water, means that climate change is a major threat to the island’s food security and overall development based on the projected changes in climate and the expected associated impacts. The threat to development as a result of the adverse impacts of climate change could result in a reduction in the country’s GDP, including a possible loss of Government revenue from unemployment, underemployment and loss of assets and corporate taxes. In addition, there could be an increase in Government expenditure to institute adaptation measures including shoreline protection. Based on recent climatic trends observed over the past 100 years, climate change is likely to alter and disturb the quality and available quantity of Jamaica’s natural resources, thereby adversely affecting not only the natural environment but the livelihoods of its people. Table 1. Impact of Extreme Climate-related Events on Jamaica’s GDP 2001-20179 Event Year Category Cost (J$B) Impact (% GDP) Hurricane Michelle 2001 4 2.52 0.8 May/ June floods 2002 - 2.47 0.7 Hurricane Charley 2004 4 0.44 0.02 Hurricane Ivan 2004 3 36.9 8.0 Hurricanes Emily and Dennis 2005 4 5.98 1.2 Hurricane Wilma 2005 5 3.6 0.7 Drought 2005 - 0.52 Hurricane Dean 2007 4 23.8 3.4 Tropical Storm Gustav 2008 - 15.5 2.0 Drought 2008 - 0.04 Tropical Storm Nicole 2010 - 20.6 1.9 Drought 2009-2010 Hurricane Sandy 2012 2 9.9 0.8 Drought 2014 Average rainfall of 2-12% 0.90 Agricultural production fell by > 30% over 2013 March to June floods 2017 - 4.0 0.2 Drought 2017 < 20% rainfall unknown January to May floods 2018 .5 Sources: Macro Socio-economic and Environmental Impact Assessment of Damage and Loss caused by the March to June Rains 2017, PIOJ, PIOJ Economic and Social Survey (2017), Third National Communication (2018) 8 Third National Communication of Jamaica to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2018) 9 Third National Communication to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2018); The State of the Jamaican Climate (2015); The Planning Institute of Jamaica 15 Table 2: Major Impacts Expected Across Jamaica10 Parameter Predicted Change Air and sea surface temperature Rise of 1.1 to 3.2 ˚C degrees by the 2090s Sea level rise Rise of 0.28 to 0.98 m Precipitation Less summer (June, July, August) precipitation Extreme weather events Greater number of flood events, landslides, droughts Tropical storms/hurricanes Likely (>66% certainty) increase in hurricane intensity Marine Ecosystems More acidic/warmer seas; coral mortality Source: State of the Jamaican Climate 2015 Jamaica’s sustainable development imperatives are guided by Vision 2030 Jamaica - National Development Plan which provides the framework to ensure that climate change issues are mainstreamed into national policies and development activities. The issue of adaptation to climate change is specifically addressed under the National Outcomes in Goal 4 of Vision 2030: Jamaica has a healthy natural environment. These National Outcomes are: National Outcome #14 ‘Hazard Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change’ and #13 on ‘Sustainable Management and Use of Environmental and Natural Resources. The key related national strategies are: (i) develop measures to adapt to climate change, and (ii) develop mechanisms to influence the global rate of climate change. In addition, measures aimed at climate change mitigation are supported through National Outcome #10 ‘Energy Security and Efficiency’ which addresses energy efficiency, conservation and renewable energy and National Strategy 12-5 ‘Promote Eco-efficiency and Green Economy’ which promotes the use of clean technologies within the manufacturing sector. Achieving these and other National Outcomes will also help Jamaica to meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Of note are #11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities, #13 on Climate Action and #14 on Life Below Water (marine resources) and #15 on Life on Land (biodiversity, forests and desertification). A table showing the linkages with Jamaica’s goals under Vision 2030 and its SDGs is in Appendix B. Jamaica is currently implementing its Medium-Term Socio-Economic Policy Framework (MTF) 2018- 2021 which outlines a prioritized package of policies, strategies and programmes aligned to the budget at the macro level that will be implemented primarily by Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) over the next three years. Future MTFs will be required which build on the work undertaken in previous MTFs. The short- and long-term threats posed to the island from the accumulated GHGs in the atmosphere have made it imperative that Jamaica seeks to engage the international community in its efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change. It is also important that Jamaica undertakes the development of a framework within which climate change is addressed at the local and national levels. In this regard, the climate change policy for Jamaica was first developed, as a key deliverable under the GoJ/EU/UNEP Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction Project (CCADRR) (2011-2013). Several consultations8 were undertaken during the policy formulation process which involved representatives of the public and private sectors, and civil society. In addition, a workshop was convened in July 2012 by the then Ministry of Water, Land, Environment and Climate Change with the support of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) involving government and non-government participants from across critical sectors to identify key ways in which climate change and other threats could affect Jamaica’s long-term 10 State of the Jamaican Climate 2015 16 development goals, and the critical actions, policies, and institutional roles necessary to respond to these threats and achieve the country’s vision. The update to the Policy Framework was undertaken as a part of IMPACT Justice, a civil society project implemented under a Contribution Agreement between The Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development (DFATD) (now Global Affairs Canada) and the University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus. This updated Climate Change Policy Framework for Jamaica, takes into consideration the provisions of the Paris Agreement and other relevant international, regional and national developments in sectors, including the energy and transport sectors as well as the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of IPCC and other relevant UNFCCC reports and material. Consultations were carried out through various platforms over a twelve-month period and culminated in meeting of key stakeholders in the public and private sectors, academia and civil society in March 2020. The inputs from these consultations contributed to the updated Policy Framework’s alignment with new developments and priorities in the national, international and regional fora. 1.2 The international context The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement Jamaica has, since 1995, been a Party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which is the main international treaty on climate change. The objective of the Convention is “to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system…such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner" (UNFCCC). Jamaica’s commitments under this Convention include: • To develop and periodically submit national reports containing information on the greenhouse gas emissions of that Party and describing the steps it has taken and plans to take to implement the Convention. • To put in place national programmes and measures to control emissions and to adapt to the impacts of climate change. • To promote the development and use of climate-friendly technologies and the sustainable management of forests and other ecosystems. In 1999, Jamaica joined 192 countries and became a Party to the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, which sought to strengthen the global response to climate change, including the establishment of legally binding emission reduction targets for developed country Parties. The first commitment period for developed countries to meet their targets began in 2008 and ended in 2012. Before a second commitment period for 2013 to 2020 could enter into force, countries negotiated the Paris Agreement in 2015, which in effect became the successor to the Kyoto Protocol. The primary objective of the Paris Agreement is to keep the increase in global temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, there are no binding GHG emission targets in the Paris Agreement and all countries, both developed and developing countries, are required to make voluntary commitments every 17 five years to reduce GHG emissions through mitigation actions that reflect their highest possible ambition and specify their adaptation goals (referred to as the Nationally Determined Contributions). While there are no sanctions if Parties fail to meet their commitments, Parties also agreed to mandatory transparency, verification and public reporting measures to ensure all are able to monitor their progress. As at April 2020, 189 Parties had ratified the Paris Agreement, although it has been signed by all 197 nations. Jamaica ratified the Paris Agreement on April 10, 2017. The Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage was established under the UNFCCC to assist developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change by: • Enhancing knowledge and understanding of comprehensive risk management approaches to address loss and damage • Strengthening dialogue, coordination, coherence and synergies among relevant stakeholders • Enhancing action and support, including finance, technology and capacity-building Article 8 of the Paris Agreement reaffirms the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage as the main vehicle under the UNFCCC process to avert, minimize and address loss and damage associated with climate change impacts, including extreme weather events and slow onset events. The Agreement provides that Parties should enhance understanding action and support on a cooperative and facilitative basis, areas that include early warning systems, emergency preparedness, slow onset events, risk management strategies, insurance facilities and noneconomic loss. Climate Finance Several financial mechanisms have been established under the UNFCCC which also serve the Paris Agreement. The Green Climate Fund (GCF) was created in 2010 under the UNFCCC to help developing countries limit their GHG emissions and adapt to climate change. The GCF, which receives contributions from developed and developing countries, also serves as the fund for the Paris Agreement. Developed countries have committed to mobilizing up to US$100 billion every year after 2020. Additionally, support for climate change-related projects can be obtained under the Global Environment Facility (GEF) through the climate change window under the System for Transparent Resource Allocation (STAR) of eligible States, such as Jamaica, and two special funds, namely thethe Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), under the GEF. The GEF is also one of operating entities under the Financial Mechanism of the UNFCCC. There is also the Adaptation Fund (AF) established under the Kyoto Protocol in 2001. Aside from climate change funds established under the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement, there are a number of climate funds available. For example, the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) is a funding mechanism under the Climate Investment Funds (CIF) which helps developing countries integrate climate resilience into development planning and investment. The Government of Jamaica (GOJ) in collaboration with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and the World Bank developed Jamaica’s Strategic Programme for Climate Resilience (PPCR) to help the country to strengthen its resilience to climate through enhancing adaptive capacity across priority sectors. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) All Parties to the Paris Agreement are required to submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) every five (5) years detailing their commitment to reduce their national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions post 18 2020.11 Jamaica is taking a ‘no regrets’ approach by employing mitigation actions, which can lead to reduced emissions as well as cost savings and social and environmental benefits for the country. In Jamaica’s first NDC (2017)12 Jamaica has committed to initially reducing its GHG emissions by 7.8% below the business as usual (BAU) scenario. Under the BAU scenario, GHG emissions would increase by 37% by 2030. This NDC target is predicated on the current level of implementation of the National Energy Policy and the existing pipeline of renewable energy projects. Jamaica will conditionally increase its reduction of GHG emissions to 10% below BAU which is dependent on the level of international support (Jamaica’s First NDC). Plans are underway to revise Jamaica’s NDC to include other sectors which are also major emitters of GHGs, including the transportation sector. National Communications Parties to the UNFCCC are required to periodically submit National Communications which outline their circumstances in addressing the impacts of climate change. Jamaica’s Third National Communication (TNC) on Climate Change to UNFCCC outlines Jamaica’s inventory of its GHG emissions for 2006 – 2012. Total GHG emissions trended downward during this period due primarily to the reduced fuel consumption in the mining/bauxite industrial sector. The TNC also assesses climate change impacts for some key sectors, namely agriculture, energy, transportation, water, health, tourism, coastal zones, forests as well as a look at impacts on poverty and gender. The most vulnerable sectors, such as Agriculture, Water Resources, Coastal and Marine Resources and Human Settlements and Infrastructure will be those impacted by: (1) drought conditions, given the expected drying in Jamaica induced by climate change; (2) sea level rise, with a significant percentage of Jamaicans living near the coastline; and (3) floods and storms, given the likelihood that more intense rainfall will occur, though less frequently. Jamaica’s TNC also includes an assessment of potential mitigation options to reduce GHG emissions over the period 2020 to 2050 in energy, agriculture, transport, the bauxite and alumina industry, and waste and wastewater sectors. The TNC provides an outline of proposed strategies for awareness raising, capacity building, and a technology needs assessment. Biennial Update Report (BUR) and Biennial Transparency Reports (BTR) Parties to the UNFCCC are required to update and report periodically on their inventory of anthropogenic emissions and removals of GHGs not controlled by the Montreal Protocol.13 Jamaica submitted its first Biennial Update Report (BUR) to the UNFCCC in 2016. BURs are intended to provide updates on actions undertaken by a Party to implement the Convention, including the status of its greenhouse gas emissions and removals by sinks, as well as on the actions to reduce emissions or enhance sinks, and support needed and received to implement these actions. The Paris Agreement replaced the requirement to produce BURs with Biennial Transparency Reports (BTR) which contains a national greenhouse gas inventory and the information necessary to track progress made in implementing and achieving their NDCs. BTRs should be submitted by all Parties (SIDS and LDCs at their discretion), on a biennial basis, no later than end of 2024. 11 Art. 4(2), The Paris Agreement. 12 Jamaica submitted its Initial Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) to UNFCCC in Nov 2015 which became the country’s First NDC on ratification on April 10, 2017. 13 Art. 4.1(a) and 12, UNFCCC. 19 Jamaica is implementing a Capacity Building Initiative for Transparency (CBIT) project, funded by the GEF, to strengthen its institutional and technical capacity to meet its reporting requirements under the Paris Agreement and UNFCCC. National Adaptation Plan Parties to the UNFCC have committed to formulating and implementing national adaptation plans (NAPs) as a means of identifying medium- and long-term adaptation needs and developing and implementing strategies and programmes to address those needs. Jamaica is in the process of advancing with the preparation of a NAP which will be cross-sectoral. Previous and ongoing initiatives relating to sector strategies and action plans for key sectors along with vulnerability studies and stocktaking exercises will contribute to the identification and prioritisation of activities in the NAP. Among the most vulnerable sectors to climate change that will be considered are: tourism, agriculture, fisheries, forestry, water, energy, industry, human settlements and coastal resources, marine resources, human health, transportation, waste management, education, finance and disaster risk reduction and response management. Other international instruments The Samoa Pathway The SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Pathway is the outcome document of the Third International Conference on SIDS held in Apia, Samoa from 1-4 September 2014. The document lists priority areas for small islands for the period 2015-2025 and promotes international assistance to address these challenges. The SIDS Partnership Framework was designed to monitor the progress of existing, and stimulate the launch of new, genuine and durable partnerships for the sustainable development of SIDS. Nearly 300 partnerships were announced at the conference and monitored through the Partnership Platform. One of the priority areas in the Samoa Pathway is addressing climate change. It calls for support: (a) To build resilience to the impacts of climate change and to improve their adaptive capacity through the design and implementation of climate change adaptation measures appropriate to their respective vulnerabilities and economic, environmental and social situations; (b) To improve the baseline monitoring of island systems and the downscaling of climate model projections to enable better projections of the future impacts on small islands; (c) To raise awareness and communicate climate change risks, including through public dialogue with local communities, to increase human and environmental resilience to the longer-term impacts of climate change; (d) To address remaining gaps in capacity for gaining access to and managing climate finance. In the document, SIDS also support the gradual phasing down of the consumption and production of hydrofluorocarbons and to address global warming and the importance of scaling up support for REDD+ activities. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 (Sendai Framework) outlines seven global targets and four priority actions to prevent the creation of new risk, reduce existing risk and increase resilience. These are (i) Understanding disaster risk; (ii) Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk; (iii) Investing in disaster reduction for resilience and; (iv) Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to "Build Back Better" in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. 20 The Framework recognises that climate change as one of the drivers of disaster risk and that disasters, many of which are exacerbated by climate change and which are increasing in frequency and intensity, significantly impede progress towards sustainable development. Among other things, the Framework calls for the promotion of comprehensive surveys on multi-hazard disaster risks and the development of regional disaster risk assessments and maps, including climate change scenarios and calls for the incorporation of disaster risk reduction measures in bi-lateral assistance programmes in sectors related to adaptation to climate change. The Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management (ODPEM) is Jamaica’s focal point for the Sendai Framework. Regional Climate Change Initiative and Institutions The Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) The Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre is a regional institution established as a CARICOM agency to specifically to address the impacts of Climate Change. CCCCC provides an Information Clearing House on climate change information and develops climate modelling for projected impacts of climate change on the region in cooperation with regional partners. CCCC is also an Accredited Regional Implementing Entity to the GCF and can receive direct financial transfers from the Fund to carry out adaptation and mitigation projects and programmes. The Caribbean Regional Climate Centre The Caribbean Regional Climate Centre housed in the Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology develops and provides climate services and products to the Caribbean region including (i) drought and precipitation monitoring and forecast products (ii) climate data products and services (iii) agro meteorological products and services and (iv) applied meteorology and climate training services. Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility (CRIF) CCRIF SPC is a Caribbean segregated portfolio fund that provides parametric insurance policies to Caribbean and Central American governments to limits the financial impact of catastrophic hurricanes, earthquakes and excess rainfall events. 21 2. SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS 2.1 Jamaica’s Climate Climate model projections show increasing temperatures for the Caribbean region that could result in changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events; greater climate variability and rising sea-levels. These changes will adversely affect Jamaica’s critical sectors including the fresh-water resources, coastal and marine resources, human settlements and infrastructure, terrestrial resources and biodiversity, agriculture, fisheries, tourism, human health and energy. The information listed below is taken primarily from the State of the Jamaican Climate 2015 report which summarizes the climate model projections for Jamaica and the Caribbean region. Temperature, Rainfall and Drought The mean annual temperature for Jamaica is projected to increase between 0.49°–0.57°C by the 2020s; 0.65-0.84°C by the 2030s, 0.85°-1.80°C by the 2050s and 0.82- 3.09°C for 2081-2100. (State of the Jamaican Climate 2015). More frequent and severe drought events are projected. Climate change will result in more frequent El Niño events during which time, the Caribbean will be drier and hotter than usual and particularly during the late wet season from August through November. Rainfall records averaged across the Caribbean region for 100 years (1900–2000) show a consistent reduction in rainfall. (IPCC 2014). Rainfall will decrease by 0 – 2% in the mid-2020s; 4% in the 2030s and up to 10% in the 2050s. By the 2080s the country as a whole may be up to 40% drier. (State of the Jamaican Climate 2015). Storm Surges, Sea-Level Rise and Hurricanes Increased sea levels and changes in the severity or frequency of storms are likely to result in changes to the frequency or magnitude of storm surges on Jamaica’s coast. The likelihood of more severe hurricanes will increase. While there may be an overall decrease in the frequency of tropical cyclones, there is a projected 80% increase in category 4 and 5 hurricanes14 over the next 80 years (State of the Jamaican Climate 2015; Jamaica Biennial Update Report 2016). Sea level is projected to rise between 0.26-0.82 m by 2100 relative to 1986-2005 levels with the highest sensitivity models indicating a possible rise of just over 1 m for Jamaica’s coasts. (State of the Jamaican Climate 2015). Sea Surface Temperature and Ocean Acidification There will be continuing increases in sea-surface temperatures for Jamaican waters with projected increases ranging between +0.9˚C and +2.7˚C by the 2080s (State of the Jamaican Climate 2015). The ocean has absorbed about 30% of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide, resulting in a 0.1 pH unit decrease and ocean acidification that is unprecedented for at least the last 65 million years. A decrease of 0.2 pH 14 According to the Saffir-Simpson scale for measuring hurricane intensity, Category 4 and 5 hurricanes are considered to be major with the potential to cause catastrophic damage. Category 4 hurricanes have sustained winds at 130-156 mph, 113-136 kt or 209-251 km/h and Category 5 hurricanes have sustained winds of 157 mph or higher, 137 kt or higher or 252 km/h or higher. 22 units (by 2100 under RCP4.5) relative to the pre-industrial period is projected. (IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5oC).15 Ocean acidification and increasing sea surface temperatures will result in the loss of marine life including coral reefs. Rising sea temperatures has led to the overabundant presence of the Atlantic Sargassum seaweed in the Caribbean region. This seaweed threatens Jamaica’s fisheries and coastal ecosystems by smothering sea grass beds, coral reefs and mangroves. Greenhouse Gas Emissions There was a decreasing trend in GHG emissions during the period 2006 and 2012. This trend and large year to year fluctuations were due to substantial changes in annual CO2 emissions in the mining/bauxite industry, which was affected by global economic factors, and in particular the price of aluminium. Table 3 and Figure1 provide the total GHG emissions (Gg CO2 eq) for the period 2006 and 2012 and Table 4 provides an overview of GHG emissions by sector, as outlined in The Biennial Update Report of Jamaica (2016). Table 3. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (Gg, CO2, EQ) (Sourced from: The Biennial Update Report of Jamaica) Figure. 1 Total GHG Emissions (Gg CO2 EQ) (Sourced from The Biennial Update Report of Jamaica) 15 Hoegh-Guldberg, O., D. Jacob, M. Taylor, M. Bindi, S. Brown, I. Camilloni, A. Diedhiou, R. Djalante, K.L. Ebi, F. Engelbrecht, J.Guiot, Y. Hijioka, S. Mehrotra, A. Payne, S.I. Seneviratne, A. Thomas, R. Warren, and G. Zhou, 2018: Impacts of 1.5ºC Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I.Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T.Maycock, M.Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. In Press. 23 Table 4. Emissions of CO2 (Gg CO2) by sector (adapted from The Biennial Update Report of Jamaica) 2.2 Threats and Potential Impacts of Climate Change in Jamaica The Climate Change Policy Framework outlines threats and potential impacts of climate change to these areas identified as a priority in the Third National Communications through (TNC) through vulnerability assessments and consultations: • Coastal and Marine Resources • Water Resources • Human Settlements and Infrastructure • Agriculture and Fisheries • Tourism • Human Health • Biodiversity • Finance Sectors that are major contributors to GHG emissions are examined in The Policy Framework along with their mitigation potential. These sectors are: • Transport • Waste Management • Forestry • Energy The cross-cutting themes of the impact on Youth and Gender are considered in the Policy Framework. 2.2.1 Energy Climate change threatens the efficient production of energy and given the high dependence on foreign energy sources across all sectors, this could increase Jamaica’s overall economic vulnerability. Between 2011 and 2016, the share of renewables in total energy consumption was on average 5.9% per year. The share of renewables was highest in 2014 at 7.0%.16 16 STATIN. (2018). Jamaica- Voluntary National Review Report on the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for 24 Figure 2. Total Energy Supply and Alternative Energy as a Proportion of Total Energy Supply, 2011- 2016. Source: STATIN (2018) Jamaica. Voluntary National Review Report on the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development- Statistical Annex. The single largest electricity consumer is the National Water Commission accounting for nearly 40% of annual revenue in electricity costs.17 Electricity accounts for the largest proportion of household expenditure on utilities with households spending on average 5.7% of their total household consumption or $5,003 monthly, on electricity. (Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2016). In 2008, the quantity of oil imported was approximately 27 million barrels at a cost of US$2.7 billion, (Jamaica’s National Energy Policy 2009-2030) one-third of which was used by the bauxite/alumina sector. Since 2009, there has been a steady decrease in oil imports. In 2012, the total quantity of oil imported was 20.24 million barrels at a cost of US$2.21 billion. Among the factors contributing to the lower consumption were reduced output in the bauxite/ alumina sector, conservation measures adopted due to the high cost of energy and the stagnation or decline of economic activities. The energy sector remains the largest consumer of foreign exchange and so it is incumbent on the country to reduce its dependency on oil imports and its attendant emissions of greenhouse gases. This can be achieved by taking actions for mitigating climate change through abatement options, in particular, conservation and renewable energy production and use. Figure 3. Share of Petroleum Consumption by Activity, 2018. Source: MSET (2019) Sustainable Development: Statistical Annex. Kingston, Jamaica: Statistical Institute of Jamaica, p. 97. 17 National Water Sector Policy and Implementation Plan 25 Jamaica’s National Energy Policy 2009 - 2030, the country aims to increase the percentage of renewables in the energy mix with proposed targets of 12.5% by 2015 and 20% by 2030. This target is also in Jamaica’s First NDC. In 2018, Jamaica was producing 120 megawatts of renewable electricity power on the grid which amounted to between 15 and 18 percent of electricity generation. It is estimated that by 2030, the percentage of renewable energy could increase to 50%. The energy landscape is changing rapidly, with policy measures being implemented to increase renewables and reduce dependency on fossil fuels through the expansion of Wigton windfarm, the introduction of the solar farms, conversion to LNG including the commissioning of the floating LNG storage and regasification terminal in Old Harbour in 2019, the introduction of electric buses for the public passenger fleet and the introduction of hybrid and electric private passenger vehicles. Incentives are being provided by the government (National Housing Trust and Development Bank of Jamaica) for solar water heaters and energy efficiency-based items. Climate change impacts include: • Damage to coastal power plants, offshore wind turbines power lines, substations and related infrastructure due to sea-level rise, storms, and hurricanes; • Decreased river flow that will affect the efficiency of hydropower due to inadequate rainfall; and • Greater fuel demand and pressure on electricity consumption to operate cooling aids such as fans and air-conditioning due to increasing temperatures. Strategies and actions proposed in the Energy Policy include: • Develop diversification priorities based on cost, efficiency, environmental considerations, and appropriate technologies and competitiveness; • Prioritize renewable energy sources by economic feasibility criteria and environmental considerations including carbon abatement • Promote the development of efficient and low-cost renewable energy plants with a size of 15 MW or more on a competitive basis; • Procure 115MW of electricity from renewable sources through a competitive process administered by= nm/the Office of Utilities Regulation (OUR). Reliance on renewable energy initiatives to assist in mitigating climate change will not be sufficient. Jamaica’s efforts to mitigate must be far-reaching and concerted to extend beyond the energy sector to implement measures that include minimizing GHG emissions. 2.2.2 Transport Transportation is a major contributor to the emission of GHGs due to fossil fuel consumption. The transport sector uses almost as much fossil fuel as electricity generation.18 Attempts to reduce GHG emissions include replacing Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) in all gasoline blends with 10% ethanol and the provision of ultra-low sulphur diesel fuel on the market. The Jamaican National Energy Policy for 2009-2030 includes a strategy proposed for more efficiency and conservation in the transportation sector. Climate change will have adverse impacts on the transport sector. In 2018, a Vulnerability Assessment was undertaken for the transport sector which identified the following impacts to the sector: 18 Jamaica’s Third National Communication to the UNFCCC (2018) 26 • Storms surges, hurricanes, flooding, and sea-level rise increase risks of exposure, flooding and damage to road networks, bridges and, in particular, ports and airports which are located along or near the coast. The Norman Manley International Airport is an average elevation of 3 meters (m) above sea level. Sections of the Donald Sangster International Airport in Montego Bay are located below 1 m elevation. • It is estimated that during the passage of Hurricane Nicole the resulting losses amounted to JMD14 billion. • Higher temperatures can result in the following impacts: • Health risks from heat exposure to those using the public transportation system, especially for children and the elderly. • Disrupt the maintenance and construction crew schedules to protect workers from heat risks • Increase the need for adequate cooling in public transportation vehicles. • Cause aircraft payload restrictions, flight cancellations and service disruptions, which would have critical impacts on the tourism industry. • Buckling of paved roads and runways. The Vulnerability Assessment for the transport sector will be used to inform a revised National Transport Policy and ensure that climate change impacts and GHG emissions reduction are incorporated in this sector. Other measures being implemented include: tail pipe testing, standards for vehicle emissions, transitioning to electric mobility, increasing the number and efficiency of public passenger fleet and the conversion of fuel used by the Jamaica Urban and Transport Corporation (JUTC). 2.2.3 Waste Management Jamaica can mitigate its GHG emissions through the efficient management of waste. Methane and other GHG emissions are released from the anaerobic breakdown of the waste at disposal sites, through industrial and domestic wastewater treatment, open burning and waste incineration. The NSWMA only services 70% of the island and 27.7% of Jamaican households dispose of their garbage by burning19 notwithstanding that open burning in public is prohibited under the NRCA Order on Open Burning (2014) and the Public Health (Nuisance) Regulations,1995. Besides CO2 emissions, burning of waste can also release dangerous pollutants, including dioxins, depending on the type of refuse burnt. There are currently eight (8) waste disposal sites in Jamaica with Riverton Disposal Site accommodating approximately 60% of Jamaica’s waste.20 A 2015 waste characterization study undertaken by NSWMA shows that the majority of the waste collected is compostable and paper material (~68%) with the second largest material in the waste stream being plastics at ~15%.21Jamaica’s National Energy-from-Waste Policy 2010 – 2030 seeks to foster the development of an energy-from-waste sector by creating economic infrastructure and planning conditions conducive to the sector, using environmentally‐friendly technologies and through partnerships between the energy sector and the waste management and agriculture sectors. 19 Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2017 20 Other disposal sites are Church Corner (St. Thomas),Doctorswood (Portland), Hadden (St. Ann), Tobolski (St. Ann), Myersville (St. Elizabeth), Martin’s Hill (Manchester), Retirement (St. James) 21 NSWMA Waste Characterization Study (2015), available at http://www.nswma.gov.jm/resources/NSWMA%20 %20Waste%20Characterization%20Studies%20-%202015.pdf 27 2.2.4 Forests Forests play an important role in mitigating climate change. Forests can act as carbon sinks, capturing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Carbon is sequestered, stored and accumulates through photosynthesis in the form of plant material (biomass) and in forest soils. Forest destruction, through harvesting and burning of forest wood can also release carbon into the atmosphere and therefore the management and preservation is essential for supporting Jamaica mitigation goals. Climate change can have negative impacts on forests including, loss of trees and forest dependent species as a result of rising temperatures, increase in pests and extreme events (e.g. drought, storms and hurricanes). Approximately 439,937.8 hectares or 40 per cent of the island is classified as forest. Jamaica currently has a reforestation rate of approximately 0.41%. The Government is committed to maintaining a ‘no net loss’ of forest cover. A sub-goal of Jamaica’s Forest Policy, 2017 is to maintain and restore forest cover by providing appropriate incentives to support the protection of forested lands and the reforestation of denuded lands to address mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Initiatives under the Forest Policy include: (i) the initiation of specific activities geared towards preventing the conversion of forests to non forested areas (deforestation) thereby maintaining the carbon stock; (ii) instituting re-planting programmes; and (iii) the development of a portfolio of activities to engage in Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+). REDD+ is a mechanism to provide incentives for developing countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and ensure the conservation, sustainable management of forests and the enhancement of carbon stocks. Jamaica is committed under articles 4(1)(d) of the UNFCCC and Article 5 of the Paris Agreement to take action to conserve and enhance GHG sinks and reservoirs, including forests. Parties are encouraged to implement and support REDD+ through results-based payments, the existing Warsaw Framework for REDD+ adopted in COP 19, and alternative policy approaches such as sustainable management of forests. In pursuance of this objective, the Government of Jamaica has received funding from the Green Climate Fund’s (GCF) Readiness and Preparatory Support Programme to prepare the country for REDD+ through the establishment of an appropriate management network, organize and consult REDD+ stakeholders in a consultative process and apply REDD+ methodological tools for the development of Jamaica’s REDD+ Strategy. Other initiatives being implemented are the 3-year National Tree Planning programme aiming to plant three (3) million trees, the National Fruit Tree Planting Programme to plant 5 (five) million fruit trees and a mangrove replanting initiative managed by the Forestry Department. 2.2.5 Coastal and Marine Resources Jamaica’s coastline is approximately 886 kilometres long and is the habitat for many of the island’s diverse species and ecosystems including sandy beaches, rocky shores, estuaries, wetlands, seagrass beds and coral reefs. It is also the location for most of the critical infrastructure, formal and informal housing, as well as a high percentage of the island’s economic activities, including tourism, mixed farming, fishing, shipping and mining. Jamaica’s reef-related fisheries provide valuable jobs and revenue for the country, contributing US$34.3 million per year (Waite et al, 2011). In 2018 there were 26 382 registered fisherfolk and overall marine fish production is estimated to have declined by 27.1 % decline to 10 883 tonnes in 2018 (Economic 28 Social Survey of Jamaica 2018).The removal of mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs occasioned by this multi-purpose use of the coastal zone has increased Jamaica’s vulnerability to hurricanes and storm surges and poses a major threat to coastal ecosystems and marine wildlife. The following impacts of climate change are likely to occur: • Beaches including coastal lands will be eroded as a result of sea level rise and changing processes that affect the coastline; • Fish production will be reduced due to increases in sea surface temperatures and a rise in sea level; • Reduction in percentage of healthy reef cover and calcareous species due to ocean acidification; • Fish kills and coral bleaching due to increases in sea surface temperatures; • Destruction of coastal ecosystems and marine habitats and spawning grounds by hurricanes and tropical storms are expected to become more frequent and intense. • Northern migration of Caribbean coral reefs and fish stock due to rising sea surface temperatures; • Increase in Sargassum seaweed which will smother sea grass beds, coral reefs and mangroves and decline of sea grass due to ocean acidification and increasing sea surface temperatures; • Decline of sea grass dues to increased runoff from upstream sources as a result of heavy rainfall; • Degraded wetlands and landward migration of mangroves due to sea level rise; and • Decrease in sea turtle nesting dues to sea level rise Jamaica has developed National Coastal Management and Beach Restoration Guidelines to assist stakeholders to make informed choices concerning the selection, design, engineering, and construction of technical interventions to prevent coastal flooding and erosion and to make these resilient against climate change. Under the PPCR Programme, the project “Promoting Community-Based Resilience in the Fisheries Sector” seeks to strengthen the fisheries policy and regulatory framework including making it climate-smart, diversify and present viable alternative livelihoods that enhance sustainable fisheries and raise awareness among the fishing and fish farming communities. Appendix C lists policies and plans (draft and approved) that contribute to strengthening Jamaica’s resilience to climate change impacts including the National Policy on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management 2002. 2.2.6 Water Resources Water is a critical input for many sectors including agriculture, energy, mining and quarrying, manufacturing, tourism, housing, sanitation and health services and areas such as natural resource management, urban planning and regional development. Adverse impacts on water resources will also negatively affect these sectors. Sea water intrusion has resulted in the loss of 100 million cubic metres of groundwater (10% of local supply) annually (State of the Jamaican Climate 2015). Household access to safe drinking water continues to improve with 78.8% of households reporting access to improved water sources such as indoor or outdoor tap/pipe, public standpipe, bottled water and trucked water, as their main source of drinking water. Albeit, 24.1% of Jamaicans that access water from a public source, travel 500 metres or more to obtain water (Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2017). Drought conditions affected the island in 2016 with approximately 48.5 % of households with piped water reportedly experiencing an average of 7.8incidents of water lock-off in a 30-day period1 (Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2017). 29 Changing rainfall patterns, sea-level rise, extreme events and increasing temperatures are the projected associated impacts of climate change and are anticipated to have the following potential impacts on water resources: • Changes in temporal and spatial distribution due to increased climate variability and occurrences of severe weather events, in particular, droughts and tropical cyclones; • Saltwater intrusion: Contamination of groundwater resources due to the intrusion of seawater into coastal aquifers as sea level rises; • Greater levels of sedimentation in reservoirs and dams and sediment transport to coastal areas as soil erosion increases with the greater incidence of more intense rainfall and hurricane events; • Changes in temperature are expected to result in adverse shifts in climatic conditions for agricultural cultivation; • Increasing degradation and destruction of watersheds caused by the displacement of traditional activities/ livelihoods such as farming; • Shortage of water during periods of prolonged droughts; and • Damage to infrastructure (roads, bridges, electricity generation and transmission systems, seaports, airports, pipelines, dams) caused by extreme and slow onset events In 2019, Jamaica adopted a new National Water Sector Policy and Implementation Plan. The Policy seeks to, inter alia, reduce GHG emissions in the sector by ensuring agencies in the sector use economically viable energy-efficient and renewable energy technologies, promote rainwater harvesting, improve irrigation services, develop water protection zones, flood bank monitoring, water harvesting farms, reforestation of degraded water catchment areas and establish emergency water supply systems. The Government is also seeking to reduce the distance travelled to obtain water through the various modalities outlined in the Water Sector Policy and Implementation Plan. Under Jamaica’s PPCR Project, “Financing Water Adaptation in Jamaica´s New Urban Housing Sector” the Government of Jamaica is facilitating the uptake of water adaptation measures in the housing sector across Jamaica, including the use of rain water harvesting systems, water efficient taps and showers, low flush toilets, efficient irrigation systems and grey water recycling facilities. 2.2.7 Human Settlements and Infrastructure Currently, approximately 82% of Jamaica’s population lives along the coastline, or within 5km of the coast.22 Critical infrastructure such as port facilities, tourism centres and the airports are also located in the coastal zone. Jamaica’s susceptibility to natural disasters has proven to be a major threat to the stability of human settlements and infrastructure. Between 2001 and 2017, Jamaica experienced 12 storm events (including 7 major hurricanes) and several flood events. These events combined resulted in loss and damage amounting to approximately J$132.54 billion.23 In the case of Hurricane Ivan in 2004 the resulting loss and damage was equivalent to 8.0% of GDP. Hurricane Sandy (2012) accounted for J$9.7 billion or 0.8% of 2011 GDP in direct and indirect damage (J$9.4 billion in damage and J$0.3 billion in losses, including expenditure for vector control) as well as increased expenditure by private and Government entities. The health, housing and education sectors experienced the greatest impact accounting for 48% of the total 22 The National Coastal Management and Beach Restoration Guidelines for Jamaica (2017) 23 The State of the Jamaican Climate 2012 Report; Macro Socio-Economic and Environmental Impact Assessment of the Damage and Loss caused by the March to June Rains 2017 (PIOJ 2017). 30 costs in damage. One death and 291 injuries resulted from Hurricane Sandy (Economic and Social Survey Jamaica, 2012). In 2016, Hurricane Nicole caused damage to road networks and bridges resulting in losses totalling JMD14 billion. In 2017, heavy rainfall resulted in loss and damage amounting to $4.4 billion or 2% of Jamaica’s 2016 GDP. Some communities in Clarendon experienced up to 5.2 metres (17 feet) of flood waters. (Economic and Social Survey Jamaica, 2017). With increased development activities taking place within the coastal zone, the risks of loss of life, property damage and displacement of human settlements from natural disasters has heightened significantly. Sea level rise will also exacerbate coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion of underground coastal aquifers. Potentially, one of the major consequences will be increased insurance costs for properties and infrastructure. The most threatened settlements are those that have been created outside the formal physical planning system, and do not meet the required planning and building standards. It is anticipated that climate change impacts will increase the vulnerability of human settlements to floods, storm surges, sea level rise and hurricanes. This may lead to increased migration such as from threatened coastal areas towards inland areas. In this regard, the Government continues its work on the rationalization of the land use planning and development process, strengthening of institutional capacity, development of policies and enforcement of legislation to guide settlement and infrastructural planning and development. The Building Act was enacted in 2018 to ensure that construction is done in accordance with the National Building Code. The Act also seeks to discourage new squatter settlements from being built, promote sustainable development, and establish and enforce internationally accepted building standards and rules for individuals and entities providing construction material and services. Local authorities can intervene to prevent building on land that is deemed hazardous. The Government of Jamaica is also developing a National Spatial Plan for Jamaica to ensure orderly development. Since 2013, the Government of Jamaica has done a comprehensive review and updating of Development Orders to include among other things climate change considerations and Local Sustainable Development Plans have also been developed for some parishes to guide sustainable development. 2.2.8 Agriculture The agriculture sector is one of the sectors most susceptible to climate change impacts. Agriculture remains central to the Jamaican economy primarily for employment and foreign exchange generation, despite the decline in the number of persons involved. The proportion of the labour force in agriculture has significantly decreased from a high in 1943 of 45% to 24.4% in 1994, down to 17.9 % in 2006. The sector contributed 28 % to GDP in 1943. By 2018, the contribution of the agriculture, forestry and fishing sectors to GDP had declined to 7% in 2018 (Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2018). Evidence of the fragility of the agriculture sector and the potential for destruction from climate change impacts can be seen in the tremendous losses suffered by the sector during extreme weather events and conditions, including hurricanes and tropical storms. In 2017, the average rainfall was 2,154mm, 434mm above 2016 and 381 mm above the 30-year mean making it the highest volume recorded for the period 2007 – 2017 despite a drying trend observed. The 31 increased rainfall gave rise to widespread flooding that damaged crops and livestock at an estimated $792.4 million (Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2017). The category 1 Hurricane Sandy in 2012 caused damage amounting to J$1.452 billion in domestic and agricultural crops alone (Jamaica’s Biennial Report 2016). In 2012, farmers lost J$140 million worth of crop in damages as a result of the Beet Army Worm which thrives in high temperatures (State of the Jamaican Climate 2015). The agriculture sector is also one of the main consumers of energy and water with a demand of 75% of the local water supply and, therefore, key to addressing Jamaica's GHG emissions.24 Climate change is also expected to have a range of impacts on seaports, airports and other points of entry which are located along the coastal zone and are either below or close to sea level. Ports are primarily located in wetlands and low-lying areas which are characterized by high-exposure potential and low adaptation capability. Any interruption in operations at seaports, airports, other points of entry and related infra-structure resulting from climate change may potentially cause import and export delays, loss and damage to goods and other challenges in global supply chains which have severe negative implications for international trade. Climate change will exacerbate current threats to the sector as well as introduce new ones. The potential impacts to the sector associated with climate change are as follows: • Decrease in the availability of water resources due to increased temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns (frequency and duration) and prolonged periods of drought; • Reduction in water quality due to saline intrusion into ground water sources caused by rising sea-levels; • Increases in agricultural pests, weeds, bacteria and diseases due to increasing temperature; • Accelerated soil erosion and inundation of production fields due to the occurrence of extreme events (floods, hurricanes etc.); • Reduction in soil fertility and soil degradation due to soil salinization caused by rising sea levels and drought; • Reduction in crop yields such as citrus and root crops due to changes in agro-climatic conditions (temperature and precipitation) and in standing export crops such as banana, sugar cane and coffee due to the occurrence of hurricanes and tropical storms; • Loss of marine resources due to destruction of spawning grounds caused by the occurrence of severe weather events; • Damage to agricultural infrastructure and assets due to extreme events; • Severe weather events will also lead to a mass disruption in food security, increased water and production costs, food costs, costs of insurance and higher rates for capital cost loans; • Adverse impacts on livestock such as chickens, goats, sheep and cattle include higher mortality, decreased reproduction, lower birth weight and growth rate, increased susceptibility to diseases due to increasing temperatures and drought. • Loss of employment and income earning opportunities; • Loss of foreign exchange due to potential reduction in agricultural exports; and • Increased demand for foreign exchange for food imports. 24 National Water Sector Policy and Implementation Plan, p. 16 32 2.2.9 Tourism The tourism sector contributed 6% of GDP to the Jamaican economy in 2017 (Economic and Social Survey Jamaica, 2017). The local tourism product is dominated mainly by resort tourism located in coastal areas such as Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, and Negril. Tourism remains one of the most important sectors to the nation’s development given the substantial linkages with other sectors (agricultural production: as a local market for local farmers; water sector; coastal and marine resources, fisheries). Hurricanes, storm surges and tropical storms have posed the greatest threat to the sector in recent times. In 2007, Hurricane Dean resulted in an estimated US$43.7 million loss to the sector. Strong winds and storm surges associated with the hurricane resulted in extensive damage to tourism infrastructure, facilities and attractions such as the island’s beaches. Impacts to the industry include: • Diminished marine and terrestrial biodiversity; • Increased presence of Sargassum seaweed will cover beaches and discolour near shore waters in many coastal areas thereby compromising the quality of the local tourism product; • Damage to and destruction of hotels and other tourism infrastructure located in coastal areas susceptible to storm surges, beach erosion and sea-level rise; • Reduction in freshwater resources and food production arising from changes in precipitation amounts and spatial distribution, loss of forest-cover and related factors. This may include increasing demand for limited water resources caused by changing rainfall patterns and possible reduction in supplies due to competing interests for the resources among tourism and other sectors. • Altered seasonality, heat stress for Jamaicans and tourists, increased cooling costs, changes in wildlife and insect populations and distribution and infectious disease caused by warmer temperatures; • Loss and damage to archaeological, cultural and heritage attraction sites due to sea level rise, flooding and hurricanes; • Extensive coastal erosion caused by sea level rise, storm surges and hurricanes, resulting in the loss of beach areas. During the period 2012 to 2013 there was a net erosion of about 20.8m among 36 monitored beaches;25 • Increased cost to protect coastline through the erection and maintenance of sea defences; • Increased coral bleaching and degradation of marine resources due to increases in sea surface temperature; • Acidification of the seas and oceans • Increases in insurance costs/ loss of insurability and business interruption costs caused by increasing frequency and intensity of extreme storm events; • Loss of economic returns due to the possible changes in, or loss of: coral reefs, beaches, natural forests and other natural resources and attractions • Reduced visitor arrivals as a result of a higher frequency of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, as well as reduced inducement for travel as a result of higher temperatures in traditional tourism marketplaces; and 25 Jamaica’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity 2010-2013 p. 10; Beach Erosion: Status and Trends 2013. NEPA, 2014 33 2.2.10 Human Health Human health is affected by several key factors including the physical environment, and social and economic support systems/networks. Climate change is said to affect the most fundamental determinants of health: air, water, food, shelter, and freedom from disease. The impacts on human health are largely be determined by several factors, including available health services, the state of the natural and built environments (including air, water, and sanitation services) and the availability of life sustaining resources such as water and food. Jamaica’s vulnerability to extreme hazards and its location in the tropics also increases the risks posed to human health, as local conditions are ‘favourable’ for the expansion of both tropical (vector-borne) and water-related diseases. Increased temperatures, rainfall, and drought conditions that lead to necessary water storage create the ideal conditions for the breeding of vectors like the Aedes aegypti mosquito (SNC, 2011)26. The Chikungunya virus, transmitted by mosquitos, is believed to have affected 60% of the Jamaican population (although only 5,180 cases were reported up to 2015), cost the Jamaican economy in 2014, some thirty million Jamaican dollars, due to work stoppage of the Jamaican labour force and the recovery time of 5-10 days (Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2016 and State of the Jamaican Climate 2015). Climate change will bring about more storms, floods, droughts, and heat waves, which are all expected to threaten all the determinants of health, resulting in the following anticipated impacts: • An increase in the incidence of vector-borne diseases (such as dengue fever, malaria, chikungunya and yellow fever) as higher temperatures favour the proliferation of mosquitoes and other disease carriers: a threefold increase in dengue transmission is likely in Jamaica12; • Food shortages as a result of drought conditions, may lead to malnutrition; • A higher occurrence of respiratory diseases and heat and stress-related illnesses and conditions caused by the ‘urban heat island effect.’ This could directly increase morbidity and mortality rates, particularly in the young and the elderly; and • An increase in water-related diseases such as dysentery, typhoid, leptospirosis and cholera particularly following extreme rainfall events, and exacerbated by poor sanitation, unplanned settlements and pollution of water sources It is further recognized that the impacts of climate change on coastal and terrestrial resources, food supply, water production and the various economic sectors are likely to have indirect and significant effects on human health: • More frequent extreme weather events can lead to potentially more deaths and injuries caused by storms, floods and landslides; and • Given the vulnerability of the agricultural sector to climate variability, rising temperatures and more frequent droughts and floods can compromise food security. This could result in increases in malnutrition, given the high dependency on rain-fed subsistence farming. 26 See also, An Assessment of the Economic Impact of Climate Change on the Health Sector in Jamaica (UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, 22 October 2011) (LC/CAR/L.316). 34 2.2.11 Biodiversity Jamaica’s biodiversity is rich, with approximately 8000 species of plants and animals and the 5th highest number of endemic plants among islands in the world.27 The sustainable management and use of Jamaica’s environment and natural resources is one of the National Outcomes under Vision 2030, Jamaica’s roadmap to national development.28 The most vulnerable ecosystems to climate change impacts are the coral reefs, highland forests and mangrove wetlands.29 The likely impacts on climate change on biodiversity include30: • Increasing air and sea temperatures will lead to fish kills, coral reef bleaching, overabundance of algae, decreased quantity and quality of water resources, changes in species abundance & distribution (migration to higher altitudes), increase in invasive species, genetic changes, change in reproduction timings (life cycle), reduction in male sea turtle due to increased sand temperatures, changes in growing seasons for plants and increase in extinction rate of species and loss of mangroves as a result of prolonged periods of drought • Increasing sea level rise will lead to changes in marine ecosystems including flooding of wetlands, loss of coastal species, saltwater intrusion in freshwater areas, loss of nesting and feeding habitats particularly for endangered turtle species and crocodiles. • Changes in frequency and intensity of hurricanes can lead to loss of vulnerable species, changes in the range of invasive species, increased damage and loss of sensitive habitats, nests & nesting sites (coral reefs, mangrove ecosystems, forests). 2.2.12 Finance Jamaica’s poverty rate as at 2016 was 19.3%31 . The country has historically struggled with low growth and high public debt although it is classified as an upper middle-income country by the World Bank. In 2013, Jamaica began the implementation of an economic reform programme under an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to stabilize and grow the economy and reduce debt. Since the start of the reform programme, Jamaica’s economy has grown. GDP for 2018/2019 grew by 1.9% relative to the period 2017/201832 and public debt fell below 100 percent of GDP in 2018/19 for the first time in 18 years.33 In April 2019, the unemployment rate was 7.8% with the number of employed persons increasing by 2% compared to April 2018.34 Building resilience to the impacts of climate change can support national development and contribute to the reduction of poverty. Jamaica’s vulnerability to the impacts of climate change, including extreme 27 Jamaica Country Profile, https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=jm#facts 28 Vision 2030 Jamaica National Development Plan, National Outcome #13 29 Jamaica’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity 2010 - 2013 30 Jamaica’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity 2010 - 2013; Climate Change Impacts on Jamaica’s Biodiversity, Dr Dale Webber (undated presentation) 31 Jamaica’s Survey of Living Conditions 2017 32 STATIN 33 World Bank, Jamaica Country Overview, available at https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/jamaica (accessed 24.7.2019) 34 Labour Force Survey, April 2019 (STATIN) https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/jamaica 35 weather events such as hurricanes, storms and drought, has had negative impacts on Jamaica’s economy including unplanned budgetary expenditures, reallocation of financial resources to aid in reconstruction and rehabilitation efforts, decline in budgetary revenues and increased pressure on central bank reserves. During the period 2001 to 2017, Jamaican incurred loss and damages totalling over J$120 billion due to hurricanes, storms and drought. To adequately address these impacts, Jamaica has purchased insurance coverage with the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility Segregated Portfolio Company and is developing a Disaster Financing Risk Policy. In April 2019, Jamaica’s Minister of Finance joined the Coalition of Finance Ministers for Climate Action convened by the World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund which seeks to promote national climate action through fiscal policy and the use of public finance by the sharing of best practices and experiences on macro, fiscal, and public financial management policies for low-carbon transformation. 2.2.13 Impact on Youth In observing International Youth Day in 2008, Secretary-General of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon described the relationship between youth and climate change in developing countries, stating “Today's young people will bear the consequences of climate change, thanks to the unfortunate legacy of their elders. In many developing countries in particular, youth -- especially girls and young women -- are often responsible for…tasks (which) will be rendered more difficult … as climate change affects the availability of water, agricultural productivity and the survival of ecosystems.” At the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) Youth Forum in February 2015, the Secretary-General also stated “2015 is not just another year – it is a chance to change the course of history. Ours is the first generation with the potential to end poverty – and the last to act to avoid the worst effects of climate change.” Children, in particular, experience extreme sensitivity to external shocks. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has noted that children will suffer malnourishment and food insecurity due to climate change, are at risk of becoming environmental refugees and will experience higher vulnerability to disease, heatstroke and resource shortages. Policy instruments must contribute to the provision of an institutional framework that supports the building of an environment conducive to child protection and development. Youth, in particular, unemployed inner-city youth have been identified as one of the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.35 Through its 2012 Climate Change Knowledge, Attitude, Behavioural Practice Study, Jamaica has acknowledged that public awareness and education at the very youngest level should be focused on not only increasing general knowledge of climate change but also focused on engendering behavioural change and a change in cultural attitudes. A National Strategy and Action Plan 2012 - 2017 for Communication for Climate Resilience has been developed under Jamaica’s Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) project. One of the specific goals of this Communications Plan was that by the end of 2017, at least 20% of Jamaica’s teachers and 20% of students (at all levels) will be able to articulate what climate change is and why adaptation is important for climate resilience. 35 Report on Climate Change Knowledge, Attitude, Behavioural Practice Study, Planning Institute of Jamaica (2012) 36 Despite the special challenges that youth36 will face in the short, medium and long-term, they are well placed to combat the adverse effects of climate change. Jamaica, with over 530,000 youth37 representing approximately 19% of the total population, stands to gain significantly from the creative and transformational power of its youth. The Climate Change Policy Framework will therefore, support the abilities of young people to lead the country towards positive, ‘climate-friendly’ changes in lifestyles, infrastructure, entrepreneurship, governance and decision-making. Along these lines, Jamaica has created several opportunities to spread awareness and mobilize youth on climate change. These include, the appointment of Climate Change Youth Ambassadors, the Youth Environmental Advocacy Programme dedicated to fostering environmental awareness and promoting advocacy for environmental issues, among high school youth and staging a 2017 Youth Climate Change Conference and 2019 Post Conference of Parties (COP) Youth Consultation on Climate Change. 2.2.14 Gender considerations Gender, like climate change, is a cross-cutting issue and presents specific challenges in tackling the adverse effects of climate change. Generally, men and women face different economic, social and environmental realities. Jamaican young men-at-risk for various forms of violence and marginalization and women-at-risk for gender-based assault, experience different vulnerabilities and have reduced capacities to adapt to climate change and therefore may have different concerns and inputs into decision making processes. State of the Jamaican Climate 2015 outlines a myriad of ways in which climate change affects women and men differently.38 Women’s socioeconomic circumstances are worsened during the times of disasters due to their higher rates of poverty which make them more vulnerable to risks of displacement and hamper their ability to respond and recover from natural disasters. In 2016, poverty was recorded as greater in female-headed households being 13% compared with 10.4% in male-headed households while at the same time female headed households had a larger proportion of children (72.9%) than male-headed households (58.4%) (Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2016). Women may be more impacted by drought than men. Women and children have the main responsibilities for sourcing and collecting water for domestic purposes in households without piped water or where there are water restrictions as a result of drought. This burden may limit their ability to earn and diversify their income. The distance travelled and the time consumed to access water, can be a hindrance to increased productivity and can expose women and children to danger.39 Although women make up over 50% of the population, Jamaica’s National Policy for Gender Equality notes that they are “woefully under-represented in the public and private decision-making spheres of the country.” Jamaica has made considerable national and international commitments to achieve gender equality. Jamaica is a signatory to several regional and international instruments which encourage gender equality 36 The United Nations, for statistical purposes, defines ‘youth’, as those persons between the ages of 15 and 24 years, without prejudice to other definitions by Member States. See Secretary-General’s Report to the General Assembly Resolution A/36/215 and resolution 36/28, 1981) 37 Figure as at the end of 2013. Statistical Institute of Jamaica, http://statinja.gov.jm/Demo SocialStats/newEndofYearPopulationbyAgeandSex2008.aspx 38 State of the Jamaican Climate 2015, p. 97 – 98. 39 The National Water Sector Policy and Implementation Plan for Jamaica, 2019 37 including The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), the Convention of Belém do Pará and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). At the national level, several policies have been established to address gender equality and gender-based violence. Jamaica’s National Development Plan, Vision 2030, recognises the long-term systemic discrimination against women and seeks to address this by identifying and overcoming the limitations to the empowerment of women and men. The Gender Sector Plan outlines a plan of action to draft, develop and implement policies, laws, institutions and approaches that will encourage and support equity between men and women. In 2011, Jamaica amended its Constitution to introduce the Charter of Fundamental Rights of Freedoms which prohibits discrimination of the basis of being male or female. The National Policy for Gender Equality (NPGE) also approved in 2011 seeks to mainstream gender in all state institutions and their apparatuses. Pursuant to this, gender focal points have been established in all MDAs. The country also has developed a National Strategic Action Plan to Eliminate Gender-Based Violence in Jamaica for the period 2016-2026. The Policy Framework, therefore, will support gender equitable development, in line with the Vision 2030 Gender Sector Plan and the National Policy for Gender Equality. 2.3 Challenges Facing Jamaica in the Short-, Medium- and Long-term 2.3.1 High Incidence of Poverty The high incidence of poverty, particularly in the rural areas of the island, is increasing. In 2016, the proportion of Jamaica’s population living below the poverty line of $175,297.00 (the least amount needed to maintain a minimum acceptable standard of living) was 17.1% down from 21.2% in 2015 (Jamaica’s Survey of Living Conditions 2016). In order to ensure that persons live in ways that are less environmentally intrusive (e.g., harmful forestry practices), and to maximize their capacity to adapt to climate change, it is necessary to ensure that poverty alleviation remains high on the national sustainable development agenda. 2.3.2 Limited Financial Resources In Jamaica’s First National Communications to the UNFCCC on Climate Change (2000) it was estimated that a 1m rise in sea level would see US$462 million being required to protect Jamaica’s coast. There is a great need for sustained sources of funding for climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts as well as for managing impacts which are beyond adaptation such as massive coral bleaching which will require significant funding for rehabilitation activities. The Government of Jamaica has been able to mobilize funding to facilitate adaptation and mitigation measures. In 2010, The Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) was accredited as a National Implementing Entity (NIE) by the Adaptation Fund Board to receive direct financial transfers from the Fund in order to carry out adaptation projects and programmes. Jamaica established the Adaptation Fund Programme (amounting to US$10 million) in 2013 which focuses on protecting livelihoods and food security among vulnerable communities by improving land and water management for the agriculture sector, strengthening coastal protection, and building institutional and local capacity for climate change adaptation. In 2015, the CCD was designated as the National Designated Authority (NDA) for the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and is responsible for collaborating with accredited entities to facilitate the review process within government for project proposals to the GCF. The Development Bank of Jamaica (DBJ) and the 38 Jamaica Social Investment Fund (JSIF) — were nominated to become Direct Access Entities to directly access financing from the GCF. The Environment and Risk Management Branch of the Ministry responsible for the Environment is the focal point for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and has benefits from access to financing.40 Although it is estimated that Jamaica has directly accessed over US$500M dollars in finance for climate action, specifically public, private and community-based interventions, between 2009-2018,41 sustained and progressively greater financing is required to achieve adaptation goals and mitigation targets. Of the newly approved Official Development Assistance (ODA) for 2018, only US$9.5 million ($1.2 billion) of the total amount received of US$220.7 million ($28.6 billion) was directly focused on the Environment and Climate Change sector (Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2018). 2.3.3 Policy Frameworks and Legislative and Regulatory Support for Integrating Climate Change Considerations There is need for greater collaboration, coordination and mainstreaming of climate change considerations in Jamaica’s sectoral policies and plans. Sectoral policies must take into account the issue of climate change and how global warming could affect the sustainability of their respective sectors and integrate adaptation, mitigation and risk reduction strategies. The key areas are energy, agriculture, tourism, health, water, forestry, transportation, coastal resources, human settlements, fisheries, finance, and waste management. Jamaica does not have legislation directly relating to climate change, although a number of policies and legislation, have been developed in the past decade which indirectly seek to address climate change impacts and actions, and several are currently in development. Appendix C includes a Table of policies and legislation to address climate change. 2.3.4 Institutional and Individual Capacity The ability of public and private sector, particularly the small- and medium- enterprises, to address climate change issues is tied directly to the broader policy and regulatory system of Government. Inadequate financial and technical resources can limit their overall ability to develop and expedite key programmes, projects and action plans associated with climate change. The Government of Jamaica is seeking to overcome this challenge by building the capacity of MDAs through the Climate Change Focal Point Network. 2.3.5 Strengthening of the Physical Planning System The vulnerability of Jamaica to natural hazards is largely due to geographic and bio-physiologic factors. However, its overall vulnerability has been heightened due to significant alterations made to the natural environment by the development of infrastructure and human settlements and the settlement patterns of the population, particularly within the coastal zone. With more than 70% of all major industries located within the coastal zone and approximately 82% of the population living within 5km of the coast, the country is faced with the considerable challenge of reducing the island’s vulnerability, while improving its limited adaptive capacity to address climate change. 40 2018 Annual Report of the Climate Change Division 41 2018 Annual Report of the Climate Change Division 39 Steps have been taken to ensure orderly planning in Jamaica to address the challenges related to vulnerability. The entire island is covered by either confirmed or provisional Development Orders, with the exception of Portmore, for which a Development Order is currently being developed as at 2019. Within the context of a changing socio-economic and environmental climate, the Orders will be used to guide and facilitate development by establishing where and which types of development ought to take place; control development/ facilitate enforcement; help to support the development of communities; provide opportunities for people to participate actively in the planning process; provide a planning system that bridges the gap between environment and economic development; improve local governance; build research capacity; and educate stakeholders. Local Sustainable Development Plans (LSDPs) have also been developed for the parishes of Manchester, St. Elizabeth (and Treasure Beach), St. Catherine, Clarendon and Trelawny. Plans are underway for Westmoreland, St. Thomas and Portmore. The Government of Jamaica has begun development of a National Spatial Plan which will achieve the following: 1. Rationalize the use of local land resources through the preparation of a National Physical Plan to: a) Specify broad spatial planning objectives and guiding principles for national and regional development; b) optimize the use of land and natural resources by providing a framework for making sustainable locational choices c) Improve governmental capacity to formulate, coordinate and implement integrated rural development policies and programmes in order to address spatially unbalanced development. 2. Set a national context for spatial planning at the local level. 3. Inform strategic infrastructure policy and public investment decisions which support the achievement of balanced regional development, by taking account of and highlighting the relationship between infrastructure and the economy, patterns of development within it, and quality of life. 4. Strengthen inter-sectoral coordination of the country’s development within a spatial framework and provide the private sector with a clear context of Governmental investment decisions and commitments.42 A National Spatial Data Information Technology Platform is being developed through a JAMPRO competitiveness project funded by The World Bank to digitize information under the National Spatial Plan. The physical planning system has however been hampered by limited human, technical and financial resources. There is a greater need for the integration of land use planning into ocean and coastal zone management policies, in order to explicitly address all needs related to the management of natural resources. The capacity of development agencies to enforce guidelines or requirements for no-build zones and environmentally sensitive areas needs to be strengthened in order to reduce risks posed by natural disasters, such as flooding.43 42 Review of Policy, Plans, Legislation and Regulations for Climate Resilience in Jamaica, (PIOJ, 2012) 43 Macro Socio-Economic and Environmental Impact Assessment of the Damage and Loss caused by the March to June Rains 2017 40 2.3.6 Limited Research Capacity and Technological Development Timely and accurate research is needed to ensure Jamaica is able to increase its adaptive capacity and resilience and to promote low carbon development while fulfilling its regional and international obligations and meeting its national development goals. Global models do not provide sufficient information on climatic conditions in the Caribbean, resulting in a limited understanding of climatic processes. Jamaica is a part of The Caribbean Climate Modellers Consortium (CCMC) along with Cuba, Barbados, Suriname, Belize and other countries. CCMC is a network of researchers and practitioners that are collaborating to address data gaps and lack of relevant scientific information specific for understanding climate change impacts to the Caribbean. Through this collaboration, Jamaica has been able to benefit from Regional Climate Models showing predicted changes in climate for the Caribbean region. Jamaica has made great improvements in the area of climate research. A number of institutions across Jamaica have been funding or conducting climate change research in specific areas. These include the Climate Studies Group, Mona (CSGM); the Centre for Marine Science, University of the West Indies (UWI); the School of the Built Environment - University of Technology; Northern Caribbean University; and the Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, UWI, Mona, the Climate Change Innovation Centre – Scientific Research Centre and the Caribbean Maritime University (CMU). The Climate Change Policy Framework embodies the will to, inter alia, foster a greater culture of scientific research, technology and innovation to address climate change and ensure appropriate mechanisms for setting the research agenda to guide the development of sectoral action plans to address climate change. Challenges faced by scientists in Jamaica include: • Limitations in available climate data for use in monitoring and modelling climatic conditions and changes • The cost of the requisite technology to accurately collect data such as ocean pH levels • Lack of a coordinated central repository for climate related data and information44 • Lack of a clear research agenda set by policy to provide guidance on the areas of research needed to address climate change in the various sectors. Research and innovation needs span the spectrum of the natural and social sciences, and must address integration of science and technology into decision-making processes and resulting measures to combat the effects of climate change. 2.3.7 Limited Integration of Environmental Considerations into Socio-Economic Policies and Strategies Socio-economic imperatives have tended to outweigh the longer term needs of the environment. Vision 2030 Jamaica has infused climate change considerations into national development planning. However, there is need for enhanced mainstreaming of environmental and climate change issues into national social and economic policies. There needs to be greater appreciation by decision-makers of the inter-relationship between environmental protection and management and socio-economic advancements to ensure that 44 Under the PPCR project, ‘Improving Climate Data and Information Management Project’ a Climate Data Node is being established. 41 climate change issues are effectively addressed. Advancements made in key sectors such as transport, energy, tourism and agriculture have focused primarily on the social and economic achievements/ outcomes, without due consideration to the impacts these changes may have on the environment. 2.3.8 Labour Productivity Local labour markets have been impacted by various phenomena such as globalization which have created several threats to the labour force. Among these threats are strong competition for highly skilled labour and increased application of technology which may reduce the dependence on and use of low skilled labour.45 Jamaica’s average employed labour force grew by 1.3 % to 1,215,975 persons in 2018 from 1, 200, 575 persons in 2017 (Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2018). Increasing atmospheric temperatures and relative humidity pose additional challenges for those segments of the labour force working in the open-air environments. Without the appropriate adaptation measures in place, it is anticipated that there may be significant negative impacts on labour productivity, especially for wage-labour dependent house-holds and workers engaged in open-field occupations such as construction, industry, agriculture and fisheries and some segments of the manufacturing and transportation industries.46 In light of the conditions that are projected to arise from climate change, there will be the increased potential for heat stress, dizziness, fainting, earlier onset of worker fatigue and work-related accidents. By 2030 if global warming is limited to 1.5°C, 2.2 per cent of total working hours worldwide will be lost every year due to higher temperatures that mean workers will not be able to work or have to work at a slower pace thereby resulting in a loss equivalent to 80 million full-time jobs and global economic losses of US$2,400 billion.47 Though legislative measures are in place such as the draft Occupational Health and Safety Bill and the Factories Act, there may be need for exploration into additional targeted initiatives to create a more climate resilient labour force to protect and improve Jamaica’s labour productivity. 2.3.9 Human Security and Mobility Climate change poses significant risk to human security in multiple ways. The negative impacts on livelihoods that may result from the impacts of climate change can lead to changes in migration patterns and a rise in both internal and external migration. These changes may give rise to tension and conflict within communities, changes in cultural practices and a strain on the institutions that exist to manage the settlement and integration of migrants.48 “Human mobility” in the context of climate change encompasses different types of movements: migration, displacement and planned relocation.49 Climate change with its resulting impacts such 45 Vision 2030 Jamaica, Labour Market and Productivity Sector Plan 2009-2030 46 Summary for Policymakers, Contribution of Working Group II to Fifth Assessment Report, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014 47 Working on a warmer planet: The impact of heat stress on labour productivity and decent work, International Labour Office – Geneva, ILO, 2019 48 Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014 49 Human mobility is a generic term covering all the different forms of movements of persons. IOM (2018), International Migration Law N°34 - Glossary on Migration. See also, Implementation of the Workplan of the Task Force on Displacement under the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); Pillar I: Policy/Practice – National/Subnational Activity I.1: 42 as more frequent and intense natural disasters and environmental degradation (e.g. drought, rising sea levels etc.) can be a driver of migration, displacement and/or planned relocation. When carefully planned, migration can be a potential adaptation or coping strategy to the adverse effects of climate change. For example, planned relocation in evacuation plans can be a part of preparedness efforts linked to disasters. Human mobility can also negative impacts on the environment and security when areas of relocation are not able to accommodate the influx of persons. This could lead to increased pressure on the infrastructure and basic services for urban centres, increased environmental degradation and potential national security threats that can contribute to the destabilization of societies and adverse economic impacts. Mapping Human Mobility and Climate Change in Relevant National Policies and Institutional Frameworks International Organization for Migration (IOM)1 - Analysis Report, August 2018 43 3. THE CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY FRAMEWORK 3.1 Vision Statement Jamaica achieves its goals of sustained growth and prosperity for its people with enhanced resilience and capacity to adapt to the impacts and to mitigate the causes of climate change. 3.2 Goals The goals of this Policy Framework are as follows: 1. Strengthening of Jamaica’s adaptive capacity and resilience to reduce its vulnerability to climate change; 2. Pursuit of low carbon development and enhancement of access to and mobilization of climate finance; and 3. Promotion of public education and awareness raising, research and technology transfer towards ambitious climate action. 3.3 Objectives Each policy objective is aligned with a corresponding goal as follows: Goal 1: Strengthening of Jamaica’s adaptive capacity and resilience to reduce its vulnerability to climate change 1.1 Governance: Improve the governance framework for climate action and ensure transparency and accountability. 1.2 Adaptation: Reduce Jamaica’s vulnerability and increase Jamaica’s capacity to respond to the harmful impacts of climate change Goal 2: Pursuit of low carbon development and enhancement of access to and mobilization of climate finance 2.1 Mitigation: Reduce Jamaica’s overall GHG emissions in support of low carbon development. 2.2 Finance: Facilitate access to and mobilization of climate financing for adaptation and mitigation 44 Goal 3: Promotion of public education and awareness raising, research and technology transfer towards ambitious climate action 3.1 Public Awareness and Education: Increase public awareness of climate change impacts, climate actions and responses at the national and local levels to facilitate behaviour change 3.2 Research: Promote research, innovation, data collection, analyses and facilitate projections at the national level on climate change, its impacts, and appropriate adaptation and mitigation measures, to inform decision-making and strategic actions at all levels 3.3 Technology Transfer: Promote the transfer of environmentally sound technologies for mitigating and adapting to climate change with other countries and international organisations and among the public sector, private sector entities, financial institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and research/education institutions 3.4 Principles50 The relevant Ministries, Departments and Agencies will take into account the following principles in the development and implementation of sectoral climate change adaptation and mitigation plans: 1. Sustainable development Recognizing that the resilience of the natural environment is key to adapting to climate change, the response to the climate change challenge must be linked to the sustainable use of natural resources, the maintenance and restoration of ecosystems and an ecosystem-based approach to disaster risk management. 2. Multi-sectoral approach to climate change The Government will mainstream climate change adaptation and mitigation considerations in the development of legislation, policies, strategies, programmes, plans and projects of all Ministries, Departments and Agencies of Government. 3. Public Participation and Collaboration The Government will employ a consultative and collaborative approach to respond to climate change. Information on the impacts of climate change and proposed response measures will be provided to the public to ensure awareness and understanding and also to encourage changes in attitudes and practices. The Government, in the development of strategies and approaches to address climate change, will engage interested and relevant stakeholders which include local communities, media, academia, research institutions, public and private sectors, civil society organisations as well as those most vulnerable to climate change impacts, including women, children and the poor. 4. Precautionary Approach 50 Several principles are defined in the glossary. 45 The Government will apply the necessary strategies and measures to ensure an effective response to the impacts of climate change even in the absence of full scientific certainty. 5. Transparency and accountability The Government will employ measures to ensure that there is transparency and accountability in the development and implementation of adaptation and mitigation plans. 6. Best available science The Government will apply sound technical and scientific analysis and principles and new scientific findings consistent with the precautionary approach. Traditional knowledge is recognized and will be utilized as an important complement to scientific information. 7. Polluter Pays Principle The Government will apply the polluter pays principle in the implementation of the Policy Framework. 8. Inter-and Intra-generational equity The Government will utilize the principles of inter-and intra-generational equity to ensure that the rights to development of both current and future generations are equitably fulfilled. 9. Equality and non-discrimination The Government will ensure equality and non-discrimination in its efforts to address climate change. A gender perspective, including efforts to ensure gender equality, will be considered in all planning for climate change mitigation and adaptation and care will be taken to protect the rights of children, older persons, persons with disabilities, and others in vulnerable situations. 3.5 Policy Objectives 3.5.1. Governance The Ministry responsible for climate change will collaborate with relevant stakeholders at the local, national, regional and international levels to improve the governance framework related to climate action to ensure transparency and accountability. OBJECTIVE 1.1 STRATEGIES ACTIONS GOVERNANCE Improve the governance framework for climate action and ensure transparency and accountability Strengthen Jamaica’s active participation in regional and international climate activities Ensure Jamaica’s participation in regional and international climate change processes, particularly the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement -related activities. Conduct national public and stakeholder consultations to inform Jamaica’s positions articulated at international and regional climate change negotiations and other fora Utilize and develop, as appropriate, tools and mechanisms to ensure that relevant decisions taken 46 at regional and international levels are mainstreamed into national actions. Promote effective synergies between the national climate agenda and those of the economic, social and environmental sectors. Improve the legal framework for coordinating climate change action Enact legislation to, inter alia, institutionalise the role and functions of the responsible authorities for coordinating action on climate change (e.g. Climate Change Division and Climate Change Advisory Board) and to incorporate public participation in relation to climate action Strengthen multi stakeholder coordination, networking, information exchange and expertise in climate action across MDAs, private sector and civil society Strengthen the Climate Change Focal Point Network through, inter alia, increasing its capacity and expertise at the national and parish levels Develop mechanisms and tools for the inclusion of climate change considerations into plans and programmes to inform decision making at the level of Cabinet, Parliament and local government 3.5.2. Adaptation The Government of Jamaica recognizes the need for climate change considerations to be reflected in key policy measures, regulations and laws across all sectors to ensure adaptive capacity to address climate change. Jamaica has already developed various policies, plans and programmes which address climate change, and some of the sector plans developed under Vision 2030 Jamaica – National Development Plan include climate change considerations. The CCD works with the Climate Change Focal Point Network and the Policy Analysts’ Network (PAN) to mainstream climate change considerations into the policy development process.51 51 The Policy Analysts’ Network (PAN) is a group of approximately 30 to 40 officials in the various Ministries, Departments and Agencies of the Government of Jamaica dedicated to sharing best practises in policy analysis. The PAN was formally launched by the Prime Minister of Jamaica on June 13, 2001 at Jamaica House, Kingston, Jamaica 47 OBJECTIVE 1.2 STRATEGIES ACTIONS ADAPTATION Reduce Jamaica’s vulnerability and increase Jamaica’s capacity to respond to the harmful impacts of climate change Develop a framework for mainstreaming climate change into ecosystem protection, spatial planning and budget processes. Ensure screening for climate change impacts is incorporated in the decision-making process for plans, projects and prescribed activities requiring approval from NEPA. Conduct and periodically update vulnerability assessments for key sectors and a national assessment of vulnerable areas and natural resources at risk Utilize natural resource valuation tools and methodologies in the decision-making process for planning approval at all levels. Increase the number and improve the management of marine and terrestrial protected areas to, inter alia, prohibit destructive practices and enhance the resilience of ecosystems. Finalize and implement plans and policies related to land use such as the National Spatial Plan, National Land Policy1, Agricultural Land Use Policy Comprehensive Disaster Risk Management Policy and the National Hazard Risk Reduction Policy to incorporate climate change considerations, among other things. Develop and implement a National Environment Policy to take into account, inter alia, issues related to increasing the resilience of species and ecosystems in adapting to climate change Periodically update Development Orders, Local Sustainable Development Plans, the National Building Code, setback limits, standards and guidelines for developments and enforce no-build zones to assist in addressing adaptation challenges Strengthen early warning systems and emergency preparedness Build capacities at the national and local levels to coordinate and enhance mainstreaming and implementation of climate action. Prepare a national adaptation plan (NAP) with due consideration to key sectors. Prepare and implement capacity building plans and strategies that address the adaptation needs of various sectors. Build the capacity of the climate change focal point networks to support the development of NAPs that incorporate climate change considerations for priority sectors including incorporating local government representatives in the network. Promote and facilitate capacity building for communities to support vulnerability assessments and local adaptation plans 48 3.5.3 Mitigation The Government of Jamaica will ensure that key policy measures, regulations and laws are adopted across all sectors to ensure Jamaica reduces its GHG emissions by pursuing low carbon development. The Government is committed to implementing ‘no-regrets’ mitigation measures such as demand side management in electricity production, using alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, hydropower, and biofuels to produce energy, controlling water pipe leakages, sustainable forest management and enforcing no build zones in ecologically sensitive areas. 52 52“No regrets” measures are those whose benefits, such as reduced energy costs and reduced emissions of local/regional pollutants equal or exceed their cost to society, excluding the benefits of climate change mitigation. They are sometimes knows as “measures worth doing anyway”.(IPCC Second Assessment Synthesis of Scientific-Technical Information Relevant to Interpreting Article 2 of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change). OBJECTIVE 2.1 STRATEGIES ACTIONS MITIGATION Reduce Jamaica’s overall GHG emissions in support of low carbon development Provide an enabling environment for low carbon development Assess the most appropriate mitigation actions taking into account mitigation potential, cost, sector “buy-in”, co benefits and alignment with sectoral and national development priorities. Promote measures to support renewable energy, energy efficiency, energy conservation and REDD+ activities, including legislative and administrative measures. Facilitate methods for the sharing and utilisation of GHG emissions data among MDAs, private sector and academia in priority sectors Establish and maintain a national Measuring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system for the effective implementation of the country’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and other transparency-related activities Develop and disseminate tools and methodologies for the implementation of capacity building activities at all levels to support the reduction of GHG emissions. 49 3.5.4 Finance The Government of Jamaica seeks to facilitate access to climate financing for adaptation and mitigation initiatives through the development and implementation of a Climate Change Finance Strategy to promote low carbon development and climate resilience. OBJECTIVE 2.2 STRATEGIES ACTIONS FINANCE Facilitate access to and mobilization of climate financing for adaptation and mitigation Develop a National Climate Change Financing Strategy to promote low carbon development and climate resilience. Undertake on an ongoing basis, assessments of financing requirements for key sectors Facilitate climate financing for private and public sectors and research institutions, community-based organisations and non governmental organisations for research and technological innovation, disaster response and risk reduction and for climate information gathering and modelling equipment and systems, where possible Build the capacity of the public and private sectors, community based organisations and non-governmental organisations to access climate change financing for adaptation and mitigation activities through training and technical support Develop monitoring tools for tracking climate financing across sectors. Promote the use of methodologies for climate proofing national budgets and procurement procedures for MDAs through training and capacity building. Create financial incentives and disincentives related to the reduction of GHG emissions in public and private sectors. Develop a national finance mobilization strategy as well as tools to leverage private climate finance 50 3.5.5 Public awareness and education The Ministry responsible for climate change, shall promote consultative processes to enhance public participation in climate action. OBJECTIVE 3.1 STRATEGIES ACTIONS PUBLIC AWARENESS AND EDUCATION Increase public awareness of climate change impacts, climate actions and responses at the national and local levels and promote behaviour change Develop and implement a national communication, public education and behavioural change strategy at all levels Establish and regularly update databases with climate change relevant data and information including the sharing of best practices, expertise and experiences. Engage and sensitize the media and institutions of learning on climate change issues on an ongoing basis Establish and implement methodologies to allow for access to and sharing of information and data on climate action to facilitate the effective engagement of the public in decision-making Utilize the best available media and formats to communicate with the public on climate action placing special emphasis on providing information geared towards children, youth, persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups Establish a communication platform to allow for ongoing communication with the private sector on issues related to adaptation and mitigation, particularly in key sectors including energy, agriculture, tourism and transport Integrate climate change issues in the academic curriculum at all levels Support the participation and engagement of youth in climate change-related activities to foster greater awareness of climate action and engender behaviour change. Develop and disseminate knowledge products and tools to advance climate action Develop and implement training programmes for civil society groups on adaptation and mitigation measures 51 OBJECTIVE 3.1 STRATEGIES ACTIONS Improve the collection and dissemination of information on climate change impacts, adaptation and mitigation related opportunities at all levels so that decision makers and the general public will be better informed. Prepare and regularly publish national reports on the assessment of climate change impacts and strategies, projected climate change impacts, observations projects, programmes and activities including National Communications, Adaptation Communications, BURs, BTRs, NDCs and State of the Jamaican Climate Reports Establish a mechanism to collect, record and regularly update emissions data for Jamaica’s greenhouse gas emissions inventory. Improve the assessment tools for observing and researching the impacts of climate change at the sectoral and community levels including the national systems for climate change impact modelling. 3.5.6 Research The Ministry with responsibility for climate change will work with national agencies and academia to seek financing to support capacity building as well as the development of research, data collection and analyses, technology and training. Considering Jamaica’s vulnerability to natural hazards, there is a need for greater availability and timeliness of accurate scientific data, such as expanded coverage of hazard mapping for flood risks, to inform land use policy and building practices. The establishment of a central coordinating repository for information such as a clearinghouse of climate change related data and information would create great understanding of climate change impacts for researchers, policymakers and the general public. OBJECTIVE 3.2 STRATEGIES ACTIONS RESEARCH Promote research, innovation, data collection, analysis and facilitate projections at the national level on climate change, its impacts, and appropriate adaptation and mitigation measures, to inform decision-making and strategic actions at all levels Improve the collection and dissemination of information on climate change impacts, adaptation and mitigation related opportunities at all levels so that decision makers and the general public will be better informed. Prepare and regularly publish national reports on the assessment of climate change impacts and strategies, projected climate change impacts, observations projects, programmes and activities including National Communications, Adaptation Communications, BURs, BTRs, NDCs and State of the Jamaican Climate Reports Establish a mechanism to collect, record and regularly update emissions data for Jamaica’s greenhouse gas emissions inventory. Build capacities at the national and local levels to coordinate and enhance Improve the assessment tools for observing and researching the impacts of climate change at the sectoral and community levels including the 52 OBJECTIVE 3.2 STRATEGIES ACTIONS mainstreaming of climate action. national systems for climate change impact modelling. Facilitate and support increased climate change research in academia, private sector, civil society and government. Identify research needs and promote the development of a research agenda for low carbon development and climate resilience Identify and support training opportunities in climate change for academia and scientific, technical and managerial personnel within public, private and research institutions. Provide incentives for innovation and an enabling environment for innovation, research and technology development. 3.5.7 Technology Transfer The Ministry responsible for climate change will encourage the private sector to embrace climate change imperatives and promote the development and implementation of technologies and processes that contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation initiatives. OBJECTIVE 3.3 STRATEGIES ACTIONS TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER Promote the transfer of environmentally sound technologies for mitigating and adapting to climate change with other countries and international organisations and among the public sector, private sector entities, financial institutions, non governmental organizations (NGOs) and research/education institutions To encourage the use of environmentally sound technologies across sectors and groups including the private sector to contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation initiatives. Conduct periodic technological needs assessments (TNAs) to prioritise technologies for adaptation and mitigation in select sectors and develop a technology action plan (TAP). Promote and facilitate technology development, transfer and deployment, including via south-south cooperation. Promote financing for priority technology projects linked to the TNA Disseminate available information on the costs, uses, and markets for environmentally sound technologies 53 3.6 Institutional Arrangements An effective response to climate change requires effective institutional arrangements to ensure coordination, integration, monitoring and knowledge sharing across sectors and to avoid duplication of efforts. This Policy Framework outlines the institutional arrangements to respond to climate change. Efforts to coordinate a multi-sectoral approach to responding to climate change include various initiatives by the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ), namely mainstreaming of climate change considerations into national development planning, and the facilitation of collaboration with international development partners. Other approaches include the creation of the Thematic Working Group on Hazard Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change (HRRACC) under Vision 2030 Jamaica - National Development Plan, the appointment of the Climate Change Advisory Board, establishment of the Climate Change Focal Point Network (CCFN) and community-based networks under the CCFN. A local government network will also be developed to strengthen coordination of the climate action at the Parish level. There is need for greater coordination among sectors in the development and implementation of climate change related activities. Legislation will be drafted and implemented to strengthen institutional arrangements to coordinate the response to climate change and which will include provisions for evaluation and an accountability mechanism. i) The Environment and Risk Management Branch The Environment and Risk Management Branch (ERMB) is the policy division within the Ministry with responsibility for the environment which undertakes the formulation of the policy and legislative frameworks for climate change. The ERMB will undertake the periodic monitoring, review and subsequent revision of this Policy Framework, as appropriate. ii) The Climate Change Division The Ministry with portfolio responsibility for climate change will have responsibility to oversee and support the implementation of this Climate Change Policy Framework. The Climate Change Division (CCD) was established under this Ministry as the focal institution to coordinate existing and proposed initiatives in addressing climate change. The CCD ensures that systems, institutions, and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are in place to address climate change as an inclusive development priority that empowers local communities and strengthen resilience, especially in the most vulnerable populations. In this regard, the CCD will, inter alia: (i) coordinate and monitor climate related activities of the ministries, departments, agencies involved in climate change resilience building; (ii) facilitate the provision of technical support and guidance for the development of climate change sectoral strategies and actions plans and the mainstreaming of climate change considerations into development plans and policies; (iii) facilitate and support the effective communication and dissemination of information among ministries, agencies and departments as well as the general public on the current and 54 anticipated impacts of climate change and the appropriate adaptation and mitigations measures; (iv) coordinate the development of climate finance and resource mobilization strategies, in collaboration with the Planning Institute of Jamaica, the Ministry of Finance and the Public Service and other relevant institutions; (v) coordinate Jamaica’s representation at regional and international climate change negotiations and other fora to advance the country concerns and interests and articulate Jamaica’s position (including at the national level); (vi) report on Jamaica’s compliance with UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement including Measurement, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) of Jamaica’s climate change mitigation under its NDCs; setting targets for Jamaica’s GHG reduction targets, reporting on adaptation communications, National Communications, and ensuring the maintenance and updating of Jamaica’s GHG inventory system; (vii) act as the national focal point for climate change programmes and activities spearheaded by regional and inter-national bodies; and (viii) establish a national climate change database and information system to facilitate data sharing, research and inform development planning and decision-making. The CCD is the National Designated Authority (NDA) and focal point for the Green Climate Fund (GCF). As an NDA the CCD has the additional following responsibilities: (i) Provide broad strategic oversight of the Fund’s activities in Jamaica; (ii) Convene relevant public, private and civil society stakeholders to identify priority sectors to be financed by the Fund; (iii) Communicate nominations / no objection of entities (sub-national, national or regional, public and private) seeking accreditation to the Fund under the ‘direct access’ track; (iv) Implement the no-objection procedure on funding proposals submitted to the Fund, to ensure consistency of funding proposals with national climate change plans and priorities; and (v) Provide leadership on the deployment of readiness and preparatory support funding in the country. iii) Climate Change Focal Point Network (CCFPN) Climate change focal points are drawn from MDAs having been appointed as appropriate. Representation will be invited from civil society groups and the private sector. The focal points are responsible for the mainstreaming of climate change considerations into their respective policies, plans and programmes. Also, the focal points will ensure the preparation of periodic monitoring reports on 55 these strategies and action plans to the CCD. The Municipal Corporations and members of Parish Disaster Committees will be incorporated into the CCFPN.53 iv) The Climate Change Advisory Board (CCAB) The Climate Change Advisory Board (CCAB)54 was established by a Decision of Cabinet in 2012 and comprises representatives of the public and private sectors, academia and non-governmental organizations appointed by the Minister with portfolio responsibility for climate change. This Board provides a platform for the exchange of scientific and technical information on climate change and related issues of importance to Jamaica and advise the Minister and the CCD, accordingly. The CCAB provides recommendations to Ministry with responsibility for climate change on the possible elements of a national climate change research agenda as well as potential implementation partners. The CCAB meets periodically, as determined by their terms of reference. Secretariat support to the CCAB is provided by the Ministry with responsibility for climate change. In addition, the membership of the Board includes ex officio officers, namely officers of the Ministry with responsibility for climate change. Ad-hoc Committees of the CCAB will be established as required to address specific issues. 3.7 Policy Application This Framework will provide guidance to all Government Ministries, Departments and Agencies, civil society, the private sector as well as the general public in addressing climate change. 3.8 Implementation The Government of Jamaica in partnership with key stakeholders will ensure that the necessary steps are taken to achieve the fulfilment of the objectives, principles and directives of this policy framework. The Government will play a lead role in facilitating access to the necessary financial and technical support for the implementation of this policy framework, as appropriate. In addition, the CCD shall provide technical support for the development of sector action plans and will collaborate with stakeholders in the implementation of these plans. These activities may be enabled by grants and other forms of financing from domestic sources, development partners and through bilateral and multilateral cooperation. The respective sector action plans will detail specific activities to be undertaken by relevant stakeholders within given timelines and will identify sources of financing for their implementation. As part of the implementation activities, training and sensitization programmes for parliamentarians and senior public sector officers will be developed and implemented. 53 CCFPN newsletter page, https://mailchi.mp/38ca3e397ad3/newsletter-on-the-activities-of-the-jamaica-climate change-focal-point-network 54 Establishing a Climate Change Department in Jamaica https://www.jm.undp.org/content/dam/jamaica/docs/researchpublications/crisisprevention/EstablishingAClimateChangeDeptI nJamaica2012.pdf https://mailchi.mp/38ca3e397ad3/newsletter-on-the-activities-of-the-jamaica-climate-change-focal-point-network https://mailchi.mp/38ca3e397ad3/newsletter-on-the-activities-of-the-jamaica-climate-change-focal-point-network https://www.jm.undp.org/content/dam/jamaica/docs/researchpublications/crisisprevention/EstablishingAClimateChangeDeptInJamaica2012.pdf https://www.jm.undp.org/content/dam/jamaica/docs/researchpublications/crisisprevention/EstablishingAClimateChangeDeptInJamaica2012.pdf 56 a) Accountability The Ministry with portfolio responsibility for climate change will have responsibility for the monitoring and evaluation of the CCD’s performance of its functions with annual reporting to the Cabinet and Parliament. The CCD will have administrative oversight and responsibility for climate change initiatives, including public education and awareness. All Ministries or Agencies with responsibility for implementing specific activities or programmes to address climate change shall share with the CCD all relevant information and reports necessary for the proper collaboration, coordination, integration, monitoring and evaluation of climate change initiatives, as required. b) Monitoring and Evaluation The Ministry responsible for climate change is responsible for coordinating the overall implementation of this Climate Change Policy Framework for Jamaica, including the coordination of the Ministries, Departments and Agencies in the development and execution of their respective sector action plans. The Ministry responsible for climate change and CCD will develop a monitoring and evaluation strategy to ensure accountability in the implementation of the Policy. This includes the development of monitoring and evaluation indicators to guide the progress towards mainstreaming climate change considerations into priority areas — water, health, tourism agriculture, transport and coastal resources and human settlement, among others. The Environment and Risk Management Branch in the Ministry with responsibility for climate change will conduct a public review on a periodic basis of this policy framework to evaluate its effectiveness in achieving its goals and objectives as well as ensuring its relevance. 57 APPENDIX A – IMPLEMENTATION PLAN 58 GOAL 1: Strengthening of Jamaica’s adaptive capacity and resilience to reduce its vulnerability to climate change POLICY OBJECTIVE STRATEGY KEY ACTIVITIES INDICATORS TIMELINE (YEAR) LEAD INSTITUTIONS SUPPORTING INSTITUTIONS 1 2 3 4 5 1.1 GOVERNANCE Improve the governance framework for climate action and ensure transparency and accountability Strengthen Jamaica’s active participation in regional and international climate activities Ensure Jamaica’s participation in regional and international climate change processes, particularly the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement -related activities. Number of regional and international climate change processes in which the country, including civil society and the youth, is engaged and makes a contribution in advancing the global climate agenda. X X X X X MRECC, CCD (information clearing house), Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade (MFAFT) Conduct national public and stakeholder consultations to inform Jamaica’s positions articulated at international and regional climate change negotiations and other fora At least one yearly national consultation held X X X X X MRECC, CCD, MFAFT MDAs, private sector, civil society and academia Utilize and develop, as appropriate, tools and mechanisms to ensure that relevant decisions taken at regional and international levels are mainstreamed into national actions. National climate actions aligned with regional and international commitments X X X X X MRECC, CCD PIOJ Promote effective synergies between the national climate agenda and those of the economic, social and environmental sectors Review of climate change agenda in keeping with the country’s economic, social and X X X X X MRECC (CCD) PIOJ, MOJ 59 environmental priorities to ensure synergies Improve the legal framework for coordinating climate change action Enact legislation to, inter alia, institutionalise the role and functions of the responsible authorities for coordinating action on climate change (e.g. Climate Change Division and Climate Change Advisory Board) and to incorporate public participation in relation to climate action Drafting instructions prepared and climate change legislation enacted X X X MRECC (ERMB, CCD) MOJ, AGC, CPC, NEPA, CCFPN Strengthen multi stakeholder coordination, networking, information exchange and expertise in climate action across MDAs, private sector and civil society Strengthen the Climate Change Focal Point Network through, inter alia, increasing its capacity and expertise at the national and parish levels Convene at least two training sessions per year to strengthen the capacity of the CCFPN X X X X X MRECC (CCD) MDAs in key sectors, Municipal Corporations, Parish Development Committees Develop mechanisms and tools for the inclusion of climate change considerations into policies, plans and programmes to inform decision making at the level of, Cabinet, Parliament and local government Sensitization sessions held with Cabinet, Parliament and local government officials on climate change X X X X X MRECC (CCD), MLGCD Cabinet Office, The Houses of Parliament, , Municipal Corporations 60 1.2 ADAPTATION Reduce Jamaica’s vulnerability and increase Jamaica’s capacity to adapt to the harmful impacts of climate change Develop a framework for mainstreaming climate change into ecosystem protection, spatial planning and budget processes. Ensure screening for climate change impacts is incorporated in the decision-making process for plans, projects and prescribed activities requiring approval from NEPA Finalization of drafting instructions for EIA Regulations under the NRCA Act. X MRECC (ERMB), NEPA Promulgation of EIA Regulations under the NRCA Act X MRECC (ERMB) Conduct and periodically update vulnerability assessments for key sectors and a national assessment of vulnerable areas and natural resources at risk National vulnerability assessments completed X X X X X MRECC, CCD) Municipal Corporations, PIOJ, key sectoral MDAs Utilize natural resource valuation tools and methodologies in the decision making process for planning approval at all levels. Natural resource valuation incorporated into the national planning and budgeting processes X X X X MRECC (ERMB), NEPA MOF Increase the number and improve the management of marine and terrestrial protected areas to, inter alia, prohibit destructive practices and enhance the resilience of ecosystems. Protected area regulations enacted. Management plans developed for all protected areas X X X MRECC (ERMB) NEPA, Forestry Department, National Fisheries Authority Finalize and implement policies related to land use such as the National Spatial Plan, National Land Policy, Agricultural Land Use Policy, Comprehensive Disaster Risk Management National Spatial Plan, National Land Policy, Agricultural Land Use Policy Comprehensive Disaster Risk Management Policy X X Ministries with responsibility for physical planning and land administration, MoF MRECC (CCD), PIOJ 61 Policy and the National Hazard Risk Reduction Policy to incorporate climate change considerations, among other things and National Hazard Risk Reduction Policy adopted with climate change considerations. Develop and implement a National Environment Policy to take into account, inter alia, issues related to increasing the resilience of species and ecosystems in adapting to climate change National Environment Policy developed X X X X MRECC (ERMB) NEPA, Forestry Department, National Fisheries Authority Periodically update Development Orders, Local Sustainable Development Plans, the National Building Code, setback limits, standards and guidelines for developments and enforce no build zones to assist in addressing adaptation challenges New Building Code adopted. Revised Development and Investment Manual adopted. Development Orders and Local Sustainable Development Plans are not older than five years X X X X Ministries with responsibility for physical planning and local government, NEPA Municipal Corporations Strengthen early warning systems and emergency preparedness Assess existing early warning systems an emergency preparedness based on international and regional standards. X X Ministry with responsibility for local government, ODPEM National Disaster Committee, Parish Disaster Committees, MRECC (CCD) Update and strengthen early warning systems and emergency preparedness protocols and guidelines based on assessments X X 62 Build capacities at the national and local levels to coordinate and enhance mainstreaming and implementation of climate action. Prepare a national adaptation plan (NAP) with due consideration to key sectors. NAP addressing key sectors prepared X X MRECC (CCD) MDAs for key sectors Prepare and implement capacity building plans and strategies that address the adaptation needs of various sectors. Capacity building needs identifies and plans and strategies developed and implemented X X X X MRECC (CCD) MDAs for key sectors Build the capacity of the climate change focal point networks to support the development of NAPs that incorporate climate change considerations for priority sectors including incorporating local government representatives in the network. At least 15 focal points trained, and training workshops held X X MRECC (CCD) MDAs in key sectors Promote and facilitate capacity building measures for communities to support vulnerability assessments and local adaptation plans Community level vulnerability assessments and plans developed and trainings conducted X X X X X MRECC(CCD) MLGCD, ODPEM, Parish Disaster Committees, PIOJ 63 GOAL 2: Pursuit of low carbon development and enhancement of access to and mobilization of climate finance 2.1 MITIGATION Reduce Jamaica’s overall GHG emissions in support of low carbon development Provide an enabling environment for low carbon development Assess the most appropriate mitigation actions per sector taking into account mitigation potential, cost, sector “buy-in”, co-benefits and alignment with sectoral and national development priorities. Assessment of sectors to identify mitigation actions completed X X X X X MRECC (CCD) Forestry Department MSET, PIOJ Promote measures to support renewable energy, energy efficiency, energy conservation and REDD+ activities, including legislative and administrative measures. Legislation enacted and administrative measures adopted to support REDD+, renewable energy, energy efficiency and energy conservation. X Ministry responsible for energy, Forestry Department MOJ, AGC, CPC Facilitate methods for the sharing and utilisation of GHG emissions data among MDAs, private sector and academia in priority sectors GHG emissions inventory mechanism operational X MRECC (CCD), NEPA PIOJ, Ministry responsible for energy Establish and maintain a national Measuring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system for the effective implementation of the country’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and other transparency-related activities MRV system operational X MRECC (CCD) PIOJ, relevant MDAs Develop and disseminate tools and methodologies for the implementation of capacity building activities at all levels to support the reduction of GHG emissions. Assess capacity building needs in relation to GHG emissions reduction. X NEPA,MRECC (CCD), MSET, Ministry with responsibility for transport Relevant MDAs Tools and methodologies X X X NEPA, MRECC (CCD), MSET, Ministry with responsibility for 64 developed and utilized for implementation of capacity building activities transport and other relevant MDAs 2.2 FINANCE Facilitate access to and mobilization of climate financing for adaptation and mitigation Develop a National Climate Change Financing Strategy to promote low carbon development and climate resilience Promote measures to support renewable energy, energy efficiency, energy conservation and REDD+ activities, including legislative and administrative measures. Legislation enacted and administrative measures adopted to support REDD+, renewable energy, energy efficiency and energy conservation. X Ministry responsible for energy, Forestry Department MOJ, AGC, CPC Facilitate methods for the sharing and utilisation of GHG emissions data among MDAs, private sector and academia in priority sectors GHG emissions inventory mechanism operational X MRECC (CCD), NEPA PIOJ,Ministry responsible for energy Establish and maintain a national Measuring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system for the effective implementation of the country’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and other transparency-related activities MRV system operational X MRECC (CCD) PIOJ, relevant MDAs Develop and disseminate tools and methodologies for the implementation of capacity building activities at all levels to support the reduction of GHG emissions. Assess capacity building needs in relation to GHG emissions reduction. X NEPA,MRECC (CCD), MSET, Ministry with responsibility for transport Relevant MDAs Promote the use of methodologies for climate proofing national budgets and procurement procedures for Tools and methodologies developed and utilized for implementation of X X X NEPA, MRECC (CCD), MSET, Ministry with responsibility for transport and other relevant MDAs 65 MDAs through training and capacity building. capacity building activities Create financial incentives and disincentives related to the reduction of GHG emissions in public and private sector Financial incentives and disincentives adopted X MOFPS MRECC, (CCD), NEPA, Ministry iwht responsibility for energy and transport Develop a national finance mobilization strategy as well as tools to leverage private climate finance National finance mobilization strategy developed X X X MRECC (CCD) MOFPS GOAL 3: Promotion of public education and awareness raising, research and technology transfer towards ambitious climate action 3.1 PUBLIC AWARENESS AND EDUCATION Increase public awareness of climate change impacts, climate actions and responses at the national and local levels and promote behaviour change Develop and implement a national communication, public education and behavioural change strategy at all levels Establish and regularly update databases with climate change relevant data and information including the sharing of best practices, expertise and experiences. Databases operational X MRECC (CCD) National Spatial Data Management Branch, MDAs in key sectors Engage and sensitize the media and institutions of learning on climate change issues on an ongoing basis At least one sensitization meeting held per quarter with the media and/or institutions of learning X X X X X MRECC (CCD) MOEY, Press Association of Jamaica, Jamaica Teachers Association and related bodies Establish and implement methodologies to allow for access to and sharing of information and data on climate action to facilitate the effective engagement of the public in decision-making Methodologies established and implemented X X X X MRECC (CCD) JIS Utilize the best available media and formats to communicate X X X X X MRECC (CCD) PIOJ, MOEYI, Jamaica Council for 66 with the public on climate action placing special emphasis on providing information geared towards youth, persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups At least 1 public education and awareness raising session held annually Persons with Disabilities Establish a communication platform to allow for ongoing communication with the private sector on issues related to adaptation and mitigation. Particularly in key sectors including energy, agriculture, tourism and transport Platform established and utilized by private sector stakeholders X X X X X MRECC (CCD) E-GOV, Main private sector groupings Integrate climate change issues in the academic curriculum at all levels Curricula revised with additional climate change content X X X MOEYI MEGJC, CCD Support the participation and engagement of youth in climate change-related activities to foster greater awareness of climate action and engender behaviour change At least two youth events organised on climate action Designate and convene at least 1 training session for climate youth ambassadors X X MRECC (CCD) MOEYI, Youth groupings Develop and disseminate knowledge products and tools to advance climate action Communications materials developed and published, including those for target audiences (youth, persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups) X X X X X MRECC (CCD) MOEYI 67 Develop and implement training programmes for civil society groups on adaptation and mitigation measures Training programmes developed and implemented for civil society groups X X X X MRECC (CCD) JSIF, GEF Small Grants Programme Improve the collection and dissemination of information on climate change impacts, adaptation and mitigation related opportunities at all levels so that decision makers and the general public will be better informed Prepare and regularly publish national reports on the assessment of climate change impacts, strategies, projected climate change impacts, observations, projects, programmes and activities including National Communications, Adaptation Communications, BURs, BTRs, NDCs and State of the Jamaican Climate Reports Reports completed and published X X X MRECC (CCD) MDAs, UWI Climate Studies Group Establish a mechanism to collect, record and regularly update emissions data for Jamaica’s greenhouse gas emissions inventory. GHG emissions inventory mechanism operational X X X X X NEPA and MRECC (CCD) NEPA Met Office, Ministries with responsibility for energy, transport and agriculture Improve the assessment tools for observing and researching the impacts of climate change at the sectoral and community levels including the national systems for climate change impact modelling Assessment tools improved in line with approved international guidelines or specifications, including those of the IPCC, as appropriate X X X X Tertiary institutions, Met Office, MRECC (CCD) Relevant MDAs 3.2 RESEARCH Promote research, innovation, data collection, analysis and Improve the collection and dissemination of information on climate change Prepare and regularly publish national reports on the assessment of climate change impacts, strategies, projected climate change impacts, Reports completed and published X X X MRECC (CCD) PIOJ 68 facilitate projections at the national level on climate change, its impacts, and appropriate adaptation and mitigation measures, to inform decision-making and strategic actions at all levels impacts, adaptation and mitigation related opportunities at all levels so that decision makers and the public will be better informed. and the general public will be better informed. observations, projects, programmes and activities including National Communications, Adaptation Communications, BURs, BTRs, NDCs and State of the Jamaican Climate Reports Establish a mechanism to collect, record and regularly update emissions data for Jamaica’s greenhouse gas emissions inventory. GHG emissions inventory mechanism operational X X X X X MRECC (CCD) NEPA, tertiary institutions, Met Office, MSET Build capacities at the national and local level to coordinate and enhance mainstreaming of climate action Improve the assessment tools for observing and researching the impacts of climate change at the sector and community levels including the national systems for climate change impact modelling. Assessment tools developed, improved where necessary and utilized X X X X X MRECC (CCD) MDAs, Tertiary institutions, Facilitate and support increased climate change research in academia, private sector, civil society and government Identify research needs and promote the development of a research agenda for low carbon development and climate resilience Number of funding mechanisms to support research activities increased X X X MRECC (CCD) Relevant MDAs (example finance, PIOJ), and research institutions Identify and support training opportunities in climate change for academia and scientific, technical and managerial personnel within public, private and research institutions Yearly training sessions to support research activities held X X X X X MRECC (CCD) MSET, PIOJ Provide incentives for innovation and an enabling environment for innovation, At least one incentive designed X X MRECC (CCD) PIOJ, MSET, MICAF, MOFPS, DBJ 69 research and technology development. 3.3 TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER Promote the transfer of environmentally sound technologies for mitigating and adapting to climate change with other countries and international organisations and among the public sector, private sector entities, financial institutions, non governmental organizations (NGOs) and research/education institutions To encourage the use of environmentally sound technologies across sectors and groups including the private sector to contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation initiatives. Conduct periodic technological needs assessments (TNAs) to prioritise the technologies for adaptation and mitigation in select sectors and develop a technology action plan (TAP). TNA completed and disseminated to relevant stakeholder X X MRECC (CCD) PIOJ, MSET Promote and facilitate technology development, transfer and deployment, including via south-south cooperation. Engage at least 1 country in the Caribbean region to foster the sharing of best practices, experiences and expertise X X MRECC (CCD) PIOJ, MSET, MICAF, DBJ Promote financing of pilot priority technology projects linked to the TNA Pilot project developed and implemented X X MRECC (CCD) Relevant MDAs Disseminate available information on the costs, uses, and markets for environmentally sound technologies X X X X X MRECC (CCD) PIOJ, MSET, MOEYI, JSIF 70 APPENDIX B – Linkages with Vision 2030 and the SDGs Vision 2030 Outcome SDG Goal SDG Target #10 Energy Security and Efficiency Target 7.2: By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix Target 7.3: By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency Target 7.A By :2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology Target: 7.B By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support #13 Sustainable Management and Use of Environmental and Natural Resources Target 12.2: By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources #14 Hazard Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change Target 13.1: strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries Target 13.2: Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning Target 13.3: Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning Target 13.5: Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities #13 Sustainable Management and Use of Environmental and Natural Resources Target 14.1: By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution Target 14.2: By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans Target 14.3: Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels 71 Vision 2030 Outcome SDG Goal SDG Target #13 Sustainable Management and Use of Environmental and Natural Resources Target 15.1: By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements Target 15.2: By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally Target 15.3: By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation neutral world Target 15.9: By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts # 15 Sustainable Urban and Rural Development Target 11.4: Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage Target 11.5: by 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations Target 11.6: By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management Target 11.B: By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels 72 APPENDIX C – Table of Related Policies and Legislation SECTOR POLICY / LEGISLATION DESCRIPTION FORESTS The Forest Policy of Jamaica, 2017 The Forest Policy seeks to ensure the preservation of Jamaica’s forest cover with a “no net loss” mandate. In recognising the importance of forests as carbon sinks, the Policy includes targeted goals and actions to sustainable manage Jamaica’s forests and to develop a REDD++ framework for Jamaica. The National Forest Management and Conservation Plan, 2016-2021 The National Forest Management and Conservation Plan 2016 – 2021 includes plans to build Jamaica’s climate resilience and seeks to mainstream climate change into the national development process. The outputs from implementation of the Plan include implementing REDD+ and conducting a gap analysis identifying spatial data and other information to better map the risks and vulnerabilities of forests and communities to climate change and related hazards (e.g., fire, floods, landslides) and improving the knowledge of climate change impacts on forests. Amendments to Forest Act The Forest Act will be amended to incorporate relevant provisions to facilitate the effective implementation of the Protected Areas System Master Plan. The provisions in the Forest Management Plans for forest reserves and forest management areas will become binding on all Government Agencies. Other amendments include designating The Forestry Department with the power to issue Tree Preservation Orders and improving the Department’s enforcement capabilities to combat illegal harvesting of timber and non-timber forest products in the areas managed by it ENERGY Jamaica’s National Energy Policy 2009 2030 The goals of The National Energy Policy include the development of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydropower and biofuels with the target of increasing the percentage of renewables in the energy mix to 20% by 2030 as well as to improve energy conservation and efficiency. The Policy has 5 supporting policies as follows: i) The National Renewable Energy Policy 2010-2030 The National Renewable Energy Policy focuses on the deployment of wind, the emerging potential and deployment of biomass and biofuels, exploratory work on ocean energy and the deployment of other technologies such as solar and hydro technologies 73 SECTOR POLICY / LEGISLATION DESCRIPTION ii)The National Energy-From-Waste Policy 2010 – 2030 The National Energy‐from‐Waste Policy focuses on the utilization of residual waste that cannot be absorbed through the institution of waste minimization, recycling or composting programmes and utilization into energy. These include management of municipal solid waste, capture of landfill gas, production of bio‐diesel, co‐ generation using bagasse, production of biogas using animal wastes and use of wastewater sludge. iii)The National Energy Conservation and Efficiency Policy 2010 - 2030 The National Energy Conservation and Efficiency Policy seeks to increase efficiency in the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity, in the use of energy in the transport sector, and in the consumption of electricity by industrial, commercial and residential consumers. This Sub-Policy also facilitates Jamaica’s participation in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) by including a policy action to develop a framework to capitalize on the opportunities offered by the carbon market under the CDM for efficiency and conservation projects. iv)The Biofuels Policy 2010 - 2030 The Biofuels Policy provides a framework for the development of the biofuels sector with specific focus on bioethanol from sugar cane, electricity power cogeneration using bagasse and biodiesel primarily from crops. v)The National Policy for the Trading of Carbon Credits 2010 – 2030 The National Policy for the Trading of Carbon Credits seeks to establish the legal, financial and institutional framework for a carbon credits trading system. The Policy will enable Jamaica’s participation in carbon trading regimes including CDM of the Kyoto Protocol and voluntary carbon schemes. The Emissions Policy Framework for Jamaica (draft) The Policy will provide seek to address, inter alia, the management of emissions from the following sources: •Industrial processes e.g.power generation; • Land, air and sea transportation; • Waste disposal and treatment; • Land-use and biomass burning; • Agricultural by-products; and • Residential and commercial sources.55 55 Government of Jamaica Policy Development Programme as at 31 March, 2018, available at https://cabinet.gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/GOJ-Policy-Development-Programme-Update-at-March 2018-web-version.pdf 74 SECTOR POLICY / LEGISLATION DESCRIPTION BIODIVERSITY The National Strategy and Action Plan on Biological Diversity in Jamaica 2016 – 2021 The National Strategy and Action Plan for Biological Diversity in Jamaica 2016-2021 (NBSAP) is an update to the 2003 NBSAP. The document provides information on Jamaica’s conservation efforts which are aligned to the Convention on Biological Diversity Achi Targets. The document also seeks to mainstream biodiversity is one of the main elements of the NBSAP. The Protected Areas System Master Plan 2013-2017 The Protected Areas System Master Plan (PASMP) sets out guidelines for establishing and managing a comprehensive network of protected areas that supports national development by contributing to long-term ecological viability; maintaining ecological processes and systems; and protecting the country’s natural and cultural heritage. Goal 4 of the Master Plan is “ identify and integrate climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in protected area planning and management strategies”. Overarching Policy for Jamaica’s Protected Areas System (draft) This draft Overarching Policy for Jamaica’s Protected Areas System Policy will update the existing Policy for Jamaica’s System of Protected Areas, 1997, taking into consideration the changes in protected areas management since its development The aim of the draft Policy is to ensure that Jamaica has an effective protected areas system. One of the objectives of the Policy is to identify and integrate climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in protected area planning and management strategies. Overarching Protected Areas Legislation (proposed) The proposed Overarching Protected Areas Legislation aims to is provide for comprehensive legislation to enable the creation and regulation of a National Protected Areas System (NPAS) that is representative of Jamaica’s biological and cultural heritage. The legislation will include harmonized provisions for management of all protected areas under a new comprehensive statute while at the same time preserving specific statutory functions under other enactments. DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT The Disaster Risk and Management Act 2015 This Act repeals the Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Risk Management Act and makes new provisions for the management and mitigation of disasters and reduction of risks associated with disasters. 75 SECTOR POLICY / LEGISLATION DESCRIPTION The Act allows the relevant authorities to evacuate persons from declared disaster areas. The Comprehensive Disaster Risk Management Policy (draft) The Comprehensive Disaster Risk Manager Policy will replace the Natural Hazard risk Reduction Policy (also in draft) which seeks to integrate hazard risk reduction into planning and to ensure active public participation and mobilisation of communities. PHYSICAL PLANNING The Building Act 2018 The Building Act of 2018 repeals the Kingston and St. Andrew Building Act and the Parish Councils Building Act and makes new provisions for the regulation of the building industry; to facilitate the adoption and application of international building standards through a National Building Code of Jamaica for ensuring safety in the built environment, to minimize damage cause by natural and man-made hazards, to prevent squatter settlements, to enhance amenities and promoting sustainable development. National Land Policy (draft) The Policy seeks to establish a framework for the efficient planning, management, development and use of land to generate and sustain economic growth, while considering issues of sustainability and environmental preservation.56 WATER The Revised Policy Guidelines on Rainwater Harvesting 2019 (draft) The Policy Guidelines on Rainwater Harvesting will make provisions to facilitate water harvesting for housing and commercial developments. The National Water Sector Policy and Implementation Plan (2019) the goal of the Policy is to ensure that Jamaica’s water resources are effectively managed so as to provide for our nation’s social, economic and environmental well being, now and in the future. The policy aims to ensure universal access to potable water by 2030. MARINE RESOURCES The National Policy on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management 2002 The objective of the Policy is to provide a comprehensive framework for the management and development of resources in Jamaica’s ocean and coastal zones. The National Council on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management, established in 1998, is responsible for the coordination of the policy. 56 Government of Jamaica Policy Development Programme as at 31 March, 2018, available at https://cabinet.gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/GOJ-Policy-Development-Programme-Update-at-March 2018-web-version.pdf https://cabinet.gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/GOJ-Policy-Development-Programme-Update-at-March-2018-web-version.pdf https://cabinet.gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/GOJ-Policy-Development-Programme-Update-at-March-2018-web-version.pdf 76 SECTOR POLICY / LEGISLATION DESCRIPTION FISHERIES The Fisheries Act 2018 A new Fisheries Act has been enacted which repeals the Fishing Industry Act of 1975 to allow for the effective, efficient and sustainable management of Jamaica’s fisheries and aquaculture. The Act allows the relevant Minister to establish fish sanctuaries for the protection of the ecosystem and fisheries resources. Draft Fisheries Policy The Draft Fisheries Policy seeks, inter alia, to ensure the sustainable development of the fisheries industry, promote efficiency of the fishing industry and economic and social development of fisheries industry. AGRICULTURE The National Food and Nutrition Security Policy (2013) and National Food and Nutrition Security Action Plan (2016) An objective of the National Food and Nutrition Security Policy is food stability geared towards improving the food and nutrition security resilience of the national community to natural and socio-economic shocks and climate change. The National Seed Policy and Action Plan (2018-2028) An objective of the policy is to facilitate development, evaluation and maintenance of pest resistant/ tolerant, high yielding varieties that are adaptive to given local agro-ecological zones and challenges posed by climate change The Agricultural Land Utilization Policy (draft) This policy has been developed in response to the national imperative to guide proper administration and management of land for sustainable use that will foster agricultural growth, encourage opportunities for investment and income generation, satisfy the demand for lands for agricultural production, re-generate livelihoods for farming communities, and promote overall economic development of the country.57 TRANSPORTATION Road Traffic Act 2018 The 2018 Road Traffic Act repeals and replace the Road Traffic Act and seeks to improve road safety and transport efficiency and reduce the cost of administering road transport. The Act also empowers the relevant Minister to make regulations to control GHG emissions from vehicles. 57 Government of Jamaica Policy Development Programme as at 31 March, 2018, available at https://cabinet.gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/GOJ-Policy-Development-Programme-Update-at-March 2018-web-version.pdf 77 SECTOR POLICY / LEGISLATION DESCRIPTION Revised National Transport Policy (draft) The National Transport Policy seeks to make Jamaica’s transportation system more efficient and accessible. The Policy’s proposed actions include encouraging the importation of high efficiency vehicles which will reduce the level of emissions and promoting the testing of motor vehicle emissions to meet stipulated standards as a licensing requirement. FINANCE National Disaster Risk Financing Policy (draft) The goal of the National Disaster Risk Financing Policy is to facilitate the mobilisation of public expenditure in disaster risk management to enable fiscal resilience to natural disasters. Measures in the policy include designating the Contingency Fund as the National Catastrophic Disaster Reserve Fund with a fiscal buffer; improve insurance of public assets and incorporate disaster risk analysis in public sector investments and planning. 78 GLOSSARY AND DEFINITIONS Acidification (ocean) A decrease in the pH of sea water due to the uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides and sulfur oxides. Adaptation (to climate change) IPCC 2007 Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Agro-climatic conditions The relation of growth rate and yields of agricultural crops to various climate conditions Best Science The most appropriate, adaptable and current technologies, processes and methodologies, which also include community knowledge and practice Carbon abatement Reduction of the amount of carbon dioxide that is produced when fossil fuels are burned Carbon dioxide IPCC 2007 ‘A naturally occurring gas, and also a by-product of burning fossil fuels and biomass, as well as land use changes and other industrial processes. It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other greenhouse gases are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential of 1’ Carbon Market A trading system through which countries may buy or sell units of greenhouse-gas emissions in an effort to meet their national limits on emissions, either under the Kyoto Protocol or under other agreements, such as that among member states of the European Union. Clean development mechanism A mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to assist developing countries which are Parties to the Protocol in achieving sustainable development, and to assist developed countries which are Parties in achieving compliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under the Protocol. 79 Climate The long-term average weather of a region, including typical weather patterns, the frequency and intensity of storms, cold spells and heat waves. Climate Action Stepped up efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-induced impacts, including: climate-related hazards in all countries; integrating climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning; and improving education, awareness raising and human and institutional capacity with respect to climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning. Climate change UNFCCC A change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. Climate departure University of Hawaii Manoa 2013 The year past which the annual (or monthly) average value for a climate variable, such as surface temperature, moves and stays outside of the range of historical annual (or monthly) means. Climate variability IPCC 2007 Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (external variability). Coastal erosion A long-term trend of shoreline retreat and/or loss of beach sediment volume over several decades. Coral bleaching IPCC 2007 The paling in colour which results if a coral loses its symbiotic, energy-providing organisms (micro algae –zooxanthellae). El Nino El Niño conditions refer to periods when the eastern Pacific Ocean off the coast of Peru and Ecuador is abnormally warm. (La Niña refers to the opposite conditions when the eastern Pacific Ocean is 80 abnormally cold.) During an El Niño event, the Caribbean (and Jamaica by extension) tends to be drier than usual. There is also a tendency for reduced hurricane activity during El Niño events. Emissions The release of substances (e.g. greenhouse gases) into the atmosphere Emissions trading IPCC 2007 A market-based approach to achieving environmental objectives. It allows those reducing greenhouse gas emissions below their emission cap to use or trade the excess reduc-tions to offset emissions at another source inside or outside the country. In general, trading can occur at the intra company, domestic, and international levels. Energy efficiency Reducing the amount of energy used for a given service or level of activity in order to produce the same level of end-use service. Fossil fuels Hydrocarbons such as coal, oil and gas, formed from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals Greenhouse gases IPCC 2007 ‘Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere and clouds. This property causes the green-house effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. Moreover, there are a number of entirely manmade green-house gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and other chlorine and bromine-containing substances, dealt with under the Montreal Protocol. Besides carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane, the Kyoto Protocol deals with the green-house gases sulphur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons, and perfluorocarbons.’ Inter-generational equity Resources and assets which do not 'belong' to any generation but are to be administered and preserved in trust for all future generations. Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) The IPCC surveys world-wide scientific and technical literature and publishes assessment reports that are widely recognised as the most credible existing sources of information on climate change. The 81 IPCC also works on methodologies and responds to specific requests from the UNFCCC’s subsidiary bodies. The IPCC is independent of the Convention. Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets. Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities." Mitigation IPCC 2007 In the context of climate change, a human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. Examples include using fossil fuels more efficiently for industrial processes or electricity generation, switching to solar energy or wind power, improving the insulation of buildings, and expanding forests and other ‘sinks’ to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Natural disaster Any event or force of nature that has catastrophic consequences, such as an earthquake, a flood, forest fire, hurricane, lightning, tornado, tsunami, or volcanic eruption. No-regrets mitigation Mitigation actions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and generate direct or indirect benefits that are large enough to offset the costs of implementing the mitigation actions, resulting in negative net mitigation costs. Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the process by which excess CO2 is dissolved into the ocean and increases its acidity. Polluter Pays Principle An environmental policy principle that requires that the costs of pollution be borne by those who cause it and that the burden of proof in demonstrating that a particular technology, practice or product is safe will lie with the developer. Precautionary approach Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. 82 The Precautionary Principle is defined as follows: When human activities may lead to morally unacceptable harm that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish that harm. Morally unacceptable harm refers to harm to humans or the environment that is • threatening to human life or health, or • serious and effectively irreversible, or • inequitable to present or future generations, or • imposed without adequate consideration of the human rights of those affected. The judgement of plausibility should be grounded in scientific analysis. Analysis should be ongoing so that chosen actions are subject to review. Uncertainty may apply to, but need not be limited to, causality or the bounds of the possible harm. Actions are interventions that are undertaken before harm occurs that seek to avoid or diminish the harm. Actions should be chosen that are proportional to the seriousness of the potential harm, with consideration of their positive and negative consequences, and with an assessment of the moral implications of both action and inaction. The choice of action should be the result of a participatory process. Reforestation ‘The direct human-induced conversion of non-forested land to forested land through planting, seeding and/or the human-induced promotion of natural seed sources, on land that was forested but that has been converted to non-forested land. Renewable energy Is obtained from the continuing or repetitive currents of energy occurring in the natural environment and includes non-carbon technologies such as solar energy, hydropower, wind, tide and waves and geothermal heat, as well as carbon-neutral technologies such as biomass. Resilience The ability of a social or ecological system to absorb disturbances while retaining the same basic structure and ways of functioning, the capacity for self-organization, and the capacity to adapt to stress and change. Sea level rise IPCC 2007 Sea level can change, both globally and locally, due to (i) changes in the shape of the ocean basins, (ii) changes in the total mass of water and (iii) changes in water density. Factors leading to sea level 83 rise under global warming include both increases in the total mass of water from the melting of land based snow and ice, and changes in water density from an increase in ocean water temperatures and salinity changes. Relative sea level rise occurs where there is a local increase in the level of the ocean relative to the land, which might be due to ocean rise and/or land level subsidence. Sequestration Carbon storage in terrestrial or marine reservoirs. Biological sequestration includes direct removal of CO2 from the atmosphere through land-use change, afforestation, reforestation, carbon storage in landfills and practices that enhance soil carbon in agriculture. Sink IPCC 2007 Any process, activity or mechanism that removes a green-house gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or aerosol from the atmosphere. Storm surge IPCC 2007 The temporary increase, at a particular locality, in the height of the sea due to extreme meteorological conditions (low atmospheric pressure and/or strong winds). The storm surge is defined as being the excess above the level expected from the tidal variation alone at that time and place. Sustainable development Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Urban heat island An urban area with significantly higher temperatures than surrounding areas due to anthropogenic activities. Vector borne diseases Diseases that result from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases are dengue fever, viral encephalitis, lyme disease and malaria. Vulnerability IPCC 2007 The degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity. 84 REFERENCES Adger, W.N., J.M. Pulhin, J. Barnett, G.D. Dabelko, G.K. Hoverlsrud, M. Levy, Ú. Oswald Spring, and C.H. Vogel, 2014: Human security in: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the InterGovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. 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