National Action Plan on Climate Change

4.1. National Solar Mission in designated sectors through innovative measures to make the products more affordable. A National Solar Mission will be launched to signifi- • Creation of mechanisms that would help finance cantly increase the share of solar energy in the total demand side management programmes in all sectors energy mix while recognizing the need to expand by capturing future energy savings. the scope of other renewable and non-fossil options • Developing fiscal instruments to promote energy such as nuclear energy, wind energy and biomass. efficiency India is a tropical country, where sunshine is available for longer hours per day and in great inten- sity. Solar energy, therefore, has great potential as 4.3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat future energy source. It also has the advantage of permitting a decentralized distribution of energy, A National Mission on Sustainable Habitat will be thereby empowering people at the grassroots level. launched to make habitat sustainable through Photovoltaic cells are becoming cheaper with new improvements in energy efficiency in buildings, man- technology. There are newer, reflector-based tech- agement of solid waste and modal shift to public nologies that could enable setting up megawatt transport. The Mission will promote energy efficien- scale solar power plants across the country. Another cy as an integral component of urban planning and aspect of the Solar Mission would be to launch a urban renewal through three initiatives. major R&D programme, which could draw upon international cooperation as well, to enable the ere- i. The Energy Conservation Building Code, ation of more affordable, more convenient solar which addresses the design of new and large com- power systems, and to promote innovations that mercial buildings to optimize their energy demand, enable the storage of solar power for sustained, will be extended in its application and incentives pro- long-term use. vided for retooling existing building stock. ii. Recycling of material and Urban Waste

4.2. National Mission for Enhanced Management will be a major component of ecologi- Energy Efficiency cally sustainable economic development. India already has a significantly higher rate of recycling of The Energy Conservation Act of 2001 provides a legal waste compared to developed countries. A special mandate for the implementation of the energy effi- area of focus will be the development of technology ciency measures through the institutional mecha- for producing power from waste. The National nism of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) in the Mission will include a major R&D programme, focus- Central Government and designated agencies in ing on bio chemical conversion, waste water use, each state. A number of schemes and programmes sewage utilization and recycling options wherever have been initiated and it is anticipated that these possible. NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE • 3 also expand irrigation, where feasible, with a special iii. Better urban planning and modal shift to effort to increase storage capacity. Incentive struc- public transport. Making long term transport plans tures will be designed to promote water-neutral or will facilitate the growth of medium and small cities water-positive technologies, recharging of under- in ways that ensure efficient and convenient public ground water sources and adoption of large scale transport. irrigation programmes which rely on sprinklers, drip irrigation and ridge and furrow irrigation. In addition, the Mission will address the need to adapt to future climate change by improving the 4.5. National Mission for Sustaining the resilience of infrastructure, community based disas- Himalayan Ecosystem ter management, and measures for improving the warning system for extreme weather events. A Mission for sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem Capacity building would be an important component will be launched to evolve management measures of this Mission. for sustaining and safeguarding the Himalayan gla- cier and mountain eco-system. Himalayas, being the source of key perennial rivers, the Mission would,

4.4. National Water Mission inter-alia, seek to understand, whether and the extent to which, the Himalayan glaciers are in reces- A National Water Mission will be mounted to ensure sion and how the problem could be addressed. This integrated water resource management helping to will require the joint effort of climatologists, glaciol- conserve water, minimize wastage and ensure more ogists and other experts. We will need to exchange equitable distribution both across and within states. information with the South Asian countries and The Mission will take into account the provisions of countries sharing the Himalayan ecology. the National Water Policy and develop a framework An observational and monitoring network to optimize water use by increasing water use effi- for the Himalayan environment will also be estab- ciency by 20% through regulatory mechanisms with lished to assess freshwater resources and health of differential entitlements and pricing. It will seek to the ecosystem. Cooperation with neighbouring ensure that a considerable share of the water needs countries will be sought to make the network com- of urban areas are met through recycling of waste prehensive in its coverage. water, and ensuring that the water requirements of The Himalayan ecosystem has 51 million peo- coastal cities with inadequate alternative sources of ple who practice hill agriculture and whose vulnera- preservation of ecological balance and maintenance cally sustainable green revolution. of bio-diversity. Forests also constitute one of the most effective carbon-sinks. The Prime Minister has already announced a 4.8. Natinal Mission on Strategic Knowledge Green India campaign for the afforestation of 6 mil- for Climate Change lion hectares. The national target of area under for- est and tree cover is 33% while the current area To enlist the global community in research and tech- under forests is 23%. nology development and collaboration through The Mission on Green India will be taken up mechanisms including open source platforms, a on degraded forest land through direct action by Strategic Knowledge Mission will be set up to identi- communities, organized through Joint Forest fy the challenges of, and the responses to, climate Management Committees and guided by the change. It would ensure funding of high quality and Departments of Forest in state governments. An ini- focused research into various aspects of climate tial corpus of over Rs 6000 crore has been earmarked change. for the programme through the Compensatory The Mission will also have, on its research Afforestaion Management and Planning Authority agenda, socio-economic impacts of climate change (CAMPA) to commence work. The programme will including impact on health, demography, migration be scaled up to cover all remaining degraded forest patterns and livelihoods of coastal communities. It land. The institutional arrangement provides for would also support the establishment of dedicated using the corpus to leverage more funds to scale up climate change related academic units in Universities activity. and other academic and scientific research institu- tions in the country which would be networked. A Climate Science Research Fund would be created

4.7. National Mission for Sustainable under the Mission to support research. Private sector Agriculture initiatives for development of innovative technolo- gies for adaptation and mitigation would be encour- The Mission would devise strategies to make Indian aged through venture capital funds. Research to agriculture more resilient to climate change. It support policy and implementation would be under- would identify and develop new varieties of crops taken through identified centres. The Mission will and especially thermal resistant crops and alternative also focus on dissemination of new knowledge based cropping patterns, capable of withstanding extremes on research findings. 11th Plan and the 12th Plan period 2012-13 to 2016- assist the country to adapt to climate change, but 17. Where the resource requirements of the Mission also, importantly, launch the economy on a path that call for an enhancement of the allocation in the 11th would progressively and substantially result in miti- Plan, this will be suitably considered, keeping in gation through avoided emissions. mind the overall resources position and the scope for re-prioritisation. Comprehensive Mission documents detailing 5. 1. Institutional Arrangements for objectives, strategies, plan of action, timelines and Managing Climate Change Agenda monitoring and evaluation criteria would be devel- oped and submitted to the Prime Minister's Council In order to respond effectively to the challenge of cli- on Climate Change by December 2008. The Council mate change, the Government has created an will also periodically review the progress of these Advisory Council on Climate Change, chaired by the Missions. Each Mission will report publicly on its Prime Minister. The Council has broad based repre- annual performance. sentation from key stake-holders, including Building public awareness will be vital in Government, Industry and Civil Society and sets out supporting implementation of the NAPCC. This will broad directions for National Actions in respect of be achieved through national portals, media Climate Change. The Council will also provide guid- engagement, civil society involvement, curricula ance on matters relating to coordinated national reform and recognition/ awards, details of which will action on the domestic agenda and review of the be worked out by an empowered group. The Group implementation of the National Action Plan on will also consider methods of capacity building to Climate Change including its R&D agenda. support the goals of the National Missions. The Council chaired by the Prime Minister We will develop appropriate technologies to would also provide guidance on matters relating to measure progress in actions being taken in terms of international negotiations including bilateral, multi- avoided emissions, wherever applicable, with refer- lateral programmes for collaboration, research and ence to business as usual scenarios. Appropriate indi- development. Details of the institutional arrange- cators will be evolved for assessing adaptation bene- ment are at Annexure 1. fits of the actions. The NAPCC will continue to evolve, based on new scientific and technical knowledge as they These Eight National Missions, taken together, with emerge and in response to the evolution of the mul- enhancements in current and ongoing programmes tilateral climate change regime including arrange- Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change Coordination Unit for Research Agenda Core Negotiating Team Implementation of National Principal Scientific Adviser to GOI (Multi - Ministry) ◄ Ministry of Science & Technology Plan of Action for Climate Change (MoEF) (Specific Units of MST/other z Ministries) ~ 0 z )> r )> n ---, 0 z Ministry Specific Agenda 7J Technical Support Group )> r )> (Multi- Ministry) (Ministries) ::::, z ::::, 0 tD z >< C n c::: 3: ~ ~ m n I )> z C) m -..J TECHNICAL DOCUMENT CONTENTS Background to India's National Action Plan on Climate Change 2 Some Current Programmes on Adaptation and Mitigation 3 Way Forward: Eight National Missions

3.1 National Solar Mission

3.2 National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

3.3 National Mission on Sustainable Habitat

3.4 National Water Mission

3.5 National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

3.6 National Mission for a Green India

3.7 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

3.8 National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change 4 Other Initiatives 5 1. Background to India's National Action generate the required financial, technological and Plan on Climate Change human resources. In view of the large uncertainties concerning the spatial and temporal magnitude of The Fourth Assessment report of the climate change impacts, it is not desirable to design Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC- strategies exclusively for responding to climate AR4) 1 concluded from direct observations of changes change. Rather, the need is to identify and prioritize in temperature, sea level, and snow cover in the strategies that promote development goals while northern hemisphere during 1850 to the present, also serving specific climate change objectives. that the warming of the earth's climate system is It is imperative to identify measures that pro- unequivocal. The global atmospheric concentration mote our development objectives, while also yield- of carbon dioxide has increased from a pre-industrial ing co-benefits for addressing climate change value of about 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005. Multi- effects. Cost- effective energy efficiency and energy model averages show that the temperature increases conservation measures are of particular importance during 2090-2099 relative to 1980-1999 may range in this connection. Similarly, development of clean from 1.1 to 6.4°C and sea level rise from 0.18 to 0.59 energy technologies, though primarily designed to meters. These could lead to impacts on freshwater promote energy security, can also generate large availability, oceanic acidification, food production, benefits in terms of reducing carbon emissions. Many flooding of coastal areas and increased burden of health - related local pollution controls can also gen- vector borne and water borne diseases associated erate significant co-benefits in terms of reduced with extreme weather events .. greenhouse gas emissions. This document identifies The Prime Minister's Council on Climate specific opportunities to simultaneously advance Change, in its first meeting on 13th July, 2007, had India's development and climate related objectives decided that "A National Document compiling of adaptation and GHG mitigation. action taken by India for addressing the challenge of It also describes India's willingness and Climate Change, and the action it proposes to take" desire, as a responsible member of the global com- be prepared. munity, to do all that is possible for pragmatic and The National Action Plan for Climate Change practical solutions for all, in accordance with the responds to the decision of the PM's Council, as well principle of common but differentiated responsibili- as updates India's national programmes relevant to ties and respective capabilities. The purpose of this addressing climate change. It identifies measures document is also to create awareness among repre- that promote our development objectives, while also sentatives of the public at large, different agencies change. The former Prime Minister, late Smt. Indira 1.3 Current Carbon Dioxide Emissions in India Gandhi, had stated: 'poverty is the worst polluter'. Therefore, development and poverty eradication India's CO2 emissions per capita are well below the will be the best form of adaptation to climate world's average 2. Per capita carbon dioxide emis- change. sions of some regions in the world in 2004 are as fol- The impacts of climate change could prove lows: particularly severe for women. With climate change, there would be increasing scarcity of water, reduc- Table 1.3.1: A comparison of India's per capita GHG emissions tion in yields of forest biomass, and increased risks to with some other countries human health with children, women and the elderly in a household becoming the most vulnerable. With Country Per-Capita Carbon-dioxide the possibility of decline in availability of foodgrains, emissions (metric tons) the threat of malnutrition may also increase. All USA 20.01 these would add to deprivations that women already EU 9.40 encounter and so in each of the Adaptation pro- Japan 9.87 grammes, special attention should be paid to the China 3.60 aspects of gender. Russia 11.71 India 1.02 World Average 4.25

1.2 Relationship between Human Development Index and Energy Consumption India has a well-developed policy, legislative, regula- The strong positive correlation between energy use tory, and programmatic regime for promotion of and human development is well recognized (Figure energy efficiency, renewable energy, nuclear power, 1.2.1). It is obvious that India needs to substantially fuel switching, energy pricing reform, and address- increase its per capita energy consumption to pro- ing GHG emissions in the energy sector. As a conse- vide a minimally acceptable level of well being to its quence of these measures, India's energy intensity of people. the economy has come down sharply since the 1980s and compares favourably with the least energy Figure 1.2.1: Human Development Index versus per capita intensive developed countries 3 . electricity consumption Figure 1.3.2: India's Energy intensity of GDP based on 1.0 International Energy Agency data4 :;;:-- 0.9 0 0 Energy intensity of GDP (kgoe/$ 2000 PPP) ~ 0.8 ><., "Cl 0.7 0.31 -=.... £ 0.29 C ., 0.6 c.. g 0.27 E c. 0 ., 0.5 0 ~ 0.25 .,> ~ 0.23 C 0.4 !:2 C ]" 0.21 "'E :, Ref: Human Development Report )2006) C, ~ 0.19

0.3 Published for the United Nations V'l :::c: Development Programme (UNDP) ~ 0.17 I- 0.2 100 1000 10000 Per Capita Electricity Consumption in kWh/year 14 • NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE

1.4. Observed Changes in Climate and and (ii) a significant decrease in the frequency of Weather Events in India moderate events over central India from 1951 to 2000. There are some observed changes in climate param- eters in India. India's Initial National Communication, • Rise in Sea Level 2004 (NATCOM 1) 5 to UNFCCC has consolidated Using the records of coastal tide gauges in the north some of these. Some highlights from NATCOM I and Indian Ocean for more than 40 years, Unnikrishnan others are listed here. No firm link between the doc- and Shankar7 have estimated, that sea level rise was umented changes described below and warming due between 1.06-1. 75 mm per year. These rates are con- to anthropogenic climate change has yet been estab- sistent with 1-2 mm per year global sea level rise esti- lished. mates of IPCC. • Surface Temperature • Impacts on Himalayan Glaciers At the national level, increase of - 0.4° C has been The Himalayas possess one of the largest resources of observed in surface air temperatures over the past snow and ice and its glaciers form a source of water century. A warming trend has been observed along for the perennial rivers such as the lndus, the Ganga, the west coast, in central India, the interior peninsu- and the Brahmaputra. Glacial melt may impact their la, and north-eastern India. However, cooling trends long-term lean-season flows, with adverse impacts have been observed in north-west India and parts of on the economy in terms of water availability and south India. hydropower generation. • Rainfall The available monitoring data on Himalayan While the observed monsoon rainfall at the all-India glaciers indicates that while recession of some gla- level does not show any significant trend, regional ciers has occurred in some Himalayan regions in monsoon variations have been recorded. A trend of recent years, the trend is not consistent across the increasing monsoon seasonal rainfall has been found entire mountain chain. It is accordingly, too early to along the west coast, northern Andhra Pradesh, and establish long-term trends, or their causation, in north-western India (+10% to +12% of the normal respect of which there are several hypotheses. over the last 100 years) while a trend of decreasing Under the National Action Plan, these data will monsoon seasonal rainfall has been observed over be updated and refined continuously and additional eastern Madhya Pradesh, north-eastern India, and reliable data will be collected. • Indian summer monsoon (ISM) is a manifestation of ity of fruits, vegetables, tea, coffee, aromatic and complex interactions between land, ocean and medicinal plants, and basmati rice. Pathogens and atmosphere. The simulation of ISM's mean pattern as insect populations are strongly dependent upon tem- well as variability on interannual and intraseasonal perature and humidity, and changes in these param- scales has been a challenging ongoing problem. eters may change their population dynamics. Other Some simulations by IITM, Pune, have indicated that impacts on agricultural and related sectors include summer monsoon intensity may increase beginning lower yields from dairy cattle and decline in fish from 2040 and by 10% by 2100 under A2 scenario of breeding, migration, and harvests. Global reports IPCC. indicate a loss of 10-40% in crop production by 2100. • Changes in frequency and/ or magnitude of 1.6.3. IMPACTS ON HEALTH extreme temperature and precipitation events. Some results show that fine-scale snow albedo influence Changes in climate may alter the distribution of the response of both hot and cold events and that important vector species (for example, malarial mos- peak increase in extreme hot events are amplified by quitoes) and may increase the spread of such diseases surface moisture feedbacks. to new areas. If there is an increase of 3.8 °C in tem- perature and a 7% increase in relative humidity the transmission windows i.e., months during which

1.6. Possible Impacts of Projected mosquitoes are active, will be open for all 12 months Climate Change in 9 states in India. The transmission windows in Jammu and Kashmir and in Rajasthan may increase

1.6.1. IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES by 3-5 months. However, in Orissa and some south- ern states, a further increase in temperature is likely Changes in key climate variables, namely tempera- to shorten the transmission window by 2-3 months. ture, precipitation, and humidity, may have signifi- cant long-term implications for the quality and quan- 1.6.4. IMPACTS ON FORESTS tity of water. River systems of the Brahmaputra, the Ganga, and the lndus, which benefit from melting Based on future climate projections of Regional snow in the lean season, are likely to be particularly Climate Model of the Hadley Centre (HadRM3) using affected by the decrease in snow cover. A decline in A2 and B2 scenarios and the BIOME4 vegetation total run-off for all river basins, except Narmada and response model, Ravindranath et. al. 8 show that and semi-arid zones occur during climate extremes. Figure 2.1: Expenditure on Adaptation Programmes in India Large areas in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, 14 and Maharashtra and comparatively small areas in Karnataka, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, 12 • • Expenditure on adaptation as % of total Budget Expenditure , --- - , Expenditure on adaptation as % of GD~' Bihar, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh are frequent- ~ .s 10 ,, ed by drought. About 40 million hectares of land is flood-prone, including most of the river basins in the '5 C: "'c..>< LU 8 ·----·--- ---· north and the north-eastern belt, affecting about 30 'o 6 "' :::, million people on an average each year. Such vulner- ~ 4 able regions may be particularly impacted by climate 2 change 0 N M 1.0

1.6.6. IMPACTS ON COASTAL AREAS 9 0 ,.:., """ 0 c:, 0 J., 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 N N N N A mean Sea Level Rise (SLR) of 15-38 cm is projected along India's coast by the mid 21st century and of 46-59 cm by 2100. India's NATCOM I assessed the vul- 2.1 Some Existing Adaptation related nerability of coastal districts based on physical expo- Programmes sure to SLR, social exposure based on population affected, and economic impacts. In addition, a pro- 2.1.1. CROP IMPROVEMENT jected increase in the intensity of tropical cyclones poses a threat to the heavily populated coastal zones The present programmes address measures such as in the country (NATCOM, 2004). development of arid-land crops and pest manage- ment, as well as capacity building of extension work- ers and NGOs to support better vulnerability reduc- ing practices. 2. Some Current Actions for Adaptation and Mitigation 2.1.2. DROUGHT PROOFING Adaptation, in the context of climate change, com- The current programmes seek to minimize the prises the measures taken to minimize the adverse adverse effects of drought on production of crops impacts of climate change, e.g. relocating the com- and livestock, and on productivity of land, water and munities living close to the sea shore, for instance, to human resources, so as to ultimately lead to drought cope with the rising sea level or switching to crops proofing of the affected areas. They also aim to pro- that can withstand higher temperatures. Mitigation mote overall economic development and improve comprises measures to reduce the emissions of the socio-economic conditions of the resource poor greenhouse gases that cause climate change in the and disadvantaged sections inhabiting the pro- first place, e.g. by switching to renewable sources of gramme areas. energy such as solar energy or wind energy, or nuclear energy instead of burning fossil fuel in ther- 2.1.3. FORESTRY mal power stations. Current government expenditure in India on India has a strong and rapidly growing afforestation adaptation to climate variability, as shown in Figure programme. The afforestation process was acceler- 2.1, exceeds 2.6% of the GDP, with agriculture, water ated by the enactment of the Forest Conservation resources, health and sanitation, forests, coastal- Act of 1980, which aimed at stopping the clearing zone infrastructure and extreme weather events, and degradation of forests through a strict, central- being specific areas of concern. ized control of the rights to use forest land and NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE • 17 mandatory requirements of compensatory 2.1.7. RISK FINANCING afforestation in case of any diversion of forest land for any non-forestry purpose. In addition an aggres- Two risk-financing programmes support adaptation sive afforestation and sustainable forest manage- to climate impacts. The Crop Insurance Scheme sup- ment programme resulted in annual reforestation ports the insurance of farmers against climate risks, of 1.78 mha during 1985-1997, and is currently 1.1 and the Credit Support Mechanism facilitates the mha annually. Due to this, the carbon stocks in extension of credit to farmers, especially for crop fail- Indian forests have increased over the last 20 years ure due to climate variability. to 9 -10 gigatons of carbon (GtC) during 1986 to 2005. 2.1.8. DISASTER MANAGEMENT

2.1.4. WATER The National Disaster Management programme pro- vides grants-in-aid to victims of weather related dis- The National Water Policy (2002) stresses that non- asters, and manages disaster relief operations. It also conventional methods for utilization of water, supports proactive disaster prevention programmes, including inter-basin transfers, artificial recharge of including dissemination of information and training groundwater, and desalination of brackish or sea of disaster-management staff. water, as well as traditional water conservation prac- tices like rainwater harvesting, including roof-top rainwater harvesting, should be practised to increase 2.2. Some of India's Actions Relating to the utilizable water resources. Many states now have GHG Mitigation mandatory water harvesting programmes in several cities. 2.2.1. INDIA'S POLICY STRUCTURE RELEVANT TO GHG MITIGATION

2.1.5. COASTAL REGIONS India has in place a detailed policy, regulatory, and In coastal regions, restrictions have been imposed in legislative structure that relates strongly to GHG mit- the area between 200m and 500m of the HTL (high igation: The Integrated Energy Policy was adopted in tide line) while special restrictions have been 2006. Some of its key provisions are: imposed in the area up to 200m to protect the sensi- tive coastal ecosystems and prevent their exploita- • Promotion of energy efficiency in all sectors exploration, extraction, conversion, transmission 2.2.3. ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE and distribution of primary and secondary energy • Accomplish price reform, through full competition An Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was at point of sale launched in May, 2007, which addresses the design of • Promote tax reform to promote optimal fuel new, large commercial buildings to optimize the choices buildings' energy demand based on their location in • Augment and diversify energy options, sources different climatic zones. Commercial buildings are and energy infrastructure one of the fastest growing sectors of the Indian • Provide feed-in tariffs for renewables (solar, wind, economy, reflecting the increasing share of the serv- biomass cogeneration) ices sector in the economy. Nearly one hundred • Strengthen, and where applicable, introduce buildings are already following the Code, and com- independent regulation pliance with the Code has been incorporated into the mandatory Environmental Impact Assessment The Rural Electrification Policy, 2006, promotes requirements for large buildings. It has been estimat- renewable energy technologies where grid connec- ed that if all the commercial space in India every year tivity is not possible or cost-effective. The New and conform to ECBC norms, energy consumption in this Renewable Energy Policy, 2005, promotes utilization sector can be reduced by 30-40%.Compliance with of sustainable, renewable energy sources, and accel- ECBC norms is voluntary at present but is expected to erated deployment of renewables through indige- soon become mandatory. nous design, development and manufacture. The National Environment Policy, 2006, and 2.2.4. ENERGY AUDITS OF LARGE INDUSTRIAL CONSUMERS the Notification on Environment Impact Assessment (EIA), 2006, reform India's environmental assessment In March 2007 the conduct of energy audits was regime. A number of economic activities are required made mandatory in large energy-consuming units in to prepare environment impact assessments, and nine industrial sectors. These units, notified as "des- environment management plans, which are ignated consumers" are also required to employ appraised by regulatory authorities prior to start of "certified energy managers", and report energy con- construction. The EIA provisions strongly promote sumption and energy conservation data annually. environmental sustainability.

2.2.5. MASS TRANSPORT

2.2.2. INTRODUCTION OF LABELLING PROGRAMME FOR to reduce such pollution include (i) introduction of ance or ensuring cost-effectiveness and reliability, it compressed natural gas (CNG) in Delhi and other would also promote the integration of other renew- cities; (ii) retiring old, polluting vehicles; and (iii) able energy technologies, for example, biomass and strengthening of mass transportation as mentioned wind, with solar energy options. above. Some state governments provide subsidies for India is largely located in the equatorial sun purchase and use of electric vehicles. For thermal belt of the earth, thereby receiving abundant radiant power plants, the installation of electrostatic precip- energy from the sun. The country receives about itators is mandatory. In many cities, polluting indus- 5,000 trillion kWh/year equivalent energy through trial units have either been closed or shifted from solar radiation. In most parts of India, clear sunny residential areas. weather is experienced 250 to 300 days a year. The annual global radiation varies from 1600 to 2200

2.2.7 PROMOTION OF ENERGY SAVING DEVICES kWhtm 2, which is typical of the tropical and sub- tropical regions. The average solar insolation inci- The Bureau of Energy efficiency has introduced "The dent over India is about 5.5 kWhtm 2 per day. Just 1% Bachat Lamp Yojana", a programme under which of India's land area can meet India's entire electricity households may exchange incandescent lamps for requirements till 2030. CFLs (compact fluorescent lamps) using clean devel- Solar based power technologies are an opment mechanism (CDM) credits to equate pur- extremely clean form of generation with practically chase price. Some states have made mandatory the no form of emissions at the point of generation. installation of solar water heaters in hospitals, hotels They would lead to energy security through displace- and large government and commercial buildings. ment of coal and petroleum. T&D losses are very low Subsidy is provided for installation of solar water in decentralized systems. Deployment can be done heaters in residential buildings. independently of the national grid and integrated with the national grid when needed.

2.2.8. PROMOTION OF BIOFUELS

3.1.1. SOLAR THERMAL POWER GENERATION The Biodiesel Purchase Policy mandates biodiesel procurement by the petroleum industry. A mandate Solar Thermal Power Generating Systems (STPG) or on Ethanol Blending of Gasolene requires 5% blend- Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) use concentrated ing of ethanol with gasolene from 1st January, 2003, solar radiation as high temperature energy source (> in 9 States and 4 Union Territories. 5000(} to produce electricity. The working mechanism for solar heat to the focus, or only of individual mirrors in an array, power systems are in the range of Rs. 30- thus reducing costs. 35cr/MW.This includes the cost of the solar panels The cyclical (diurnal, annual) and episodic and balance of system (BOS). The unit cost of gener- (cloud cover) variations of solar insolation, and the ation is still in the range of Rs. 15-20 KWh, but may impossibility of regulating the solar flux means that fall significantly for thin-film based systems. in order to ensure steady power supply, meet peak- Proposed R&D activities in respect of Solar ing requirements, as well as to ensure optimal uti- Photovoltaic generation, for the near and medium lization of steam turbines and generators, it is neces- term would include improvement in solar cell effi- sary to either hybridize solar thermal systems with ciency to 15% at commercial level; improvements in alternative means of raising steam, or provide for PV module technology with higher packing density high temperature thermal energy storage. The for- and suitability for solar roofs; and development of mer may be accomplished by hybridization with con- lightweight modules for use in solar lanterns and ventional fuels, or by biomass combustion systems. similar applications. The latter may be accomplished by insulated storage of molten salts; however, in their case the rate of 3.1.3. R&D COLLABORATION, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER, heat loss may be significant, and storage for more AND CAPACITY BUILDING than 10-12 hours is uneconomic. The investment cost of stand-alone (i.e. with- In specific areas of both solar thermal and solar PV out hybridization) solar thermal power plants are in systems, it would be useful to enter into collabora- the range of Rs 20-22 er/MW. It usually includes the tion with institutions working elsewhere, with shar- cost of the solar concentrators, balance of system ing of the resulting IPRs. (BOS), receiver (turbine) with generator and control Technology transfer in both Solar Thermal equipments, etc. The estimated unit cost of genera- technologies and the PV technologies will be tion is currently in the range of 20-25 Rs/KWh. required in respect of cost-effective and efficient (Source Scientific American, January 2008) technologies suitable for use in India. Support to Proposed R&D activities in respect of Solar commercial demonstration by entrepreneurs of Solar Thermal power generation would cover design and Thermal and Solar PV, both stand-alone and distrib- development of concentrating solar thermal power uted generation systems, in particular in remote systems, including parabolic troughs, central receiv- locations, and using these as training facilities for er systems, and dish/engine systems. The R&D local entrepreneurs and O&M personnel would also effort should be directed mainly at reducing costs help develop this sector. funding available under global climate mechanisms, als for solar energy conversion infrastructure, such as and earnings from deployment of research spon- robust, and inexpensive, thermal management mate- sored by the Mission. Policy and Regulatory measures rials. for promotion of solar technologies would also be The ultimate objective of the Mission would enhanced as common to all renewables based tech- be to develop a solar industry in India that is capable nologies. of delivering solar energy competitively against fos- Over the 11 th and 12th Plan periods (till sil options from the Kilowatt range of distributed 2017) the Mission would aim to deliver at least solar thermal and solar PV to the Gigawatt scale of 80% coverage for all low temperature (<150° C), base load priced and dispatchable CSP within the and at least 60% coverage for medium tempera- next 20-25 years. ture (150° to 250° C) applications of solar energy in all urban areas, industries, and commercial establishments. Rural solar thermal applications 3.2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy would also be pursued under public-private part- Efficiency in Industry nerships where feasible. Commensurate local man- ufacturing capacity to meet this level of deploy- The industry sector is the largest user of commercial ment, with necessary technology tie-ups, where energy in India, accounting for 42% of the country's desirable, would be established. Further, the total commercial energy use during 2004-05. The Mission would aim for local Photovoltaic (PV) pro- Indian industry sector, comprising large, medium, duction from integrated facilities at a level of 1000 and small enterprises registered a growth of 10.6% MW/annum within this time frame. It would also in April-December 2006 (MoF, 2007). Since the indus- aim to establish at least 1000 MW of Concentrating try sector is viewed as central for economic growth, Solar Power (CSP) generation capacity, again, with it would continue to play a major role in the overall such technical tie-ups as essential within the stated development of India. time frame. The industrialization policies of the country The untapped energy potential of each of have helped in setting up of several energy-intensive the three generic solar based energy approaches (i.e. primary manufacturing facilities such as iron and solar PV, solar thermal, and biomass) is well beyond steel, cement, fertilizer, refineries, with investment current usage levels. In the long term the Mission targets fixed in successive Five-year Plans of the would aim to network Indian research efforts in solar Government of India. The planners also encouraged technology with global initiatives in these three various small scale industries, providing huge

3.2.1. GHG MITIGATION OPTIONS IN THE INDUSTRY tars has been improving over time, and the specific SECTOR energy consumption of many of the large plants compares well with the world's best, it is estimated GHG Mitigation options in the industry sector can be that CO2 emissions from fuel and electricity use in broadly grouped under three heads as given below: the industry sector could be further reduced by about 605 million tonnes (approximately 16% reduc- • Sector specific technological options tion from the BAU scenario) in the year 2031. • Cross-cutting technologies options However, this will involve major incremental invest- • Fuel switch options ment costs, as well as, overall, large economic costs, besides technology transfer.

3.2.2. SECTOR SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIONS

3.2.6. CO-BENEFITS Various GHG mitigation technology options in respect of the Chlor-Alkali, Cement, Aluminum, Energy-efficiency measures in the industrial sector Fertilizer, Iron and Steel, Pulp and Paper, and Textile also have some co-benefits due to reduction in fuel sectors are currently being investigated. and material use leading to reduced emission of air- pollutants, solid waste, and waste water. In addition,

3.2.3. CROSS-CUTTING TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIONS some options also lead to improvement in the quali- ty of product. Apart from sector-specific options, there are certain cross-cutting energy efficient technological options 3.2.7 TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER that could be adopted in a wide range of industries. In general, in the industries sector, approximately Relevant technologies under development that 50% of the industrial energy use is accounted for by would reduce specific energy consumption need to cross-cutting technologies. be transferred to India when commercially viable. The estimated energy saving potential for a large number of plants is of the order of 5% to 15%. 3.2.8. FINANCING

3.2.4. FUEL SWITCH The move to efficient technologies in the industry sector generally involves significant incremental With the increasing availability of natural gas in the investment, and in many cases, economic costs.

3.2.10. POLICY AND REGULATORY OPTIONS the required upfront investment. To further enhance energy efficiency, four Under the Energy Conservation Act (2001), 9 energy new initiatives may be considered. These are: intensive industrial sectors, i.e. thermal power sta- tions, fertilizer, cement, iron and steel, chlor-alkali, • Mandated specific energy consumption decreases aluminum, railways, textile and pulp and paper, are in large energy consuming industries and facilities required to employ a certified energy manager, con- that have been notified as Designated Consumers duct energy audits periodically, and adhere to spe- under the Energy Conservation Act, and provide a cific energy-consumption norms that may be pre- framework to certify energy savings in excess of scribed. the mandated savings. The certified excess sav- Currently, almost every industrial sector is ings may be traded amongst companies to meet characterized by a wide band of energy efficiencies their mandated compliance requirements, or in different units. Several of them are at global fron- banked for the next cycle of energy savings tier levels, but some others have relatively poor per- requirements. formance. As an approach to enhancement of over- all energy efficiency in each sector, the efficiency • Tax incentives for promotion of energy efficiency, band-width of the sector is divided into 4 bands. The including differential taxation on appliances that energy efficiency improvement target, in percent- have been certified as energy efficient through age, from current levels for each unit varies with its energy labeling programme. band, being highest for the least energy efficient, and the least for the most efficient. These targets • Creation of energy efficiency financing platforms would have to be achieved within a period of 3 to 5 for enabling public-private-partnerships to capture years within each group. energy savings through demand side management Given the fact of fertilizer subsidies, individ- programmes in the municipal, buildings, and agri- ual fertilizer units have little incentive to undertake cultural sectors. energy-efficiency investments. It is, therefore, imper- ative that fertilizer subsidies be restructured to elim- • Fiscal Incentives inate such absence of incentive. To promote technology upgradation in the 3.2.11. DELIVERY OPTIONS SME (small and medium enterprise) sector, it would be essential to evolve sector-specific integrated pro- The key delivery options for energy efficiency in

3.3 National Mission on Sustainable Habitat air conditioning, followed by 20% for lighting, in a non-airconditioned building the consumption pat- The Mission comprises three components, i.e. pro- terns would be significantly different. moting energy efficiency in the residential and com- Energy use in residential and commercial mercial sector, management of municipal solid buildings also varies significantly across income waste, and promotion of urban public transport. groups, building construction typology, climate, and These are presented below: several other factors. There exists significant scope to reduce energy use, while also providing the requisite

3.3.1. PROMOTING ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN THE energy services in case of both existing as well as new RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL SECTOR constructions. Although the saving potential of each option may vary with typology, climate, space condi- The residential sector accounts for around 13.3% of tioning needs, and the initial base design proposed total commercial energy use in India. While several by the client/designer, on an average it is estimated households, especially in the rural areas, continue to that the implementation of energy efficient options use biomass for cooking in traditional cookstoves, would help in achieving around 30% electricity sav- which leads to high levels of indoor air pollution and ings in new residential buildings and 40% electricity poses a major health risk especially to women and savings in new commercial buildings. In case of exist- children, the use of modern fuels such as LPG (lique- ing buildings, the energy saving potential for resi- fied petroleum gas) and kerosene is increasing rapid- dential buildings is estimated to be around 20%, and ly. During 1990-2003, consumption of LPG increased that for commercial buildings around 30%. at an annual rate of 11.26%, while electricity use Various studies have established that sub- increased at 8.25% annually in the residential sector. stantial energy savings can be achieved in the resi- Electricity consumption in the residential sec- dential and commercial sectors. Implementing car- tor is primarily for lighting, space conditioning, refrig- bon mitigation options in buildings is associated with eration, and other appliances. According to a study a wide range of co-benefits, including improved on energy consumption in the residential sector in energy security and system reliability. Other co-bene- the city of Delhi, while lighting accounted for around fits of energy efficiency investments include the cre- 8%-14% of total electricity consumption, space-con- ation of jobs and business opportunities, while the ditioning accounted for nearly 52%, and refrigerators energy savings may lead to greater access to energy accounted for around 28% (in the summer months). for the poor, leading to their improvement and well- Accordingly, energy saving measures related with being. Other co-benefits include improved indoor energy-efficient appliances typically have higher up- 3.3.1.3. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND CAPACITY BUILDING front costs than their non-labeled counterparts. Given that significant incremental investment costs The energy efficient lighting and space conditioning are associated with the efficient technologies, appro- technologies developed internationally are generally priate financing mechanisms need to be adopted in superior as compared to those available within the order to promote these technologies. country. There is therefore a need for technology Adoption of energy-efficient lighting and transfer from the developed countries. However space-conditioning technologies should be integrat- adopting these internationally developed technologies ed into housing finance schemes of financial institu- is associated with payment of additional costs due to tions, appliance financing schemes need to incen- the IPR component associated with these technologies. tivize purchase of energy-efficient equipment, and Mechanisms need to be put in place so that these costs utility- based programmes should be put in place to do not impose an additional burden on the consumers. pay for the higher upfront capital costs of lighting Solar evacuated tubular panel technology is systems in the utility bills. available internationally for solar water heating sys- Carbon-market financing would enable tems, but needs to be transferred for diffusion in the access to these technologies where there are higher Indian market. investment costs, or higher economic costs of the Lack of awareness of energy-saving options required energy service, or both. This may be espe- and potential among architects, engineers, interior cially useful in view of the "split incentive" problem designers, and professionals in the building industry in such cases, that is, the persons who incur the addi- including plumbers and electricians is a major barrier tional investment costs are different from those that to the construction of low-energy buildings. might realize the energy savings. Realizing the potential of energy saving requires an integrated design process involving all the stake- 3.3. 1.2. RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT holders, with full consideration of opportunities for passively reducing building energy demands. The R&D needs for the residential and commercial Builders and developers need to be trained sectors is mainly related to energy efficient technolo- and made aware of the options to save energy in new gies. It needs to focus on the development of ener- constructions. There is a need to create comprehen- gy-efficient products for the following applications: sive integrated programmes at universities and other professional establishments to impart such training • Energy-efficient buildings and building components for designing and constructing low-energy buildings. ings and savings in GHG emissions, besides other ben- rather than technology/options prescriptions can efits. ECBC intervention has encouraged design inno- help keep compliance costs low and may provide vation in the building envelope and system design incentives for innovation. and specification, which have resulted in 50% energy savings (as measured in ECBC compliant buildings) 3.3.1.5. DELIVERY OPTIONS when compared to conventional constructions. Given the scale of energy savings that can be The BLY (Bachat Lamp Yojana) model needs to be achieved by the implementation of ECBC, it is impor- pursued to promote energy efficient and high quali- tant to direct policy towards encouraging/mandating ty CFLs as replacement for incandescent bulbs in energy savings. As an example, it would be pertinent households. Comprehensive implementation of the to address the cost of CFL (Compact Fluorescent Lamp) BLY can lead to a reduction of 10,000 MW and T5 (Efficient Tube Light) which is a barrier to their (Megawatt) of electricity demand. The BLY depends wide spread use, and implement measures to increase upon CDM (clean development mechanism) revenues the demand in order to reduce prices through scale to meet the incremental investment cost as well as effects. Large-scale availability of appropriate materi- the incremental economic cost that would be the als and equipment to meet the requirement of ECBC case in many participating households. is also urgently needed. The energy codes are still new ESCOs (Energy Service Companies) need to in India and the products (insulation, efficient glass, be promoted as vehicles to deliver energy-efficiency efficient HVAC systems, and so on) and services improvements, in particular because of the "split required by buildings to comply with the code incentives" problem, and facilitate access to carbon requirements are not readily and abundantly avail- finance through bundled CDM projects. able, or competitively priced. Market power monop- The energy efficient options in the residen- oly of a handful of manufacturers of energy efficient tial and commercial sectors should be promoted as products has resulted in a non-competitive market for bundles of programmatic CDM options. products like insulations, chillers, and so on. In addition to the above, the MoEF (Ministry 3.3.2 MANAGEMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW) of Environment and Forests) has developed a manu- al on norms and standards for environmental clear- Municipal solid waste (MSW) generation reflects not ance for large construction projects after wide con- just income levels, but also lifestyle choices. Recycling sultation with experts from different disciplines. The of materials is an important option for reducing envi- manual would be used as a technical guideline to ronmental pressures. Figure 3.3.2.1 below indicates Figure 3.3.2.2: GHG emissions intensity from waste generation There is a trend of increase in the percentage of recy- (in gm/$1000 at PPP GDP) clables, accompanied by decreases in the percentage of biodegradable matter in the waste stream. 25 23 Table 3.3.2.2: Change in waste composition in selected cities 20 City Compostables Recyclables 15 (%} (%} 10 1982-1990 2005 1982-1990 2005 5 Lucknow 60.31 47.41 6.72 15.53 Kolkata 46.58 50.56 2.58 11.48 0 USA UK Germany India Kanpur 53.34 47.52 2.57 11.93 Mumbai 59.37 62.44 3.85 16.66 Source: TERI (2006) Delhi 57.71 54.42 8.24 15.52 Chennai 56.24 41.34 6.60 16.34 MSW generation in Indian cities (around 5100 ULBs) is estimated to have increased from 6 million tonnes Bangalore 75.00 51.84 2.70 22.43 in 1947 to 48 million tonnes in 1997, and to 69 mil- Ahemdabad 48.95 40.81 7.57 11.65 lion tonnes in 2006 (Central Pollution Control Board Source: 1982-90: Planning Commission; 1995, 2005: CPCB 2000, TERI 2001). In addition, Indian consumption of plastics is around 4 MTPA (million tonnes per 3.3.2.1 POLICIES AND REGULATIONS annum). About 60% of this comprises polyolefins, which are primarily used as packaging material. The 74th Constitutional Amendment (1992) trans- About 2.0 MTPA of total consumption is generated ferred the responsibility for collection, treatment as plastic waste of which around 70% is recycled, and disposal of MSW from State Governments to the mostly by the informal sector. The decadal growth in Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). The outbreak of plague at consumption of plastics during the period 1991-2001 Surat (1994) focused policy attention on the impor- was around 14% (Indian Centre for Plastics in the tance of proper systems for MSW in the ULBs. In Environment and Central Institute of Plastic response to direction by the Supreme Court in a PIL Engineering Technology 2003). Although the quanti- (WP No. 888/1996) MSW Rules 2000 were promulgat- ty of plastic waste reaching disposal sites is fairly low ed, MSW service from generation to disposal was (0.62% on a dry weight basis), testifying to the high mandated, and Local Governments made responsible Figure 3.3.2.1: Compliance Status of MSW Rules (Survey: 2004) 120 Waste transport Stree Treatment & Waste collection & cleaning Disposal 100 J!l 80 E QJ ""C E 60 ~ QJ c::: 40 t t 20 0 Storage of Segregation Primary Street Covered Covered Processing SLF waste at source at Source Collection Sweeping Storage transport of waste Activity of SWM ■ Number of cities with 80% coverage Source: World Bank WSP, 2007 MSW operations cannot overall be profitable, and • Common Regional Facilities: In respect of smaller while cost-effectiveness and revenue streams should towns and villages located in a region, say a dis- be pursued, MSW operations as a whole should be trict, disposal facilities should be developed as a recognized as entailing the provision of a public common regional facility. good (or environmental service}, generally requiring • Integrated Systems for collection, transport, trans- net fiscal expenditures by the concerned local bodies. fer, treatment, and disposal facilities: even if dif- The MSW Rules under the Environment ferent organizations implement different compo- Protection Act are currently somewhat focused on nents, as opposed to stand-alone facilities and specific treatment options, including the chain of col- open dumping. lection, transport and disposal. This focus is unduly prescriptive, and prevents innovation in systems and MSW operations cannot be financially viable: ULBs procedures, as well as update on new technologies should not expect to realize net royalties for treat- and techniques. The MSW Rules should be revised to ment and disposal of MSW, and a tipping fee would focus instead on performance or outcome norms be necessary (reckoned on tonnage of MSW or num- that are to be met, irrespective of particular systems ber of sources of different kinds) to be met from ULB and procedures, or technologies. This would provide revenues. benchmarks for monitoring and enforcement, as While there are several potential benefits in well as give space for innovation in systems, proce- implementing MSW operations through public-pri- dures, and technologies. vate partnerships, including cost-effectiveness, as There is an emerging consensus that MSW compared to operations carried out by the local bod- Rules should enable (but not require) the sharing of ies on their own, it is imperative that municipal infrastructure, including transport and treatment finances are placed on a sound footing prior to out- facilities, across a given region, including towns and sourcing this function. While the issue of municipal villages. This would help realize scale economies, finance reform is complex with many dimensions, besides access to better and more cost-effective sys- and needs to be pursued independent of MSW tems and treatment options for the smaller urban issues, a pre-requisite is separation of the accounts of centres and habitations. the local bodies in respect of their different respon- Broad guidelines for policy reform in the sibilities, such as MSW, water supply, sewage dispos- MSW sector include: al and roads. This separation would firstly, provide NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE • 29 guidance to setting user charges (however collected}, population with water supply facilities, and 75% of and a benchmark against which bids for provision of urban population with sewerage and sanitation by the MSW services may be judged. end of the plan period. Under the JNURM, till January 2008, funds amounting to Rs 900 crores were released The National Environment Policy, 2006, provides for: to ULBs. The required funding for upgrading MSW facilities in all cities and towns would be much greater. • Removal of barriers (incentives, regulation) for beneficial utilization of non-hazardous materials 3.3.3. PROMOTION OF URBAN PUBLIC TRANSPORT • Implementing viable PPPs for operation of haz- ardous and non-hazardous waste disposal facilities An increase in the demand for transportation servic- on payment of user fees, taking into account con- es for both passengers and freight is inevitable, cerns of local communities given economic growth and increase of population. • Survey and preparation of national inventory of The total number of registered motor vehicles in toxic and hazardous waste sites and online moni- India has increased from 21.4 million in 1991 to 72.7 toring of their movement million in 2004 at a CAGR of 9.9%, with the two • Giving legal recognition to and strengthening infor- wheeler segment comprising of motorcycles, scoot- mal sector systems of, collection and recycling and ers, and mopeds growing most rapidly amongst per- enhancing their access to finance and technology sonalized modes of transportation. Road based transportation is the main source of GHG emissions The significance of the last is that while the informal in the transportation sector. recycling sector is the backbone of India's highly Various studies have estimated that policy and effective recycling system, unfortunately, a number technological measures can lead to significant energy and of municipal regulations impede the operation of thereby emission savings in the transport sector. Estimates the recyclers, owing to which they remain at a tiny of the Planning Commission indicate an energy saving scale without access to finance or improved recycling potential of 115 mtoe (million tonnes of oil equivalent) in technologies. the year 2031/32 by increasing the share of railways and improving efficiencies of different modes of transport

3.3.2.2. R&D NEEDS (Planning Commission, 2006). Similarly, TERI estimates indicate an energy saving of 144 mtoe in 2031 by includ- Technological requirements are listed as follows: ing efficiency improvement across modes as well as con- sidering enhanced use of public transportation and rail combustion characteristics of motor engines for transport or rail-based movement, efficiency blending of higher content of ethanol in petrol. Bio- improvements, and increased adoption of bio-diesel diesel production from Jatropha curcas and or CNG have important co-benefits at the regional Pongamia shrubs is also increasing. The National and local levels. Mission on Bio-diesel aims in the first (demonstra- Pricing, taxes, and charges, apart from rais- tion) phase to establish biodiesel plantations in 26 ing revenue for governments, are expected to influ- states, while the second phase will lead to the pro- ence travel demand and choice of transportation duction of sufficient bio-diesel to enable a 20% modes, thereby decreasing fuel demand and GHG e- blend in vehicle diesel in 2011/12. However, the oil missions. Transport pricing can offer important gains content of bio-diesel crops from different parts of in social welfare by simultaneously reducing local India is highly variable. R&D has to be carried to pollution and GHG emissions, accidents, noise and identify superior genotypes and collect seeds, which congestion, as well as generating state revenue for need to be inventorised, documented and stored enhancing social wel-being and/or infrastructure under different agro-climatic zones. Introduction of construction and maintenance. bio-fuels should not divert land marked for food pro- FCVs fuelled by hydrogen have zero CO2 duction and thus decrease the availability of food- emission and high efficiency, address air quality (zero grains to population. There is also some controversy tailpipe emissions), and may promote energy securi- about the net GHG emission of some biofuels. ty since hydrogen can be produced from a wide Hydrogen has the potential to replace fossil range of sources. fuels in the future. In recent years, significant With an expanding automobile sector, recy- progress has been reported by several countries for cling of recoverable materials at end-of-life of auto- overcoming problems in its storage and production. mobiles would lead to considerable energy savings 9. In India, a National Hydrogen Energy Road Map has It is estimated that by 2020, recoverable materials been prepared. Some organisations have already annually will be of the order of 1.5 million tons of developed prototypes of two-and three-wheelers and steel, 180,000 tons of aluminium and 75,000 tons buses to run on hydrogen fuel. However, large scale each of rubber and plastics. Recycling of these mate- penetration of the market by hydrogen propelled rials will also reduce mining, depletion of natural vehicles is not expected till a few decades from now. resources, and degradation of environment. India has no formal regulations regarding recyclability and

3.3.3.2. COSTS AND FINANCING disposal of end-of-life vehicles. bility gap funding to cover capital cost of public energy in the form of hydropower, and vital inputs transport systems) to agriculture in the form of irrigation. Key elements • Abandoning of old vehicles to be made illegal on surface water studies include the following: with suitable legislation and fixing the responsibil- • Estimating river flows in mountainous areas ity of handing over the end-of-life vehicle to col- • Customizing climate change models for regional lection centers on the last owner of the vehicle water basins • Setting up of a demonstration unit to take up recy- • Extending isotopic-tracer-based techniques of mon- cling of vehicles, especially two wheelers, which itoring river water discharge to all major river require new techniques monitoring stations • Setting up a Combustion Research Institute to • Developing digital elevation models of flood-prone facilitate R&D in advanced engine design areas for forecasting floods • Providing tax benefits and investment support for • Mapping areas likely to experience floods and recovery of materials from scrap vehicles developing schemes to manage floods • Strengthening the monitoring of glacial and sea- sonal snow covers to assess the contribution of

3.4. National Water Mission snowmelt to water flows of Indian rivers that orig- inate in the Himalayas India gets on an average 1197 mm of rainfall every • Establishment of a wider network of automatic year. This amounts to a total precipitation of 4000 weather status and automated rain gauge stations billion m 3 . However, 3000 billion m 3 of this is lost • Planning of watershed management in mountain due to run off, and only 1000 billion m 3 is available ecosystems as surface and ground water sources, amounting to c.1000 m 3 per year per capita water availability. This 3.4.2. MANAGEMENT AND REGULATION OF GROUNDWATER is about 115th - 1/1 oth of that of many industrialised RESOURCES countries. Many parts of India are water stressed today and India is likely to be water scarce by 2050. Groundwater accounts for nearly 40% of the total The problem may worsen due to climate change available water resources in the country and meets impacts. It is therefore important to increase the effi- nearly 55% of irrigation requirements, 85% of rural ciency of water use, explore options to augment requirements and 50% of urban and industrial water supply in critical areas, and ensure more effec- requirements. However, overexploitation of the tive management of water resources. New regulato- resource has sharply lowered the water table in both augment storage capacity and improve drainage systems. Effective drainage is also essential In India, desalination has been recognized as a pos- to reclaim waterlogged and saline-alkali lands and to sible means to argument the water supply through prevent the degradation of fertile lands. Key areas natural resources for meeting the growing needs of are listed below: water due to population and industrial growth. • Prioritizing watersheds vulnerable to flow changes Since desalination is an energy intensive process (the and developing decision support systems to facili- energy required may vary from about 3 kWh to 16 tate quick and appropriate responses kWh for separating 1000 litres depending on the • Restoration of old water tanks type of process used), the application of desalina- • Developing models of urban storm water flows tion technology for increasing regional water sup- and estimating drainage capacities for storm- plies strongly links to energy issues and thus GHG water and for sewers based on the simulations emissions. Development activities have been initiat- • Strengthen links with afforestation programmes ed in various laboratories in the country. and wetland conservation Desalination has been recognized as an important • Enhancing storage capacities in multipurpose cross disciplinary technology area for R&D in the hydro projects, and integration of drainage with 11 th Plan. Technologies are being developed for the irrigation infrastructure following: • Seawater desalination using Reverse Osmosis and

3.4.4. CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS multistage flash distillation to take advantage of low-grade heat energy e.g. from power plants Wetlands provide a range of ecological services, located in the coastal regions or by using renew- including water conservation, recharge of ground- able energy such as solar water, and preservation of flora and fauna, including • Brackish water desalination species and varieties at risk and are a source of liveli- • Water recycle and reuse hood to many. Wetlands face the threat of conver- • Water purification technologies sion to other uses, which means a loss of their eco- logical services, making those who depend on them vulnerable. Actions identified for conserving wet- 3.5. National Mission for Sustaining the lands are listed below: Himalayan Ecosystem • Environmental appraisal and impact assessment of The Himalayan ecosystem is vital to the ecological several scientific institutions in India have been • Consider particular unique mountain scapes as enti- inconclusive on the extent of change in glacier ties with "Incomparable Values", in developing mass, and whether climate change is a significant strategies for their protection causative factor. 3.6. National Mission for a Green lndia 11 11 It is accordingly, necessary to continue and enhance monitoring of the Himalayan ecosystem, in Forests are repositories of genetic diversity, and sup- particular the state of its glaciers, and the impacts of ply a wide range of ecosystem services thus helping change in glacial mass on river flows. Since several maintain ecological balance. Forests meet nearly other countries in the South Asian region share the 40% of the energy needs of the country overall, and Himalayan ecosystem, appropriate forms of scientific over 80% of those in rural areas, and are the back- collaboration and exchange of information may be bone of forest-based communities in terms of liveli- considered with them to enhance understanding of hood and sustenance. Forests sequester billions of ecosystem changes and their effects. tons of carbon dioxide in the form of biomass and It is also necessary, with a view to enhancing soil carbon. The proposed national programme will conservation of Himalayan ecosystems, to empower focus on two objectives, namely increasing the forest local communities, in particular through the cover and density as a whole of the country and con- Panchayats, to assume greater responsibility for serving biodiversity. management of ecological resources. The National Environment Policy, 2006, inter- 3.6.1. INCREASE IN FOREST COVER AND DENSITY alia provides for the following relevant measures for conservation of mountain ecosystems: The report of the Working Group on Forests for the 11 th Five-Year Plan puts the annual rate of planting • Adopt appropriate land-use planning and water- during 2001/02 to 2005/06 at 1.6 million hectares and shed management practices for sustainable devel- proposes to increase it to 3.3 million hectares during opment of mountain ecosystems the 11 th Plan. The final target is to bring one-third of the geographic area of India under forest cover. • Adopt "best practice" norms for infrastructure The Greening India Programme has already construction in mountain regions to avoid or min- been announced. Under the programme, 6 million imize damage to sensitive ecosystems and despoil- hectares of degraded forest land would be afforest- ing of landscapes ed with the participation of Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs), with funds to the tives such as Joint Forest Management (JFM) and vance to adaptation will be as follows: Van Panchayat committees for forest management • Implementation of the Greening India Plan • Development of drought- and pest-resistant crop • Formulation of forest fire management strategies varieties • Improving methods to conserve soil and water

3.6.2. CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY • Stakeholder consultations, training workshops and demonstration exercises for farming communi- Conservation of wildlife and biodiversity in natural ties, for agro-climatic information sharing and heritage sites including sacred groves, protected dissemination areas, and other biodiversity 'hotspots' is crucial for • Financial support to enable farmers to invest in and maintaining the resilience of ecosystems. Specific adopt relevant technologies to overcome climate actions in this programme will include: related stresses • ln-situ and ex-situ conservation of genetic 3.7.2. RISK MANAGEMENT resources, especially of threatened flora and fauna The agricultural sector may face risks due to extreme • Creation of biodiversity registers (at national, dis- climatie events. Priority areas are as follows: trict, and local levels) for documenting genetic diversity and the associated traditional knowledge • Strengthening of current agricultural and weather • Effective implementation of the Protected Area insurance mechanisms System under the Wildlife Conservation Act • Development and validation of weather derivative • Effective implementation of the National models (by insurance providers ensuring their Biodiversity Conservation Act, 2001 access to archival and current weather data) • Creation of web-enabled, regional language based

3.7. National Mission for Sustainable services for facilitation of weather-based insurance Agriculture • Development of GIS and remote-sensing method- ologies for detailed soil resource mapping and Contributing 21 % to the country's GDP, accounting land use planning at the level of a watershed or a for 11 % of total exports, employing 56.4% of the river basin total workforce, and supporting 600 million people • Mapping vulnerable eco-regions and pest and dis- directly or indirectly, agriculture is vital to India's ease hotspots water resources, soil erosion, and associated • Global and regional climate modelling to improve impacts on agricultural production in mountainous the quality and specificity of climate change pro- regions jections over the Indian sub-continent, including • Providing information on off-season crops, aro- changes in hydrological cycles matic and medicinal plants, greenhouse crops, pas- • Strengthening of observational networks and data ture development, agro-forestry, livestock and gathering and assimilation, including measures to agro-processing. enhance the access to and availability of relevant • Collation and dissemination of block-level data on data agro-climatic variables, land-use, and socio-eco- • Creation of essential research infrastructure, such nomic features and preparation of state-level as high performance computing and very large agro-climatic atlases bandwidth networks to enable scientists to access and share computational and data resources 3. 7 .4 USE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY These broad themes are elaborated in the sub-sec- Biotechnology applications in agriculture relate to tions below: several themes, including drought proofing, taking advantage of elevated C02 concentrations, 3.8.1. CLIMATE MODELLING AND AccEss TO DATA increased yields and increased resistance to disease and pests. Priority areas include: Although the IPCC-AR4 has addressed the general global trends on climate change, spatially detailed • Use of genetic engineering to convert C-3 crops to assessments are not available for India. This is the more carbon responsive C-4 crops to achieve because of inadequate computing power available, greater photosynthetic efficiency for obtaining difficulties in getting climate related data, and increased productivity at higher levels of carbon dearth of trained human resources amongst climate dioxide in the atmosphere or to sustain thermal modelling research groups in India. The following stresses actions will be taken: • Development of crops with better water and nitro- gen use efficiency which may result in reduced 3.8.2. ENHANCED RESEARCH ON CLIMATE MODELLING IN emissions of greenhouse gases or greater toler- INDIA ance to drought or submergence or salinity • Development of nutritional strategies for manag- There is a need to develop high resolution Air Ocean Project (RMIP) for climate is required to minimize provide access to the data. A concept of 'registered uncertainty in future climate projections. users' has been proposed, who will have easier access to climate related data held by the various scientific

3.8.3. PROMOTING DATA AccEss Ministries and Departments of the Government. There is a need to review the restrictions on data There are several databases that are relevant for cli- access. The Ministries and their agencies should also mate research, along with the respective agencies take action to digitize the data, maintain databases that are responsible for collecting and supplying that of global quality, and streamline the procedures gov- data. It is suggested that each of these Ministries and erning access. Existing databases that will need to be Departments may appoint a 'facilitator', who will expanded and improved are listed below. Table 3.8.3 Some Databases for Climate Research S. No Database Data Colleding and Supplying Agency Facilitator reporting to Oceans Ministry of Earth Sciences Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences Sea surface temperature Salinity Sea level rise 2 Cryosphere a) National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) a) Secretary, Department of Space Snow cover b) Geological Survey of India b) Secretary, Ministry of Mines Glacial data c) Snow and Avalanche Studies c) Secretary, Department of Defence Establishment (SASE), Defence Research Research and Development and Development Organization 3 Meteorology India Meteorological Department, Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences Precipitation Ministry of Earth Sciences. Humidity Surface temperature Air temperature Evaporation data 4 Land Surface a) Survey of India a) Secretary, Department of Science Topography and Technology Erosion b) National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) b) Secretary, Department of Space Imagery (vegetation map) Forest cover 5 Hydrological a) Central Water Commission a) Secretary, Ministry of Water Ground water Resources Water quality b) State Water Resource Organizations b) Chief Secretaries of the respective

3.8.4. STRENGTHENING NETWORKS At present, fossil fuels account for 66% of the total, and are responsible for most of the GHG emissions The creation of an integrated National Knowledge from the energy sector. During the 11 th Five-Year Network (scalable and ultimately of multi-10 Gbps Plan, utility-based generation capacity is expected to capacity) as suggested by the National Knowledge increase by 78,000 MW. A significant proportion of Commission and the Principal Scientific Adviser's this increase will be thermal-coal based. While the Office would obviously benefit climate modellers. new investments in the thermal power sector, which The upcoming Grid Computing stands out as a are substantial, have high efficiencies, the aggregate unique technology for handling terabytes of experi- efficiency of the older plants is low. In addition, high mental data requiring hundreds of teraflops of com- ATCL (aggregate technical and commercial loss) in puting power. Various Ministries of the Government power transmission and distribution is a key concern are also taking steps to augment their super-comput- There are three ways of lowering the emis- ing resources in the Eleventh Plan. sions from coal based plants: increasing efficiency of existing power plants; using clean coal technologies

3.8.5. HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT (relative emissions are c.78% of conventional coal- thermal), and switching to fuels other than coal, In order to meet the new challenges related to cli- where possible. These measures are complementary mate change, human resources would require to be and not mutually exclusive. Another option that has enhanced through changes in curricula at the school been suggested is carbon capture and sequestration and college levels, introduction of new programmes (CCS). However, feasible technologies for this have at the university level, and training of professionals not yet been developed and there are serious ques- and executives in relevant fields. An overall assess- tions about the cost as well permanence of the CO2 ment of additional skills required will have to be car- storage repositories. ried out at the national, state and local levels, so that Approximately 5000 MW out of total of necessary measures can be undertaken for enhanc- 73,500 MW of present installed capacity (at the end ing the quality and quantum of human resource of November, 2007) of coal thermal plants have low required in the coming years and decades. The latter capacity utilization of less than 5%, as well as low would have to be viewed also in the context of the conversion efficiency. During the 11th Plan, these current difficulties faced in attracting young people units would be retired, and during the 12th Plan, an to careers in science in general, to overcome which additional 10,000 MW of the least efficient operat- steps are being taken during the 11th Plan. ing plants would be retired, or reconditioned to Research and development with regard to combined cycle natural gas plants is an attractive ultra-supercritical technology needs to focus on the GHG mitigation option in India. following areas:

4.1.4. CLOSED CYCLE THREE STAGE NUCLEAR POWER • Development of materials for use in steam gener- PROGRAMME ator tubes, main steam piping, and high-pressure turbines that can withstand high pressure and Promotion of nuclear energy through enhancing high temperatures of more than 600°C, and are nuclear capacity and adoption of fast breeder and resistant to oxidation, erosion, and corrosion thorium-based thermal reactor technology in nuclear • Development of know-how related to heat trans- power generation would bring significant benefits in fer, pressure drop, and flow stability at ultra-super- terms of energy security and environmental benefits, critical conditions including GHG mitigation. India's uranium resources are limited but the

4.1.2. INTEGRATED GASIFICATION COMBINED CYCLE country has one of the largest resources of thorium (IGCC) TECHNOLOGY in the world. Therefore, right from inception, India has adopted a programme that will maximize the Integrated gasification combined cycle technology energy yield from these materials. This is the three- can make coal-based power generation - 10% more stage nuclear power programme. The first stage of efficient. For every 1% rise in efficiency, there is a 2% nuclear power generation is based on PHWR decrease in CO2 release. Besides, there is a substan- (Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor) technology using tial reduction in NOx emissions. Demonstration of indigenous natural uranium. The second stage is plants using high-ash, low-sulphur Indian coal needs based on FBR (Fast Breeder Reactor) technology to be pursued, while recognizing constraints such as using plutonium extracted by reprocessing of the high costs and availability of superior imported coal. spent fuel obtained from the first stage. The third Recent research has shown that these plants should stage consists of using thorium resources. be based on the Pressurized Fluidized Bed (PFB) The current installed capacity of nuclear approach. power plants is 4200 MW, accounting for nearly 3% Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) already of total installed capacity. A 500 MW fast breeder has 3 R&D plants based on PFB, which have provided reactor is under construction and is expected to go design information to scale up this technology 1O_ on stream in about three years. A 300 MW Advanced BHEL and APGENCO have signed an agreement Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) has been designed. Its recently to set up a 125 MW plant at Vijayawada construction is due to begin in the 11th Plan. The using indigenous IGCC technology. projected installed nuclear power by Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is shown in Figure 4.1 below.

4.1.3. NATURAL GAS BASED POWER PLANTS Natural gas based power generation is cleaner than Figure 4.1.4: Nuclear Power Generation Projections upto 2050 coal-based generation as CO2 emissions are only - by DAE 50% compared to coal. Besides, natural gas can be used for electricity generation by adopting advanced 300 gas turbines in a combined cycle mode. Introduction 250 - Total -Treatment • - • Fast of advance class turbines with inlet temperature in a, 200 ~ 150 the range 1250 °c - 1350° C has led to combined 100 cycle power plant efficiency of about 55% under 5~ 4-----reo--!!!!!!!I!!!~~~~~~~---, Indian conditions. Many such plants are in operation 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 in India. With the discovery of significant reserves of Year natural gas in the Godavari basin, setting up more NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE • 39 For sustainability of nuclear energy as a mitigation areas of habitation lands has to be attended to with option in the long term, it is important to close the care. nuclear fuel cycle 11 . In this way one can produce several tens of times more energy from the existing uranium resources if the plutonium from the spent 4.2. Other Renewable Energy Technologies fuel is recycled in fast breeder reactors and this Programmes potential can be increased by another order of mag- nitude by closing the nuclear fuel cycle with thorium. Renewable energy sources, i.e. based on primary Therefore, the three stage nuclear programme of energy sources that are regenerated naturally in India based on the closed fuel cycle philosophy time-spans that are meaningful in terms of policy assumes greater significance in the context of cli- and planning horizons, represent genuine supply mate change mitigation. The closed fuel cycle, in side sustainability of global energy systems. comparison to the once-through cycle, also reduces Renewable energy technologies (RETs) have the volumes of radioactive waste requiring treat- several well-recognized advantages in relation to ment and disposal. conventional, largely fossil fuels based, energy sys- terns. First, by displacing use of fossil fuels, in partic-

4.1.5. EFFICIENT TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION ular, petroleum based fuels, they promote energy security. Second, they are amenable to adoption at India's current technical losses during transmission different scales - from hundreds of megawatts and distribution are as high as 16%-19%. By adopt- capacity to a few kilowatts. In many cases they may ing HVAC (high voltage AC) and HVDC (high voltage be deployed in modular, standardized designs. This DC) transmission, the figure can be brought down to enables RETS to be matched closely with end-use 6%-8% by using amorphous core transformers and scales, enabling decentralized deployment, and thus up-grading the distribution system (avoiding conges- avoiding the risk of failures, and unauthorized access tion etc.). Distribution losses can also be reduced by to large networks, which leads to non-commercial adopting energy-efficient transformers, which use losses. The feasibility of location close to the load or high-grade steel in the transformer core. consuming centres enables reduction of technical transmission and distribution losses. However, where

4.1.6. HYDROPOWER centralized grids (networks) exist, they may be insert- ed as individual modules in the grid (network) sup- The CEA (Central Electricity Authority) has estimated ply. Third, they can help promote sustainable devel- RETs easily have the potential to replace all Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has estimat- current and foreseeable use of fossil fuels, for power ed state-wise gross and net availability of agro- generation, transportation, and industrial use, for all residues for power generation. time to come. RETs represent a range of specific con- There are two basic technology pathways for version pathways and technologies. These are at dif- biomass for power options currently being imple- ferent stages of deployment, innovation, and basic mented. These technologies are Straight Biomass research. Some that are fully established commercial- Combustion and Biomass Gasification. ly, e.g. biomass combustion and gasification based power generation need up-scaling through policies 4.2. 1. 1. 1. COSTS AND FINANCING and regulations that would permit some unique deployment models to be operationalized. In other Plant capacities for straight primary biomass combus- cases, where commercial scale operation has been tion are not very large due to limited radius of eco- demonstrated, but costs are still high, with the possi- nomic biomass collection. Investment cost for bio- bility that increased scale and further innovation in mass combustion based power projects or co-genera- both technology and deployment models will reduce tion projects varies between Rs. 4 to Rs. 5 crores per costs, tariff and regulatory support for a limited peri- MW, depending upon project site, design and opera- od may be needed. Where technologies have been tion related factors. The cost of electricity generation demonstrated at laboratory scale, further R&D to is around Rs. 3/kWh depending upon specific fuel enable pilot and commercial scale demonstration consumption, which in turn depends on type of fuel may involve facilitation of industry and research lab- and operating pressure of the boiler and steam tur- oratory partnerships, and may also involve public fis- bine. This technology is, thus, generally cost-compet- cal (investment) support. itive with conventional power delivered by the grid to rural areas.

4.2.1. RETs FoR PowER GENERATION In respect of biomass gasification technolo- gies, the investment cost, with IC engines as source Power generation technologies based on renewable of power generation, comes between Rs. 25,000 - energy flows comprise the following major primary 60,000 I kW, depending on the type of gasification sources: Biomass, Hydropower, Solar, and Wind. system and type of fuel, including costs of gasifier Technologies in each of these primary sources have and IC engine. The cost of electricity generation cost already been deployed in India at commercial scale, varies between Rs.3 kWh to Rs. 5/kWh for the cur- but there remain several challenges in respect of rently available technologies in India. the national grid and integrated with the national river), so far only 35,000 MW has been utilized. In grid when extended. addition, there are 56 assessed sites for pumped stor- age hydropower, totaling 94,000 MW. The total 4.2.1.1.3 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT small hydropower (upto 25 MW) potential is 15,000 MW, of which only 1905 MW has been utilized. The technology for power generation through Large-scale hydropower with reservoir storage is the straight primary biomass combustion is mature, with cheapest conventional power source in India. Small- significant commercial deployment. R&D is required scale hydropower is cost competitive with conven- for compacting different types of biomass for trans- tional generation options, in particular for rural elec- portation, and improved boiler design to enable the trification. In remote rural locations far away from use of multiple biomass feedstocks. the grid, it may be the only feasible and economic One significant area of R&D is development power option. of hot gas cleaning systems and optimum integration The technology options for hydropower at with the gasifiers. Another is the development of all scales are commercially well established, except in gasifier systems based on charcoal and pyrolized bio- the pico-turbine ranges i.e. < 1 kW. mass, since volatile distillates of biomass feedstock may have significant economic value, which would 4.2.1.2.1. CosTs AND FINANCING be lost if the biomass is directly burned. The cost of generation ranges from Rs. 2 to 4 per 4.2.1.1.4. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND CAPACITY BUILDING kWh. The capital costs are higher than for conven- tional power, and usually in the range of Rs. 7 crore Biomass gasifiers available in the country are of very per MW. low capacity compared to European and American gasifiers, where the capacities vary from 1 MW to 4.2.1.2.2. Co-BENEFITS 100 MW. Biomass gasifiers with capacities upto 100 MW based on Circulating Fluidised Bed (CFB), Small hydropower displaces diesel gensets, thereby Bubbling Fluidised Bed (BFB) and Pressurised avoiding local pollution. By thus avoiding consump- Fluidised bed (PFB) are available in the USA, Finland tion of petroleum products, it also promotes energy and UK. Transfer of these technologies, and where security. Small hydropower is generally more pre- necessary adaptive R&D, would enable deployment dictable than solar or wind based sources, with vari- models involving energy plantations on wastelands ations occurring over the year, rather than on a neurs of small/micro-hydel based distributed gen- sources that are used for human food) may be set eration systems, in particular in remote locations, at 5% of total grids purchase, to increase by 1% and using these as training facilities for local entre- each year for 10 years. SERCs may set higher per- preneurs and O&M personnel would help develop centages than this minimum at each point in time. this sector. • (ii) Central and state governments may set up aver-

4.2.1.3. WIND ENERGY ification mechanism to ensure that the renewables based power is actually procured as per the appli- The installed capacity for using wind energy has cable standard (DMRPS or SERC specified). gone up rapidly during the last few years (presently Appropriate authorities may also issue certificates about 8000 MW). However, the capacity utilization that procure renewables based power in excess of factors are low due to the variations in the wind the national standard. Such certificates may be flow. Action is required to design, develop and man- tradeable, to enable utilities falling short to meet ufacture small wind energy generators (WEGs) upto their renewables standard obligations. In the 10 kW capacity, that can generate power at very low event of some utilities still falling short, penalties speeds (~ 2 to 2.5 m/sec). Effort is also required for as may be allowed under the Electricity Act 2003 the development of low weight carbon fiber and and rules thereunder may be considered. other new generation composites, etc. for use in wind turbines. • (iii) Procurement of renewables based power by An encouraging sign is the strong interest of the SEBs/other power utilities should, in so far as the private sector in the wind area. Some Indian pri- the applicable renewables standard (DMRPS or vate companies are involved in setting up wind tur- SERC specified) is concerned, be based on compet- bines in other countries in a big way. itive bidding, without regard to scheduling, or the tariffs of conventional power (however deter-

4.2.2 GRID CONNECTED SYSTEMS mined). Further, renewables based power may, over and above the applicable renewables stan- The Electricity Act, 2003 and the National Tariff dard, be enabled to compete with conventional Policy, 2006, provide for both the Central Electricity generation on equal basis (whether bid tariffs or Regulatory Commission (CERC) and the State cost-plus tariffs), without regard to scheduling (i.e. Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERC) to pre- renewables based power supply above the renew- scribe a certain percentage of total power purchased ables standard should be considered as displacing

4.2.3.1. TECHNOLOGY PATHWAYS • Disaster-specific vulnerability assessments and sec- There are several possible pathways for deriving toral impacts assessments at the state and district transportation and industrial fuels (not being feed- level for preparing contingency plans stocks where the chemical composition rather than • Maintenance of critical facilities such as health care energy content is the main consideration). services and water supplies At present, only biodiesel sourced from • Collaboration with insurance providers to insure Jatropha or Pongamia plantations, and bioethanol infrastructure, mainstreaming disaster risk reduc- using spoilt foodgrains are cost-effective in relation tion into Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Jawaharlal Nehru to petroleum based fuels. While significant R&D is National Urban Renewal Mission and Indira Awas being carried out in several countries, including in Yojana India, in respect of technologies based on several of • Capacity building among design engineers, project the above pathways, at present, the costs are not planners and financial institutions on incorporat- competitive with petroleum. However, it is probable ing elements of disaster management that several biofuels technologies would eventually • Development of prefabricated structures instead of become competitive with petroleum, and the cast-in-place construction in vulnerable areas policy/regulatory regime must enable them to be • Enforcement of building codes; better urban plan- commercially deployed when that happens. ning and zoning of vulnerable areas

4.3.2. STRENGTHENING COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AND

4.3. Disaster Management Response to DISASTER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES Extreme Climate Events Ensuring that communication channels are not sev- With projected increases in the frequency and inten- ered during disasters can protect lives and expedite sity of extreme events including cyclones, droughts, relief and rehabilitation operations. Furthermore, it and floods attributable to climate change, disaster is essential to have a regular monitoring programme management needs greater attention. In the 11th in place to provide early warning of imminent disas- Plan, the approach towards disaster management ters to facilitate a planned response, including evac- has moved from relief to prevention, mitigation, and uation from vulnerable areas to minimize the impact preparedness. Two main planks of the new approach of disasters. Specific action areas will include: are mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into infra- line but also because of the density of population • Ecological study of air pollutants and pollen (as the and livelihoods dependant on coastal resources. triggers of asthma and respiratory diseases) and Coastal zones are particularly vulnerable and sensi- how they are affected by climate change tive to such impacts of climate change as rise in the • Studies on the response of disease vectors to cli- sea level, rise in the high-tide level, and cyclones and mate change storms, which are projected to become more fre- • Enhanced provision of primary, secondary, and ter- quent and intense. The programme will focus on two tiary health care facilities and implementation of elements, namely (1) coastal protection and (2) early public health measures, including vector control, warning systems. Priority areas on coastal zones sanitation, and clean drinking water supply include: • Development of a regional ocean modelling sys- 4.6. Creating Appropriate Capacity at Different tem especially in the Bay of Bengal and the Levels of Government Arabian Sea • High-resolution coupled ocean-atmosphere vari- In view of several new initiatives that would be ability studies in tropical oceans, in particular the required, both in respect of adaptation and mitiga- Indian Ocean tion, creation of knowledge and suitable capacity at • Development of a high-resolution storm surge each level of Government to facilitate implementa- model for coastal regions tion of appropriate measures assumes great impor- • Development of salinity-tolerant crop cultivars tance. • Community awareness on coastal disasters and At the level of the central government, there necessary action; plantation and regeneration of would be a need to carry out the following: mangroves There should be support to relevant policy • Timely forecasting, cyclone and flood warning sys- research to ensure that adaptation and mitigation tems takes place in a manner that enhances human well- • Enhanced plantation and regeneration of man- being, while at the same time minimizing societal groves and coastal forests costs. This should lead to the design of suitable legal, fiscal and regulatory measures. Appropriate capacity for implementing R&D

4.5 Health Sector activities and promoting large-scale public aware- ness and information dissemination on various fiscal instruments to promote appropriate options and poverty eradication are the first and overriding and measures. priorities of the developing country parties." Thus, Local bodies would need to create capacity developing countries are not required to divert on regulatory measures, particularly for ensuring resources from development priorities by imple- energy efficiency in new buildings as well as through menting projects involving incremental costs - unless a programme of retrofits. In respect of adaptation these incremental costs are borne by developed measures, local capacity and the involvement of com- countries and the needed technologies are trans- munities in actions to adapt to the impacts of climate ferred. change would be crucial. The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) Public awareness on climate change would finances implementation of projects in developing have to be spearheaded and driven by government countries under the Convention. Additionally, the at all levels. Emphasis on schools and colleges is Kyoto Protocol created the Clean Development essential. Mechanism (CDM}, which allows developed countries In some cases legislation may be required at to meet part of their emission reduction commit- the central and state levels to arrive at appropriate ments by purchasing credits from emission reduction delegation of responsibility and authority for meet- projects in developing countries, thus serving the ing some of the goals mentioned above. dual objective of facilitating compliance by devel- oped countries of their emission reduction commit- ments and of assisting developing countries to achieve sustainable development. 5. International Cooperation: the Multilateral Regime on Climate Change

5.1. Some Technology Development and As a party to the UN Framework Convention on Transfer Issues Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol, India plays an active role in multilateral cooperation to address cli- In the move towards a low-carbon economy, technol- mate change. These agreements are based on the ogy has a vital role to play. Technology solutions are principle of "common but differentiated responsibil- also very important for enhancing adaptive capacity ities and respective capabilities" of Parties. Thus, and reducing vulnerability to climate change and its they incorporate certain common commitments for impacts. In this respect, international cooperation in all Parties, including an obligation to "formulate and science and technology assumes great significance. energy future, such as the International New multilateral technology cooperation Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). At the funds may be required that would finance the devel- individual and institutional level, Indian participa- opment, deployment, diffusion and transfer of tech- tion in scientific networks is also very strong. From a nologies for both mitigation and adaptation to long-term perspective, this scientific cooperation will developing countries. remain very important. One of the main barriers to technology As ideas progress from the laboratory closer adoption lies in the low absorptive capacities of towards the market, the focus shifts towards tech- developing countries. It is vital that mechanisms for nology design and development. Mechanisms that technology transfer include measures that will enable joint technology development involving pub- enable the enhancement of absorptive capacities, lic and private sector entities and with suitable keeping in mind the targets of such technology norms for financing and IPR-sharing would be impor- interventions. tant for ensuring that the process of technology development and commercialization happens more rapidly and effectively. For the final stage of deployment and mar- 5.2. Clean Development Mechanism ket adoption of technologies in developing coun- tries, two different contexts may be identified. For India has given host-country approval for 969 CDM technologies that are already mature and deployed projects as of June 2008. Renewable energy, includ- in the developed countries, appropriate financing ing renewable biomass, accounted for the largest models are essential, which may become operational number of projects (533), followed by energy effi- through multilateral institutions, carbon markets ciency (303). Very few projects in the forestry (6) and and mechanisms like the CDM. However, as was municipal solid waste (18) sectors were included, noted earlier, given the somewhat limited role that despite their large potential. The expected invest- the CDM appears to have played with regard to tech- ments in these 753 projects (if all go on stream) is nology transfer, this issue will merit detailed exami- about Rs. 106,900 crores. nation. Of the 969 projects, 340 projects have been However, the transition to a more sustain- registered by the multilateral Executive Board (CDM able energy future will require a much more rapid EB). India accounts for about 32% of the world total progression towards a variety of newer, low-carbon of 1081 projects registered with the CDM EB, fol- and energy efficient technologies in different areas. lowed by China (20%), Brazil (13%), and Mexico i.e. the investors are Indian parties, employ locally ance) carbon market is emerging involving trades in available technologies, and use domestic financial VERs (verified emission reductions). This market may resources. While this has provided a significant grow substantially in the future. impetus to local innovation, CDM has not led to the technology transfer from industrialized to developing countries envisaged by the Protocol 5.3. Enhanced Implementation of the UNFCCC • Industrialized countries have not participated sig- nificantly in project financing and the project risks India looks forward to enhanced international coop- are mostly taken up by the host industries eration under the UNFCCC. Overall, future interna- • Insurance companies in general have shown little tional cooperation on climate change should address interest in CDM, which is unfortunate since they the following objectives: can catalyse carbon trading by providing risk and financial analysis skills • Minimizing the negative impacts of climate • There is much subjectivity in the multilateral CDM change through suitable adaptation measures in process, and divergent interpretations are given by the countries and communities affected and miti- different designated operating entities (DOEs) gation at the global level accredited by the CDM EB • Provide fairness and equity in the actions and • High transactions costs prevent the small-scale sec- measures tor (in the Indian definition) from participating in • Uphold the principle of common but differentiat- CDM ed responsibilities in actions to be taken, such as • In the absence of an international transactions log concessional financial flows from the developed (ITL}, there is lack of reliable information in the countries, and access to technology on affordable carbon market on CDM transactions terms Despite the above, there is encouraging response India as a large democracy, with the major challenge from Indian entrepreneurs to the CDM across differ- of achieving economic and social development and ent sectors. Besides, several recent enhancements of eradicating poverty, will engage in negotiations and CDM such as bundling and programmatic CDM need other actions at the international level in the coming to be mainstreamed. Alongside the carbon market months that would lead to efficient and equitable under the Kyoto Protocol, a voluntary (non-compli- solutions at the global level. References 1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 7. Area Sea Levels trends along the North (IPCC), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Indian Ocean Coasts consistent with global Science Basis. (page 13) esti-mates? by A.S. Unnikrishnan and D. Shankar, Global and Planetary Change, 57, 2. Growth and CO 2 Emissions - How do differ- 301 (2007). (page 15) ent countries fare? by R.W. Bacon and S. Bhattacharya, The World Bank Environment 8. Impact of Climate Change on Forests in India Department, November, 2007. (page 14) by N.H.Ravindranath, N.V. Joshi, R. Sukumar and A. Saxena, Current Science 90, 354 3. National Energy Map for India, Technology (2006). (page 16) Vision 2030 by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) for Office of the Principal 9. Recycling of Automobiles - Problem Scientific Adviser to the Government of Definition and Possible Solutions in the India, PSA/2006/3. (page 14) Indian Context, by Captain N.S. Mohan Ram, INAE Seminar on Recycling, September, 2007. 4. International Energy Agency (IEA) data cited (page 31) by Planning Commission, India, 2007. (page14) 10. Development of the Integrated Gasification 5. India's Initial National Communication, 2004 Combined Cycle (IGCC) Technology as suited (NATCOM I) to UN Framework Convention to Power Generation using Indian Coals, on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (page 15) PSA/2005/4. (page 39) 6. Increasing Trend of Extreme Rain Events 11. Closing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle in the Context Over India in a Warming Environment by of the Global Climate Change Threat by R. B.N. Goswami, V. Venugopal, D. Sengupta, Chidambaram, R.K. Sinha and Anand M.S. Madhusoodanam, Prince K. Xavier, Patwardhan, Nuclear Energy Review, 38 Science, 314, 1442 (2006).(page 15) (2007). (page 40) NOTES NOTES NOTES