路线

根据研究逐段组合：货物可以从哪里出口、哪里的精炼厂接收并将其变成什么形态、目的地市场接受什么。按研究对每条路径的覆盖程度排序（各段均已研究、未解决问题最少的在前）。这不是推荐。

核查于 2026-09-29

以研究形式发布的公开法律与官方指引，不构成法律、税务或金融建议。

研究内容本身以英文撰写。标题和标签已翻译，调查结果和引文未翻译。

研究从秘鲁到美国组合出的路线

秘鲁 (Doré bar - unstamped → Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 美国 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed)
各段均已研究1 个文件缺口
38 个步骤
最弱证据：
行业惯例
秘鲁 (Doré bar - unstamped → Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 美国 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed)
各段均已研究1 个文件缺口
39 个步骤
最弱证据：
行业惯例
秘鲁 (Doré bar - unstamped → Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 瑞士 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 美国 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed)
各段均已研究
47 个步骤
最弱证据：
未经核实
秘鲁 (Doré bar - unstamped → Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 瑞士 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 美国 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed)
各段均已研究
48 个步骤
最弱证据：
未经核实
秘鲁 (Doré bar - unstamped → Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 瑞士 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed → LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar) ⟶ 美国 (LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar)
各段均已研究
52 个步骤
最弱证据：
未经核实
秘鲁 (Doré bar - unstamped → Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 瑞士 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed → LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar) ⟶ 美国 (LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar)
各段均已研究
53 个步骤
最弱证据：
未经核实
秘鲁 (Doré bar - unstamped → Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 加拿大 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed → LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar) ⟶ 美国 (LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar)
未研究
51 个步骤
最弱证据：
行业惯例
未研究：秘鲁 → 加拿大
秘鲁 (Doré bar - unstamped → Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed) ⟶ 加拿大 (Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed → LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar) ⟶ 美国 (LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar)
未研究
52 个步骤
最弱证据：
行业惯例
未研究：秘鲁 → 加拿大

研究排除的路径及原因

原因均来自研究本身：某国程序不处理的形态、目的地不接受其认证的精炼厂、禁令。

Peru (refine locally): no refining procedure is recorded for Peru; bars from a refinery that is on no market's accreditation list are not accepted as Good Delivery, so the goods leave unrefined
Peru → United Arab Emirates (unrefined): United Arab Emirates's export procedures in the research handle Pre-refined 995 bar (e.g. 'Dubai 995'), not Doré bar - stamped/exporter-sealed
Peru → United Arab Emirates (refine) → Australia (unrefined): Australia's export procedures in the research handle 999.9 kilobar, 999.9 kilobar, not Pre-refined 995 bar (e.g. 'Dubai 995')
Peru → United Arab Emirates (refine) → Canada (unrefined): Canada's export procedures in the research handle LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar, LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar, not Pre-refined 995 bar (e.g. 'Dubai 995')
Peru → United Arab Emirates (refine) → China (mainland) (unrefined): China (mainland)'s export procedures in the research handle 999.9 kilobar, not Pre-refined 995 bar (e.g. 'Dubai 995')
Peru → United Arab Emirates (refine) → China (mainland) (refine) → United States → Sale by COMEX futures delivery: United States's market accepts LBMA Good Delivery bars; these are Shanghai Gold Exchange standard
Peru → United Arab Emirates (refine) → China (mainland) (refine) → United States → Sale to or through a precious-metals dealer: United States's market accepts LBMA Good Delivery bars; these are Shanghai Gold Exchange standard
Peru → United Arab Emirates (refine) → United Kingdom (unrefined): United Kingdom's export procedures in the research handle LBMA Good Delivery 400oz bar, not Pre-refined 995 bar (e.g. 'Dubai 995')

经过这些国家的还有 42 条路径。指定货物应经过的国家可缩小范围。

国家对

阿拉伯联合酋长国至瑞士Refined or doré gold from the UAE enters Switzerland under Swiss import rules; the recurring issue is declared origin.
阿拉伯联合酋长国至印度UAE gold (mainly UAE Good Delivery bars) moving to India. The India-UAE CEPA gives a tariff-rate quota on HS 7108: 1 percentage point below the MFN rate within a quota that rises from 120 t to 200 t (160 t in FY2024-25, 180 t in FY2025-26). TRQ gold may be imported only by DGFT TRQ allocation holders buying on IIBX, only as UAE Good Delivery bars carrying a UAE certificate of origin (issued by the UAE Ministry of Economy), and not as doré. CEPA origin rules count gold's origin as where it was mined, and plain gold jewellery needs a change of tariff sub-heading (CTSH) plus 3.5% value addition. Outside the quota, UAE gold pays ordinary Indian duty. India closed a 'platinum alloy' misdeclaration route in May 2025. India's recorded imports from the UAE were 204.6 t in 2024, well above the quota.
阿拉伯联合酋长国至土耳其UAE gold moving to Turkey, where it must enter through Borsa Istanbul members under Turkey's monthly quota (tr module). The UAE-Turkiye CEPA has been in force since 1 Sep 2023. It matters because Turkey levies a 20% additional duty on gold (an 'additional financial obligation' from August 2023, renamed additional customs duty from 1 Feb 2026) on imports from countries outside the EU and without an FTA; FTA-origin goods are exempt only on proof of preferential origin. Whether HS 7108 is in Turkey's CEPA concessions, and so whether UAE-origin gold escapes the 20%, was not verified. Flows are large both ways and the mirror figures diverge.
澳大利亚至中国The China-Australia FTA (ChAFTA, done 17 Jun 2015; implementing Act in force 20 Dec 2015) and RCEP (in force 1 Jan 2022) does not change gold treatment: China's import duty on HS 7108 is nil for all and import-stage VAT is exempt, while the PBoC per-batch import permit and first-trade on the Shanghai Gold Exchange apply to every origin. The pair's distinctive feature is the Perth Mint's SGE-accredited kilobar business (about 100 t of doped bars mostly to the SGE in 2018-21, per the Australia module) and a very large mirror gap: China records about four times what Australia reports exporting to it.
澳大利亚至英国The Australia-UK FTA (done 16-17 Dec 2021; in force 31 May 2023 per the Customs Act endnotes and DFAT) and CPTPP (UK accession effective 15 Dec 2024) cover the pair but change nothing for gold on the Australian side: no export permit or duty; origin records only if a UK preference is claimed (Customs Act Div 4M). UK tariff and VAT treatment are in the UK module. The UK was Australia's second HS 7108 destination in 2024 (about 54-64 t).
澳大利亚至中国香港特别行政区The Australia-Hong Kong FTA (A-HKFTA, done 26 Mar 2019, in force for Australia 17 Jan 2020) does not change gold treatment: Hong Kong has no duty, VAT or licence on gold for any origin. Hong Kong is Australia's largest HS 7108 destination (2024: about 80 t, US$5.8bn), and the two sides' figures agree within about 6%. Onward movement to the Mainland needs a PBoC permit (hk.ctl-mainland-permit).
布基纳法索至阿拉伯联合酋长国No bilateral gold instrument found. The pair gets ordinary treatment (0% UAE duty). Burkina Faso filed almost no HS 710812 exports to the UAE with UN Comtrade for 2023 (5 kg), but its customs data show 22.39 t exported to the UAE in 2024 (ITIE), while the UAE reports 7.75 t direct from Burkina Faso and 42 t from Togo, the main transit route for smuggled Burkinabè artisanal gold. A December 2025 analysis says nearly 32% of Burkina Faso's gold was allegedly sold to the UAE in 2024.
布基纳法索至瑞士No bilateral agreement was found. Switzerland charges 0% duty on HS 7108 from all origins, so the pair gets ordinary treatment. Industrial doré from Burkinabè mines has gone to LBMA refiners in Switzerland. Switzerland recorded 56.6 t (2023) and 49.6 t (2024) of imports from Burkina Faso, which reports almost none of this at HS 710812. Since April 2025 industrial permit holders must refine or add value to a share of their output in Burkina Faso (Décret 2025-0379; the share is left to a ministerial arrêté not found), and domestic sales of industrial gold go to the State or SONASP (Code minier Art. 246), so exports of doré to Swiss refiners may fall (see bf.ctl-local-transformation).
巴西至加拿大No trade agreement between Brazil and Canada is in force, and Canada's duty on gold is nil for all origins, so the pair gets ordinary treatment. Canada is Brazil's largest gold destination (2024: about 29 t, US$1.8bn). A Greenpeace Brazil investigation (June 2026) links part of this flow to gold laundered through garimpo permits (PLGs). No Canadian pair-specific control was found.
巴西至瑞士The EFTA-Mercosur FTA was signed on 16 Sep 2025 but its entry into force is pending; Switzerland's duty on HS 7108 is 0% for all anyway. Ordinary treatment. Switzerland is Brazil's second gold destination; Swiss-recorded imports persistently exceed Brazil's recorded exports (by 18% in 2024, and 67% and 62% in 2022-23 per the Brazil module).
巴西至英国No UK-Brazil trade agreement was found, and the UK duty on HS 7108 is believed to be 0% for all origins (gb.tax-import-duty), so ordinary treatment applies. The UK is Brazil's third gold destination (2024: US$579m by Brazil's count, US$742m by the UK's, both at HS 7108).
加拿大至英国Canada-UK trade runs under the UK-Canada Trade Continuity Agreement (in force 1 Apr 2021, incorporating CETA) and, since 15 Dec 2024, the CPTPP (UK accession), but neither changes anything for gold: Canada's tariff on 7108 is Free under every column and the UK third-country duty on 7108 12 00 00 is 0.00%; Canadian export reporting (REGR, CAD 2,000+) and UK VAT rules apply as for any partner. The UK is Canada's largest gold destination (2024: about 216-249 t, US$16.6-18.8bn depending on the reporter).
加拿大至美国USMCA (in force 1 Jul 2020; not renewed at the July 2026 review but still in force) makes Canadian-originating gold under the two dutiable HTS 7108 lines free; doré refined into bars in Canada qualifies (Annex 4-B separation rule). The 10% Section 301 forced-labor tariff on products of Canada (from 24 Jul 2026) does not apply to any HTS 7108 line (Annex II Part A, all economies), though gold scrap and jewellery are not excluded unless USMCA duty-free; the July 2026 Section 338 tariffs cover vehicles, alcohol and dairy only. Canada requires no export declaration for gold going to the US (Reporting of Exported Goods Regulations s.7), and under a 1987 MOU each country uses the other's import data as its export statistics. Even so, the 2024 Comtrade figures for the pair differ by about US$1.9bn.
刚果（金）至阿拉伯联合酋长国The pair had a state-level gold arrangement from December 2022 to 2024. Primera Gold DRC, a joint venture of the DRC (45%) and UAE-registered Primera Group (55%), held 25-year exclusive rights to buy South Kivu artisanal gold and paid a reported 0.25% export tax against about 6% for competitors. It exported more than 5 t to the UAE in 2023 and closed in 2024. There is no current bilateral duty preference (0% UAE duty applies anyway). Under DRC law only exploitation-right holders, processing entities and approved comptoirs may export (Code minier art. 5); since 17 Aug 2026 gold exported by the BCC or its mandataire for reserves, including for refining abroad, is exempt from the EB exchange declaration (BCC Règlement 001/26), but no destination is named. Most Congolese gold reaching the UAE is smuggled via Uganda and Rwanda.
瑞士至中国Swiss-refined kilobars (SGE-standard) moving to Mainland China, the largest single destination for Swiss gold exports in 2024. A bilateral China-Switzerland FTA (2014) exists and an upgrade was concluded in August 2026, but no gold-specific concession was found and China's own duty rate on 7108 was not confirmed; import runs on China-wide rules (PBoC per-batch permit, SGE first trade). No pair-specific control found. China's figures exceed Switzerland's by about 200 t, consistent with China recording Swiss-refined bars shipped via London and Hong Kong under Swiss origin.
瑞士至英国Swiss-refined bars (kilobars and 400 oz Good Delivery) moving to London. The UK-Switzerland Trade Agreement (a continuity agreement) covers the pair, but no gold-specific provision or preference was found and both sides treat gold as duty-free or unconfirmed-zero, so the pair gets ordinary treatment. The only pair-relevant control is the UK ban on third-country processed gold containing post-July-2022 Russian gold. Flows are large in both directions and the two sides' statistics classify the bars differently.
瑞士至中国香港特别行政区Swiss-refined bars moving to Hong Kong's free port for trading, vaulting or onward shipment to the Mainland. The EFTA-Hong Kong FTA (in force 1 Oct 2012 for Switzerland) covers the pair, but Hong Kong charges no duty on gold, so it changes nothing. No pair-specific control found; ordinary treatment. Mirror figures agree closely.
瑞士至印度Swiss-refined bars (mainly 1 kg LBMA 995) moving to India through nominated banks/agencies or IIBX non-TRQ contracts. The EFTA-India TEPA has been in force since 1 Oct 2025 but gives no effective concession on gold (1-point cut on a 40% bound rate, above the applied rate), so the pair gets ordinary treatment (15% combined duty from 13 May 2026 plus 3% IGST per the in module). Swiss LBMA bars cannot be used for India-UAE CEPA TRQ contracts on IIBX. Switzerland is India's largest recorded source of unwrought gold.
瑞士至美国Swiss-refined kilobars and 100 oz bars moving to New York (COMEX depositories). Gold normally enters the US duty-free, but the 2025 tariff episode made this pair unique: IEEPA reciprocal tariffs on Switzerland reached 39%, and a CBP ruling of 31 Jul 2025 put 1 kg and 100 oz cast bars in HTSUS 7108.13.55, outside the Annex II exemption, until EO 14346 added the bullion subheadings to the exemption from 8 Sep 2025. The 14 Nov 2025 US-Switzerland-Liechtenstein framework cut the Swiss rate to a 15% ceiling (retroactive, implemented 18 Dec 2025) and left the gold exemption unchanged. Flows swung from record highs (Jan-Mar 2025) to near zero (Aug 2025) and back-flows to Switzerland. 2026-09-28: IEEPA tariffs (39%, then 15% ceiling) held unlawful by the Supreme Court on 20 Feb 2026; replaced by a 10% s.122 surcharge (24 Feb-24 Jul 2026, bullion excepted) and from 24 Jul 2026 a s.301 tariff taking Swiss goods to 12.5% combined; gold treatment under s.301 not confirmed.
哥伦比亚至瑞士The EFTA-Colombia FTA (Geneva, 25 Nov 2008) has been in force for Switzerland since 1 Jul 2011; it removes EFTA import duties on Colombian-originating goods of HS chapters 25-97, gold included, and eliminates export duties subject to Annex IX. Swiss duty on 7108 for all origins was not re-checked. Colombia is a Better Gold country (SECO programme 2025-2029). The recorded flow is small (2024: US$69m by Colombia's count, US$179m by Switzerland's).
哥伦比亚至美国The US-Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement (in force 15 May 2012) puts HTS 7108.12.50 and 7108.13.70 (4.1% MFN) in staging category A, so Colombian-originating gold enters duty-free (special code CO); bullion, doré and the other 7108 lines are free for all. The 12.5% Section 301 forced-labor tariff on products of Colombia (from 24 Jul 2026) does not apply to gold: all 7108 subheadings are exempt under HTSUS chapter 99 U.S. note 52(b). The US is Colombia's largest gold destination (2024), and US-recorded imports exceed Colombia's recorded exports.
英国至瑞士London Good Delivery bars moving to Swiss refiners and vaults (for recasting into kilobars or custody). The UK-Switzerland Trade Agreement (CS Switzerland No.4/2019) incorporates the Switzerland-EU trade agreements and has no gold-specific provision; ordinary treatment applies (Swiss duty 0%, import VAT exempt for investment gold and refining feed per the ch module). Pair-relevant controls: Switzerland prohibits the purchase, import, transit and transport of gold originating in Russia exported from Russia after 4 Aug 2022 and of gold processed from it (Ukraine Ordinance art. 14d); LBMA keeps pre-7 Mar 2022 Russian bars in London as Good Delivery with clearing-bank attestation. The two sides' statistics diverge sharply, apparently because Switzerland attributes imports to the country of origin rather than the UK as dispatch country.
加纳至阿拉伯联合酋长国No bilateral gold instrument in force. A UAE-Ghana CEPA was in advanced negotiation in July 2026. The pair gets ordinary treatment: the UAE charges 0% duty on gold from all origins. Dubai is the main outlet for Ghana's small-scale gold: over 72% of the 103.8 t GoldBod exported in 2025. UAE-reported imports have exceeded Ghana's declared exports to the UAE every year from 2012 to 2023. No Ghana-UAE investment or trade treaty is listed by UNCTAD. The UAE import declaration asks for a certificate of origin (ae.st-18); Ghana has no legal requirement to issue one on export, but the Ghana National Chamber of Commerce and Industry issues certificates of origin for Ghanaian exports, modelled as the conditional step gh.st-53 (GoldBod channel) and gh.st-54 (SFA channel).
加纳至瑞士No bilateral gold agreement and no EFTA-Ghana trade agreement was found; a Ghana-Switzerland bilateral investment treaty (signed 8 Oct 1991, in force 16 Jun 1993) protects investments but does not touch gold trade. Switzerland charges 0% duty on HS 7108 from all origins, so the pair gets ordinary treatment. Large-scale miners' doré goes to LBMA refiners in Switzerland. Switzerland recorded about 62 t a year of unwrought gold imports from Ghana in 2023 and 2024 and 48.4 t (US$4.55bn) in 2025 (WITS). Ghana's own HS 710812 filings show no exports to Switzerland.
几内亚至阿拉伯联合酋长国No bilateral gold instrument found. The pair gets ordinary treatment (0% UAE duty). The UAE is Guinea's main gold destination: 59.0% of 2023 gold exports by Guinea's statistics institute. UAE-reported imports from Guinea (135.9 t in 2023) are more than double Guinea's total declared gold exports. BCRG gold sent to Dubai for refining in 2024 was reported diverted to private accounts.
几内亚至印度No FTA between Guinea and India. Guinea is an LDC, but its status in India's DFTP scheme and any use of it for gold were not verified. India is Guinea's second gold destination (21.4% in 2023). India recorded 17.6 t (US$1.04bn) of imports from Guinea in 2023 and 4.3 t in 2024.
中国香港特别行政区至中国Gold moving from Hong Kong's free port into the Mainland. This is China's main gateway, but no preference applies: entry needs the Mainland importer's PBoC per-batch permit and first trade on the SGE (China-wide rules, see cn module), while processing trade is exempt from the permit. Bilateral arrangements specific to the pair are a 2026 Hong Kong-Shenzhen MOU on processing-trade refining (gold refined in Shenzhen and returned to Hong Kong) and an FSTB-SGE co-operation agreement (January 2026) preparing mutual market access, with the initial phase of Delivery Connect from 7 July 2026. The Mainland-HK CEPA was not checked for gold (web-search budget exhausted, 28 Sep 2026). Hong Kong's recorded exports to the Mainland are about 2.5 times China's recorded imports from Hong Kong, consistent with China recording by origin.
印度尼西亚至新加坡No bilateral gold instrument: ASEAN (ATIGA) and RCEP cover the pair, but Singapore charges no duty on gold for anyone, and Indonesia's export duty (from 23 Dec 2025, up to 15%) and 100% export-proceeds retention apply to every destination. Singapore was Indonesia's largest gold destination in 2024, and both sides' figures match almost exactly (about 10.1 t, US$782m). After the export duty took effect, Indonesia's recorded gold exports collapsed (44.5 kg in Q1 2026 against 15.39 t a year earlier), and couriers carrying bars to Singapore are among the cases customs intercepts.
哈萨克斯坦至英国Kazakh refined gold (in practice National Bank of Kazakhstan reserve gold, re-melted to London Good Delivery) moving to London. The 2024 UK-Kazakhstan Strategic Partnership and Cooperation Agreement has no gold effect found; UK treatment is ordinary. Kazakhstan's export licence and act of state control for non-EAEU destinations are country-wide (kz module). The UK processed-gold ban is relevant because Kazakhstan borders Russia and Swiss authorities reportedly cannot rule out Russian gold remelted there. The UK recorded 65 t from Kazakhstan in 2024 while Kazakhstan reported no gold exports to the UK, and much of this gold moved on to Switzerland.
马里至阿拉伯联合酋长国No bilateral gold instrument found. The UAE-Mali cooperation made public in May 2025 was on defence and energy, with no statement on gold. The pair gets ordinary treatment. Mali declared 12.2% of its 2025 gold exports as going to the UAE, but UAE-reported imports from Mali are many times Mali's declared exports: 77 t against 0.9 t at HS 710812 in 2023.
马里至南非No bilateral instrument found. South Africa is Mali's main declared gold destination, taking 60.4% of 2025 exports, almost all industrial doré for refining. South Africa does not publish gold imported for processing, so there is no mirror figure.
墨西哥至美国USMCA (in force 1 Jul 2020) makes Mexican-originating gold under the two dutiable HTSUS 7108 lines (7108.12.50, 7108.13.70, general 4.1%) free under special program "S"; bullion and doré (7108.12.10) are free for all. Gold of heading 7108 qualifies as originating by a change of subheading, or for 7108.12 by alloying or electrolytic, chemical or thermal separation of non-originating material (T-MEC Anexo 4-B). All eight 7108 subheadings are excluded from the 10% Section 301 forced-labor tariff on products of Mexico applied from 24 Jul 2026 (U.S. note 52(b) to subchapter III of chapter 99) and were excluded from the Section 122 surcharge of 24 Feb-24 Jul 2026 (heading 9903.03.03). The US declined to renew USMCA at the 1 Jul 2026 joint review, but the agreement remains in force. Mexico is the largest supplier of doré to the US; value and weight figures on the two sides diverge sharply because of silver-rich doré.
尼日利亚至阿拉伯联合酋长国No bilateral gold instrument found; the route runs on each country's own rules. The flow is dominated by undeclared exports.
秘鲁至瑞士The EFTA-Peru FTA has been in force for Switzerland since 1 July 2011, but Switzerland charges no duty on HS 7108 anyway, so it changes nothing for gold. The one bilateral gold-specific arrangement is the Swiss Better Gold Initiative (SECO with the Swiss Better Gold Association), a voluntary responsible-ASM supply programme in Peru, Colombia and Bolivia. The flow is mostly doré (2024 unit value about US$16k/kg).
秘鲁至印度No trade agreement between Peru and India is in force: an India-Peru trade agreement (with a critical-minerals chapter) has been under negotiation since at least 2024, with a 9th round in November 2025 and talks expected to resume mid-2026. Peruvian gold therefore enters India on ordinary terms (restricted import channel; 15% combined duty on bullion from 13 May 2026). India is Peru's largest gold destination by value (2024), and both sides' 2024 figures broadly agree.
秘鲁至美国The US-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement (in force 1 Feb 2009) matters for gold only at the margin: most HTS 7108 lines are duty-free for everyone, but 7108.12.50 and 7108.13.70 (4.1% MFN) are free for Peruvian-originating goods (special code PE); TPA art 2.11 bars discriminatory export taxes. Since 24 Jul 2026 products of Peru face a 12.5% Section 301 forced-labor tariff (9903.05.63), but every HTS 7108 line is exempt (Annex II Part A; U.S. note 52(b)). Earlier IEEPA reciprocal tariffs (gold bullion exempted from Sep 2025) ended in Feb 2026. The two countries' figures for 2024 disagree sharply.
巴布亚新几内亚至澳大利亚No agreement changes gold treatment on this leg: Australia's duty on gold is free for all, and PNG's BPNG export consent applies to every destination. Australia is the main outlet for PNG gold: the PNG Chamber of Resources and Energy described the Perth Mint as the regional refining hub (May 2024), and PNG was Australia's largest gold import source in 2024 (US$2.49bn, about 38 t). PNG's own reported exports to Australia are a fraction of Australia's recorded imports.
俄罗斯至阿拉伯联合酋长国Russian gold moving to the UAE. The UAE has not joined Western sanctions and says it trades in line with UN norms, so import is lawful under UAE law; the UAE was the largest destination for Russian gold in 2022. An EAEU-UAE Economic Partnership Agreement was signed on 27 Jun 2025 and ratified by Russia in May 2026 (text and gold coverage not held). The exposure is external: US secondary sanctions (OFAC designated a DMCC front company in June 2024 for obscuring payments from Russian gold sales; since June 2024 foreign banks risk sanctions for significant transactions involving any EO 14024-blocked person) and the UK, Swiss, Japanese and EU measures, which stop Russian gold, or third-country-processed gold containing it (UK, Switzerland), from moving on to those markets.
俄罗斯至中国Russian gold moving to Mainland China. The EAEU-China Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation (in force 25 Oct 2019) has no tariff concessions and reserves each side's measures on gold import and export (art. 1.9(c)), and China has not adopted sanctions on Russian gold (cn module: China acts only on its own designated lists). Entry runs on China-wide rules (PBoC permit, SGE first trade, bar standard). Directly recorded volumes are small; most Russian gold reportedly reaches China via Hong Kong. The main exposure is US secondary sanctions on banks and firms dealing with EO 14024-blocked persons.
俄罗斯至中国香港特别行政区Russian gold moving to Hong Kong, which became the largest hub for Russian gold from 2023. No bilateral agreement found and no Hong Kong measure restricting Russian gold was found. Hong Kong recorded 58 t from Russia in 2024, and commentary reports close to 100 t in January-July 2026. The main exposure is US: in June 2024 OFAC designated three Hong Kong companies (one carrier, two payment routers) and a Hong Kong-based individual for laundering proceeds of Russian gold, and foreign banks face secondary sanctions for significant transactions with EO 14024-blocked persons.
俄罗斯至印度Russian gold moving to India. No agreement with a gold effect and no Indian sanction was found. In practice the route is nearly closed at the bar-standard level: IIBX accepts only LBMA Good Delivery or UAE Good Delivery refiners' bars, and the six Russian LBMA refiners have been suspended since 7 Mar 2022; nominated banks/agencies face no bar-standard rule in the sources read but US secondary-sanctions exposure. India recorded 4 kg of unwrought gold from Russia in 2024.
俄罗斯至土耳其Russian gold moving to Turkey. No trade agreement found; Turkey has no autonomous sanctions on Russian gold (tr module). Russian-origin gold falls under Turkey's general rules for non-FTA countries (20% additional duty on gold, per tr/ae-tr notes) and the 12 t monthly quota, so there is no pair-specific tax row. Borsa Istanbul delisted Russian refiners on 7 Mar 2022, so new Russian bars are not standard gold on the exchange. Turkish-recorded imports from Russia are small and fell each year after 2022, well below what Russian customs records obtained by Reuters showed.
苏丹至阿拉伯联合酋长国The UAE bought almost all of Sudan's legal gold exports (about 90% in H1 2025) until an unannounced UAE embargo in August 2025 halted flights from Port Sudan and closed UAE ports to Sudan shipping. The US (Jan 2025) and the UK (Jul 2026) have designated UAE-based companies that trade Sudanese gold. Since 15 July 2026 the EU bans buying Sudan-origin gold routed via third countries such as the UAE. Sudan files no gold data with UN Comtrade.
坦桑尼亚至阿拉伯联合酋长国No bilateral gold instrument found. The pair gets ordinary treatment (0% UAE duty). The UAE is Tanzania's third gold destination. UAE-reported imports from Tanzania exceed Tanzania's declared exports to the UAE by about 8 t (2022) and 14 t (2023).
坦桑尼亚至印度No FTA between Tanzania and India. Tanzania has been a beneficiary of India's Duty-Free Tariff Preference scheme for LDCs since 13 August 2008 (Notification 96/2008-Customs), and in the 2015 business guide no chapter 71 line appears on the scheme's exclusion list or its positive list. That suggests Tanzanian-origin gold could enter India duty-free if it meets the origin rule (change of tariff heading at six digits plus 30% local value added, certificate of origin signed by officials notified to CBEC), but the current notification and practice were not confirmed. India is Tanzania's second gold destination after South Africa; the two countries' figures matched closely in 2023.
乌兹别克斯坦至瑞士Uzbek refined gold (Central Bank of Uzbekistan reserve sales of NMMC/AMMC bars) moving to Switzerland, directly or via London. No trade agreement or bilateral gold instrument was found; Swiss treatment is ordinary (0% duty). Uzbekistan's export licensing is country-wide (uz module). Switzerland became a major buyer from October 2021; Swiss imports were 130 t in 2023 and 86.7 t in 2024, mostly bought by the financial sector, while Uzbekistan reports no gold exports. Swiss authorities reportedly cannot rule out Russian gold remelted in Uzbekistan.
南非至英国The SACUM-UK Economic Partnership Agreement has applied since 1 January 2021. The UK gives immediate duty-free, quota-free access to the other SACUM countries but not to South Africa, which keeps the partial preferences it had under the EU-SADC EPA. The UK duty on HS 7108 is believed to be nil (unconfirmed, gb.tax-import-duty), so the EPA probably changes nothing for gold. Precious stones and metals were the largest UK import from the region in 2018 (GBP 4,180m); UK imports of the precious-metals chapter from South Africa were GBP 990m in September 2025, which covers platinum-group metals as well as gold.
津巴布韦至阿拉伯联合酋长国No bilateral gold instrument found; the UAE is not among the trade agreements ZIMRA lists for origin and preference (COMESA, SADC, four bilaterals, EC-ESA and UK-ESA EPAs), so no preferential certificate of origin exists for this pair - a gold export to Dubai can carry only the non-preferential certificate of the Zimbabwe National Chamber of Commerce, where the UAE side asks for one (zw.st-65). The pair gets ordinary treatment (0% UAE duty). The UAE recorded 43.8 t (2022) and 30.4 t (2023) of unwrought gold imports from Zimbabwe; Zimbabwe files no HS 710812 data with UN Comtrade. Investigations describe gold hand-carried to Dubai under licences obtained through the state refinery.
津巴布韦至南非Both countries are in SADC; ZIMRA lists the SADC Protocol among the agreements under which Zimbabwean exporters and goods are registered for preferential origin, and SADC certificate-of-origin forms are sold by ZimTrade. Whether this changes anything for HS 7108 depends on South African duty on gold, not confirmed. There is no recorded lawful flow data: Zimbabwe files no HS 710812 data with UN Comtrade, and South Africa excludes gold imported for processing from its statistics. South Africa is the main overland smuggling route for Zimbabwean gold, via Beitbridge and through Botswana.