Climate-smart Agriculture Guideline

1.1 Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture .................................................................................................................2

1.2 Agriculture Impacts on Climate Change .................................................................................................................2

1.3 Adaptation and Mitigation in Agriculture ................................................................................................................4

1.4 Climate-Smart Agriculture ..........................................................................................................................................5

1.4.1 Gender, Youth and Climate-Smart Agriculture ............................................................................................5

1.5 Policy and Legal Context .............................................................................................................................................6 CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL RISKS IN TANZANIA ........................................... 8

2.1 Variability in precipitation and future projections ................................................................................................9

2.2 Temperature ............................................................................................................................................................... 10

2.3 Extreme events .......................................................................................................................................................... 11

2.4 Shifting of Agro Ecological Zones........................................................................................................................... 12

2.5 Crop production ........................................................................................................................................................ 12

2.6 Livestock production and aquaculture ................................................................................................................ 13

2.7 Biophysical drivers of vulnerability ........................................................................................................................ 13

2.7.1 Infrastructure .................................................................................................................................................... 13

2.7.2 Water resources ............................................................................................................................................... 13

2.7.3 Soil erosion and land degradation ............................................................................................................... 14

2.7.4 Pests and Diseases .......................................................................................................................................... 14

2.8 Socio-economic drivers of vulnerability ............................................................................................................... 15

2.8.1 Population .......................................................................................................................................................... 15 &RQȵLFWV .............................................................................................................................................................. 15 CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY...................................................................................... 16

3.1 Rationale and History of the Guideline ................................................................................................................ 17

3.2 Objectives of the Guidelines ................................................................................................................................... 17

3.3 Target Audience and Uses of the Guideline ....................................................................................................... 18

3.4 Methodology ............................................................................................................................................................... 18

3.4.1 Task Team Formation and Tasks Undertaken........................................................................................... 18

3.4.2 Inception Workshop ........................................................................................................................................ 18

3.4.3 Baseline Survey ................................................................................................................................................. 19

3.4.4 Compilation of the CSA Guideline ................................................................................................................ 21

3.4.5 Stakeholders Workshop and Validation ..................................................................................................... 22

3.4.6 Limitations.......................................................................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES... 23 4.1 Climate Change Impacts and Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies ....................................................................... 24

4.1.1 Perceptions ........................................................................................................................................................ 24

4.1.2 Adaptation Strategies ...................................................................................................................................... 24

4.2 CSA Practices and Technologies ............................................................................................................................ 25

4.2.1 Crop Subsector Practices and Technologies ............................................................................................. 25

4.2.2 Livestock Subsector Practices and technologies...................................................................................... 35 iii

4.2.3 Fishing and Aquaculture Enterprises .......................................................................................................... 37

4.2.4 Other Practices and Technologies ............................................................................................................... 39 CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING .................... 56

5.1 Roles.............................................................................................................................................................................. 57

5.1.1 Government....................................................................................................................................................... 57

5.1.2 NGOs, and Development and Research Partners ................................................................................... 58

5.1.3 Private Sector .................................................................................................................................................... 58

5.1.4 Farmers ............................................................................................................................................................... 58

5.1.5 Media ................................................................................................................................................................... 59

5.2 Approaches ................................................................................................................................................................. 59

5.2.1 Gender Responsive Approach ...................................................................................................................... 59

5.2.2 Community Based Approach ........................................................................................................................ 59 5.2.3 Farmer-centred Research, Learning and Training Approach ................................................................ 60

5.2.4 Landscapes and Ecosystems Services Approach ..................................................................................... 60

5.2.5 Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) ....................................................................................................... 61

5.2.6 Innovation Platforms ....................................................................................................................................... 61 5.2.7 Information and Knowledge Generation and Sharing Approach......................................................... 61

5.2.8 Coordination Forum Approach ..................................................................................................................... 61

5.2.9 Sustainable Market Linkage Approach ....................................................................................................... 61

5.3 Challenges for Implementation and Up-scaling................................................................................................. 62 CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................................... 63

6.1 Capacity Building Needs .......................................................................................................................................... 64

6.1.1 Awareness .......................................................................................................................................................... 64

6.1.2 Training ............................................................................................................................................................... 64

6.1.3 Integrate Climate Change Topics in the Syllabus ..................................................................................... 64

6.1.4 Improve capacity and knowledge on M&E of CSA ................................................................................... 65

6.1.5 Enabling Access to Resource Provision, Improved Access (Information Packages) and Dissemination of Climate Information Services ............................................................................... 65

6.1.6 Risk Management and Insurance Scheme in Agriculture ...................................................................... 65

6.2 Key Requirements for Implementation and up-scaling CSA ........................................................................... 66

6.2.1 Improved Productivity, Building Resilience and Associated Mitigation&REHQHȴWV ........................ 66

6.2.2 Value Chain Integration .................................................................................................................................. 66

6.2.3 Research for Development and Innovations ............................................................................................. 66 6.2.4 Improving and Sustaining Agricultural Advisory Services....................................................................... 67

6.2.5 Climate and Weather Forecasting ................................................................................................................ 67 6.2.6(΍HFWLYHΖQVWLWXWLRQDO&RRUGLQDWLRQ.............................................................................................................. 67

6.2.7 Integration among Practices ......................................................................................................................... 67

6.2.8 Financing CSA .................................................................................................................................................... 68

6.3 Monitoring and Evaluation Plan ............................................................................................................................. 68 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................... 71 Annexes..................................................................................................................................................... 73 References ................................................................................................................................................ 84 iv FIGURES Figure 1.1: GHG emissions from AFOLU sector in Tanzania .......................................................................................3 Figure 1. 2: Estimate of GHG emissions trend in agricultural sectors in Tanzania 1990 – 2010 .........................................................................................................................................................3 Figure 2.1: Changes in precipitation in Tanzania with respect to lower (RCP 4.5) and higher (RCP 8.5) greenhouse gas emissions scenarios ...........................................................................................9 Figure 2.2: Percent change in precipitation in Tanzania by 2080 under the higher RCP 8.5 greenhouse gas emissions scenario based on an ensemble of 19 climate models from the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . .........................................................................................9 Figure 2.3: Changes in temperature in Tanzania with respect to lower (RCP 4.5) and higher (RCP 8.5) greenhouse gas emissions scenarios ........................................................................................ 10 Figure 2.4: Mean annual maximum temperature time series for Songea, Bukoba, Arusha and Zanzibar stations (Source: Adapted from TMA, 2007)............................................................................ 11 Figure 3.1: The study sites in the agro climatic zones and regions.......................................................................... 20 Figure 3.2: The study sites in the agro -zones ............................................................................................................... 21 TABLES Table 1: Study Sites in Agro-climatic and Livelihood Zones ....................................................................................... 19 Table 2: CSA packages of technologies and practices in the regions under study .............................................. 40 Table 3: Monitoring and Evaluation Plan......................................................................................................................... 69 Table 4: Monitoring and Evaluation Events .................................................................................................................... 70 Annexes Annex 1. Task Team Members .......................................................................................................................................... 74 Annex 2. Agro-Ecological Zones of Tanzania ................................................................................................................. 74 Annex 3. Agro-Climatic Zones of Tanzania ..................................................................................................................... 76 Annex 4. Location and Characteristics of the Baseline Study Sites ......................................................................... 77 Annex 5. Baseline Survey Summary Results .................................................................................................................. 82 v FOREWORD Tanzania is already experiencing adverse impacts of climate change. Recently, climate change has become a bigger FKDOOHQJH VXSSUHVVLQJ DQG GLVWRUWLQJ H΍RUWV WR LPSURYH SURGXFWLYLW\ LQ WKH DJULFXOWXUDO VHFWRU DQG VXEVHTXHQWO\ D΍HFWLQJQDWLRQDOIRRGVHFXULW\DQGGHYHORSPHQWLQLWLDWLYHV ΖQUHVSRQVHWRFOLPDWHFKDQJHWKHFRXQWU\KDVEHHQXQGHUWDNLQJYDULRXVH΍RUWVWRZDUGVDGGUHVVLQJFOLPDWHFKDQJH in accordance with its national context. For example, the National Climate Change Strategy (2012), aims to enhance Tanzania’s adaptive capacity to climate change. 7KH $JULFXOWXUH &OLPDWH 5HVLOLHQFH 3ODQ   LGHQWLȴHV DQG UHVSRQGV WR WKH PRVW XUJHQW LPSDFWV SRVHG by climate variability and climate change on the crop subsector. The recently developed National Climate-Smart Agriculture Programme (2015 – 2025) aims to accelerate uptake of CSA in the country to increase productivity and FOLPDWHUHVLOLHQFHLQWKHDJULFXOWXUHVHFWRU FURSOLYHVWRFNDQGȴVKHULHV EXWDOVRLQUHGXFWLRQRIJUHHQKRXVHJDV emissions. Tanzania is compliant to CAADP and Malabo Declaration as well as the 2011 Johannesburg Communiqué, which urges African countries to invest in facilitating adoption of CSA practices and approaches. In recognition of the CSA potential to contribute to a triple win for food security and climate change adaptation and mitigation, Tanzania is ready for implementing CSA practices and approaches. Development of the CSA guidelines is a step towards achieving the global and national goals of sustainable agriculture production in a changing climate. 7KHJXLGHOLQHLVLPSRUWDQWWRDOOVWDNHKROGHUVHVSHFLDOO\H[WHQVLRQRɝFHUVDQGVPDOOKROGHUIDUPHUVDVLWZLOOSURYLGH guidance for adaptation and mitigation in building resilience of agricultural farming enterprises; improving and increasing agricultural productivity and sustainability. In this regard, it is our hope that the CSA guideline will go a long way in providing guidance for implementation of the agricultural sector’s programmes and present a wide range of technologies and practices that are climate-smart with the intention to provide an opportunity for up-scaling the most promising ones in the country. The Ministry would like to thank all those who participated in one way or another in developing this important document that would transform Tanzania agricultural sector through the climate-smart agriculture approach. Hon. Dr Charles J. Tizeba (MP) MINISTER FOR AGRICULTURE LIVESTOCK AND FISHERIES vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The preparation of the Climate-Smart Agriculture Guideline involved a number of individuals who worked determinedly to ensure that the preparation was a success. I am equally indebted to all stakeholders and development partners at various stages during the preparation of this JXLGHOLQHΖWLVGLɝFXOWWRPHQWLRQDOOWKHLUQDPHVEXWWKH\SURYLGHGYDOXDEOHLQSXWVLQWKHFRXUVHRIIXUWKHUUHVKDSLQJ editing and improving this guideline. Ζ DOVR UHFRJQL]H DQG DSSUHFLDWH WKH WLUHOHVV H΍RUWV RI WKH 0LQLVWU\ RI $JULFXOWXUH /LYHVWRFN DQG )LVKHULHV 0$/)  experts led by Ms S. Natai (Head of the Environment Management Unit) and coordinated by Prof H. Mahoo from Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA); Mrs M. Majule, Mrs T. Massoy, Ms T. Malavanu, Ms Z. Sheuya, Mr S. Mbaga, Mr M. Malozo; Mr J. Mbogoni Ms L. Chacha, Mr R. Likiligo, Mr F. Banzi, and Mr M. Nzalawahe. Other experts include 'U / 6VHQGL IURP 3UHVLGHQWȇV 2ɝFH5HJLRQDO $GPLQLVWUDWLRQ DQG /RFDO *RYHUQPHQW 325$/*  0U ' 1NRQGROD 9LFH3UHVLGHQWȇV2ɝFH'HSDUWPHQWRI(QYLURQPHQW 932'R( 0U01GDNLIURP7DQ]DQLD0HWHRURORJLFDO$JHQF\ (TMA); Ms M Bura from Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MoWI) and Mr N. Mkarafuu from Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources Livestock and Fisheries (MANRLF) of Zanzibar. I would also like to thank experts from International Organizations; Dr A. Kimaro and Mr M. Mpanda from The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF); Dr J. Recha, Mr D. Lopa and Dr A. Kitalyi (Independent experts). In a very special way, I would like to thank the respondents of the survey that was conducted as part of the process of developing this guideline. These include the District Executive Directors in all Local Government Authorities visited, 'LVWULFW$JULFXOWXUHRɝFHUV:DUGDQG9LOODJHOHDGHUVDQGIDUPHUV /DVWEXWQRWOHDVWΖGRDFNQRZOHGJHDQGDSSUHFLDWHWKHWHFKQLFDODQGȴQDQFLDOVXSSRUWSURYLGHGE\WKH)RRGDQG Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and VUNA Programme. Special thanks go to Ms K. Karttunen and Ms J. Rioux (FAO-Rome), Ms Joyce Mulila Mitti (FAO-SFS) and Ms M. Lwakatare and Mr D. Kalisa (FAO-Tanzania), Dr G. Wamukoya and Dr J. Recha (VUNA Programme) for their support during the development of this guideline. )LQDOO\ΖZRXOGOLNHWRWDNHWKLVRSSRUWXQLW\WRWKDQN)$2IRUWKHLUJUHDWH΍RUWVLQVWHHULQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKH&6$ Guideline and assure them of our heartfelt appreciation and that we value their cooperation and support. Eng. Mathew Mtigumwe PERMANENT SECRETARY vii ACRONYMS ACRP - Agriculture Climate Resilient Plan AEZ - Agro-Ecological Zone AEAs - Agricultural Extension Agents ARI - Agriculture Research Institutes ASDP - Agriculture Sector Development Programme CA - Conservation Agriculture CAADP - Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme CBO - Community Based Organization CARMATEC - Centre for Agricultural Mechanization and Rural Technology CSA - Climate Smart- Agriculture CSOs - Civil Society Organizations DADPs - District Development Plans DCC - District Consultative Council EMU - Environment Management Unit EWS - Early Warning System FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FFS - Farmer Field Schools FYM - Farm Yard Manure GAP - Good Agricultural Practices GCM - Global Circulation Model GDP - Gross Development Product GHGs - Green House Gases ICRAF - International Centre for Research in Agroforestry IK - Indigenous Knowledge IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISFM - Integrated Soil Fertility Management M&E - Monitoring and Evaluation MAFC - Ministry of Agriculture Food Security and Cooperatives MALF - Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries MICCA - Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture NAMA - National Appropriate Mitigation Actions NAPA - National Adaption Programme of Actions NARS - National Agricultural Research System NGO - Non-Governmental Organization 325$/*  3UHVLGHQWȇV2ɝFH5HJLRQDO$GPLQLVWUDWLRQDQG/RFDO*RYHUQPHQW RCP - Representative Concentration Pathways RWH - Rain Water Harvesting SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 65Ζ   6\VWHPRI5LFHΖQWHQVLȴFDWLRQ SUA - Sokoine University of Agriculture TMA - Tanzania Meteorological Agency ToR - Terms of Reference 932   9LFH3UHVLGHQWȇV2ɝFH URT - United Republic of Tanzania viii GLOSSARY Adaptation (to Climate Change) Adaptation is adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their H΍HFWVZKLFKPRGHUDWHVKDUPRUH[SORLWVEHQHȴFLDORSSRUWXQLWLHVΖQKXPDQV\VWHPVDGDSWDWLRQVHHNVWRPRGHUDWH KDUPRUH[SORLWEHQHȴFLDORSSRUWXQLWLHVΖQQDWXUDOV\VWHPVKXPDQLQWHUYHQWLRQPD\IDFLOLWDWHDGMXVWPHQWWRH[SHFWHG FOLPDWHDQGLWVH΍HFWV Agricultural sector Ȋ$JULFXOWXUDOVHFWRUȋLQWKLVJXLGHOLQHLQFOXGHVFURSVOLYHVWRFNDQGJUDVVODQGVDJURIRUHVWU\ȴVKHULHVDQGDTXDFXOWXUH Agricultural Technology Agricultural technology are the tools and machinery that are used primarily or entirely in order to support agricultural HQWHUSULVHV $JULFXOWXUDO WHFKQRORJ\ UHIHUV WR KLJKO\ SURGXFWLYH KLJK TXDOLW\ HɝFLHQW DQG UHVRXUFHVDYLQJ ZDWHU energy, labour, etc.) techniques and expertise for agricultural production. It also refers to techniques appropriate for the protection and improvement of the environment Agricultural Practices Agricultural practices refer to management activities at the farm and landscape level. Agro-climatic zones In the context of this Guideline, Agro-climate zones of Tanzania are based on the comparison between rainfall and the water requirements of the vegetation or crops using the amount of rainfall that can be expected to be reached. Agro-ecological zones $JUR(FRORJLFDO =RQHV DUH GHȴQHG DV KRPRJHQRXV DQG FRQWLJXRXV DUHDV ZLWK VLPLODU VRLO ODQG DQG FOLPDWH characteristics. “Agro-Ecological Zones”, is the standardized framework for the characterization of climate, soil and terrain conditions relevant to agricultural production. Climate-Smart Agriculture &OLPDWH6PDUW $JULFXOWXUH &6$  LV GHȴQHG DV Ȇ$JULFXOWXUH WKDW VXVWDLQDEO\ LQFUHDVHV SURGXFWLYLW\ DQG LQFRPH increases the ability to adapt and build resilience to Climate Change and enhances food and nutrition security ZKLOHDFKLHYLQJPLWLJDWLRQFREHQHȴWVLQOLQHZLWKQDWLRQDOGHYHORSPHQWSULRULWLHV&6$LQFOXGHVERWKWUDGLWLRQDODQG LQQRYDWLYHSUDFWLFHVSURJUDPPHVLQVWLWXWLRQVSROLFLHVDQGȴQDQFH7KHWHFKQLTXHVDQGSUDFWLFHVDUHVLWHVSHFLȴF based on the farming systems, climatic impacts and farmers’ livelihoods and socio-economic conditions. Gender Gender refers to the culturally and socially determined characteristics, values, norms, roles, attitudes and beliefs DWWULEXWHGWRZRPHQDQGPHQWKURXJKFRQVWUXFWHGLGHQWLW\LQDVRFLHW\*HQGHUUHODWLRQVKLSVGL΍HUIURPRQHVRFLDO VHWWLQJWRDQRWKHUDQGFDQFKDQJHIURPWLPHWRWLPH*HQGHUUROHVDUHWKHȆVRFLDOGHȴQLWLRQȇRIZRPHQDQGPHQ )$2 7KH\YDU\DPRQJGL΍HUHQWVRFLHWLHVDQGFXOWXUHVFODVVHVDJHVDQGGXULQJGL΍HUHQWSHULRGVLQKLVWRU\ *HQGHUVSHFLȴFUROHVDQGUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVDUHRIWHQFRQGLWLRQHGE\KRXVHKROGVWUXFWXUHDFFHVVWRUHVRXUFHVVSHFLȴF impacts of the global economy, and other locally relevant factors such as ecological conditions. gender relations are WKHZD\VLQZKLFKDFXOWXUHRUVRFLHW\GHȴQHVULJKWVUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVDQGWKHLGHQWLWLHVRIPHQDQGZRPHQLQUHODWLRQ to one another. Livelihood Livelihood is a means of making a living that encompasses people’s capabilities, assets, income and activities required to secure the necessities of life. Mitigation (of Climate Change) 0LWLJDWLRQUHIHUVWRH΍RUWVWKDWVHHNWRSUHYHQWRUVORZGRZQWKHLQFUHDVHRIDWPRVSKHULF*+*FRQFHQWUDWLRQVE\ limiting current and future emissions and enhancing potential sinks for GHG 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 2 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Climate Change Impact on Agriculture Agriculture in Tanzania is the largest sector in the economy, which accounts for about half of GDP and export earnings. The sector employs 77.5 per cent of the population, provides livelihood to more than 70 per cent of the population and contributes about 95 percent of the national food requirements (URT, 2014). Agricultural production however varies across food crops, cash crops and livestock while for food crops, maize is the most important (accounting for over 20 percent of total agricultural GDP) followed by rice/paddy, beans, cassava, sorghum, and wheat. Within cash FURSVWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWE\H[SRUWYDOXHDUHFR΍HHFDVKHZFRWWRQWREDFFRDQGWHD7KHUHFHQWDQQXDODYHUDJH growth rates of export crops, food crops, and livestock was about 6, 4, and 3 percent respectively. Although agriculture sector is key driver of social and economic development in Tanzania, it is hampered by low productivity and persistent poverty mainly because the majority of households still produce at subsistence level. Despite having a rich base of natural resources, agriculture in Tanzania is mainly rain fed hence more susceptible to climate change impacts. Globally, climate change has been occurring at increasing rates in the last 30 years, SDUWLFXODUO\ LQ WKH ODVW GHFDGH ZLWK VLJQLȴFDQW LPSDFWV RQ QDWXUDO UHVRXUFHV DQG DJULFXOWXUH &OLPDWH FKDQJH KDV resulted into a general decline in agricultural productivity, including changes in agro-diversity. The prevalence of crop pests and diseases is also reported to have increased posing more challenges to agriculture. Studies by the Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA) indicated that some of the previous highly productive areas such as the southern and QRUWKHUQKLJKODQGVZLOOFRQWLQXHWREHD΍HFWHGE\GHFOLQLQJUDLQIDOOIUHTXHQWGURXJKWVDQGVLJQLȴFDQWLQFUHDVHLQ spatial and temporal variability of rainfall with long term implications in the agricultural sector planning and resource allocation and even the shifts in types of agricultural products (URT, 2009). Observed changes in temperature and rainfall patterns in the agricultural sectors have led to degradation of water and land for agriculture. The magnitude of the impact of climate change and variability is contingent upon the YXOQHUDELOLW\ DQG DGDSWLYH FDSDFLW\ RI WKH D΍HFWHG SHRSOH DQG HFRQRPLF VHFWRUV 7DQ]DQLD OLNH RWKHU GHYHORSLQJ countries has started to experience impacts of climate change and variability. The Agriculture Climate Resilient Plan  KDVLGHQWLȴHGȴYHNH\DUHDVRIFRQFHUQIRUFURSSURGXFWLRQ L /RZUDLQIDOODUHDV LL +LJKHUUDLQIDOODUHDV LLL  Pests and diseases (iv) land management and (v) Water availability.

1.2 Agriculture Impact on Climate Change /DQGXVHFKDQJHVVLJQLȴFDQWO\FRQWULEXWHWRFOLPDWHFKDQJH/DUJHVFDOHFKDQJHVVXFKDVGHIRUHVWDWLRQFRQWULEXWH WRLQFUHDVHGFDUERQGLR[LGHFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQWKHDWPRVSKHUH6RLOHURVLRQE\ZDWHUZLQGDQGWLOODJHD΍HFWVERWK agriculture and the natural environment. Soil loss, and its associated impacts, is one of today’s most important environmental problems. Tanzania currently has very low emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHG), in total and per capita. The published inventory for 1994 puts per capita emissions at 1.3 tonnes of CO2e (all GHGs) and 0.1 tonnes CO2 (CO2 only). However, if land use changes and forestry (including deforestation) are included, the per capita emission estimates rise to 2.67 tonnes (all GHGs) and 1.65 tonnes (CO2 only). The key emitting sectors are forestry, due to deforestation (biomass burning 48percent), and agriculture, primarily from livestock (CH4 from enteric fermentation 18percent) and others (mainly (N2O) from animal manure left on pasture, burning savannah and cropland) (Fig. 1). CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 3 Figure1: GHG emissions from AFOLU sector in Tanzania (Rioux et al., 2016, based on FAOSTAT, 2014) Forestry and agriculture accounted for 93 percent of emissions in 1994 (forests - 70 percent, agriculture - 23 percent). In the future, it is inevitable that GHG emissions in Tanzania will increase under the planned current development baseline, as indicated by the increasing trend estimated since 1990 (Fig. 2). Figure 2: Estimates of GHG emissions trend in agricultural sectors in Tanzania 1990 – 2010 Source: FAO (2013). FAOSTAT Emissions Database (http://faostat.fao.org) 4 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.3 Adaptation and Mitigation in Agriculture Climate change and its associated impacts on agriculture sectors is a major concern in Tanzania. Thus adaptation is the highest priority for the country. The National Climate Change Strategy (URT, 2012a) provides basis for identifying short, medium and long-term adaptation activities designed to address existing and emerging climate change threats. More than 80percent of the population in Tanzania depends on climate sensitive rain fed agriculture as source RIOLYHOLKRRG5HGXFLQJYXOQHUDELOLW\RIDJULFXOWXUHWRFOLPDWHFKDQJHZLOOVLJQLȴFDQWO\FRQWULEXWHWRVRFLRHFRQRPLF development and ensure food security. Potential adaptation options that would help to integrate resilience in DJULFXOWXUDO SROLF\ GHFLVLRQV LQȵXHQFH SODQQLQJ SURFHVVHV DQG LPSOHPHQW LQYHVWPHQWV RQ WKH JURXQG LQFOXGH improving agricultural land and water management; accelerating uptake of climate-smart agriculture; protecting the most vulnerable against climate-related shocks; and strengthening knowledge and systems to target climate action (URT, 2014) The potential adaptation in the livestock sector include promoting climate change resilient traditional and modern knowledge on sustainable pasture and range management systems; promoting development and implementation of land use plans countrywide; and enhancing development of livestock infrastructure and services. Other adaptation options include promoting development of livestock insurance strategies; strengthening weather forecast information VKDULQJIRUSDVWRUDOLVWVSURPRWLQJOLYHOLKRRGGLYHUVLȴFDWLRQRIOLYHVWRFNNHHSHUVDQGSURPRWLQJLPSURYHGWUDGLWLRQDO livestock keeping systems. ΖQ ȴVKHULHV WKH VWUDWHJLF LQWHUYHQWLRQV LQFOXGH WKRVH IRU HQKDQFLQJ PRQLWRULQJ RI ȴVKHULHV KDELWDW DQG VSHFLHV IDFLOLWDWH HQKDQFHPHQW DQGRU GHYHORSPHQW RI LQWHJUDWHG GDWD PDQDJHPHQW V\VWHPV LQ WKH ȴVKHULHV VHFWRU promoting aquaculture; and to enhancement of protection and conservation of aquatic ecosystems; and supporting DOWHUQDWLYHOLYHOLKRRGLQLWLDWLYHVIRUȴVKHULHVFRPPXQLW\ &OLPDWH FKDQJH LPSDFWV D΍HFW IRUHVW DQG HFRV\VWHP SURFHVVHV 3URWHFWLQJ DQG FRQVHUYLQJ ELRGLYHUVLW\ WKURXJK application of best practices in soil and water conservation; expanding forest cover and use of adaptive species as well as linking conservation areas are vital in adapting to climate change and ensuring continuity in the availability of ecosystem goods and services hence improving the livelihoods of Tanzanians. Despite its negligible GHG emissions, Tanzania can participate in mitigation activities to contribute to its sustainable national development (URT, 2012). Agricultural sectors can contribute to mitigation as a consequence of improving productivity and sustainability. In agriculture, potential mitigation actions are promoting agro-forestry systems; HQKDQFLQJPDQDJHPHQWRIDJULFXOWXUDOZDVWHVSURPRWLQJHɝFLHQWIHUWLOL]HUXWLOL]DWLRQDQGSURPRWLQJEHVWDJURQRPLF practices and technologies. Potential mitigation interventions in livestock include promoting manure management practices; promoting appropriate technology for animal feed production; promoting waste management in abattoirs; and improving rangelands productivity and complementary activities. Tanzania has high sequestration potential for GHG due to existing extensive forest cover. Addressing the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation will enhance the contribution of the forest sector to global GHG mitigation H΍RUWV DQG HQKDQFH VXVWDLQDEOH GHYHORSPHQW 3RWHQWLDO PLWLJDWLRQ LQWHUYHQWLRQV LQ IRUHVWU\ LQFOXGH SURPRWLQJ D΍RUHVWDWLRQ DQG UHIRUHVWDWLRQ VXSSRUWLQJ KRXVHKROG HQHUJ\ SODQWDWLRQV WR UHGXFH SUHVVXUH RQ QDWXUDO IRUHVWV supporting capacity building for community based forest carbon assessment; promoting reduction of emissions from deforestation; promoting reduction of emissions from forest degradation; promoting sustainable management of forest; enhancing and conservation of carbon stocks (REDD+ strategy) for forest management. Therefore, it is important to put in place strategies aiming at adapting to climate change and reducing its impacts through research, awareness raising, advocacy, mobilization and empowerment of most vulnerable communities. Adaptive strategies have to be implemented from household, community, and national levels in order to enhance already existing adaptation strategies while designing new ones. One of these strategies is to promote Climate-Smart Agriculture. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 5

1.4 Climate-Smart Agriculture Climate-smart agriculture is “Agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces or removes Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) (mitigation), and enhances achievement of national food security and GHYHORSPHQWJRDOVȋ )$2 +RZHYHULQ7DQ]DQLDQFRQWH[WWKHDGRSWHGGHȴQLWLRQRI&OLPDWH6PDUW$JULFXOWXUH is “agriculture that sustainably increases productivity and income, increases the ability to adapt and build resilience to &OLPDWH&KDQJHDQGHQKDQFHVIRRGDQGQXWULWLRQVHFXULW\ZKLOHDFKLHYLQJPLWLJDWLRQFREHQHȴWVLQOLQHZLWKQDWLRQDO development priorities” (National Task Force Planning Workshop Report, 2016). It ensures sustainable agriculture, based upon integrated management of water, land and ecosystems at landscape scale and includes techniques, such as mulching, intercropping, conservation agriculture, pasture and manure management, and innovative practices, programmes, and policies, such as improved crop varieties, better weather forecasting, and risk insurance. CSA emphasizes on agro-ecological approaches to soil, nutrient, water and ecosystem management with explicit attention to the importance of preserving genetic resources of crops and animals including wild relatives, which are critical in developing resilience to shocks. Outstanding traditional technologies and practices, which follow the concept of CSA as documented by MALF include the Chagga (Kihamba) agroforestry system, the Haya (Kibanja) agro-forestry system, the Luguru ladder terraces and the Matengo Ngoro pits (soil and water conservation). The Chagga agroforestry system is among the oldest and most sustainable forms of upland farming that has been able to support one of the highest rural population densities in Africa (FAO, 2013). All these systems are among the essential agricultural technologies that require complementarities with other resources such as land and water. Given the norms and traditions in relation to the roles of women in agricultural production as well as land tenure system, these technologies and practices face limitation when gender dimension are not taken into consideration. The inadequacy of access for women to essential agriculture development resources does not only increase hardships for women, but it places an extra burden on the entire agriculture sector, the broader economy and society as a whole.

1.4.1 Gender, Youth and Climate-Smart Agriculture *HQGHUDQG&OLPDWH&KDQJHDUHFORVHO\OLQNHG&OLPDWHFKDQJHD΍HFWVGL΍HUHQWJHQGHUJURXSVVXFKDVZRPHQPHQ WKH\RXWKWKHROGWKHSRRUDQGULFKGL΍HUHQWO\ZRPHQDUHVHYHUHO\D΍HFWHGFRPSDUHGWRPHQ7KLVLVEHFDXVH PHQ DQG ZRPHQ DUH ERXQG E\ GLVWLQFW VRFLDO HFRQRPLF UROHV DQG UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV ZKLFK JLYH ULVH WR GL΍HUHQFHV in vulnerabilities and ability to adapt to climate change impacts. Men and women have varying abilities to adapt WR FOLPDWH VKRFNV DQG ORQJHUWHUP FOLPDWH FKDQJH EHFDXVH RI GL΍HUHQWLDWHG DFFHVV WR HQWLWOHPHQWV DVVHWV DQG GHFLVLRQPDNLQJWKLVDELOLW\WRDGDSWLVIXUWKHUFRPSOLFDWHGE\JHQGHUDQGVRFLDOGL΍HUHQFHV<RXWKDQGZRPHQKDYH DGL΍HUHQWGHJUHHRIYXOQHUDELOLW\FRPSDUHGWRWKDWRIPHQIRUPDQ\UHDVRQVLQFOXGLQJWKHLUJUHDWHUGHSHQGHQFH on natural resources for livelihoods, responsibility for food production, water and fuel for their households, more limited assets, and social, cultural and political barriers. With the impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector, the youth exacerbates the situation by engaging themselves in unsustainable activities such as deforestation for timber, farm expansion and charcoal making. Tanzania Agriculture Policy (2013), advocates for the creation of an enabling environment to attract youths in DJULFXOWXUHVHFWRUV<RXWKVWUDWHJ\UHFRJQLVHVWKHQHHGWRGHYHORSDQGSURPRWHRQIDUPDQGR΍IDUPUXUDODFWLYLWLHV as engines of growth, innovation and attractive in terms of jobs for both women and men, in line with decent work concepts; youth-friendly skills development approaches and the creation of young farmer’s organizations, in which CSA will be promoted. Gender is pertinent to CSA hence the need to put emphasis on the importance and ultimate goal of integrating gender in CSA technologies and practices. The aim for integration is to reduce gender inequalities and ensure that PHQDQGZRPHQFDQHTXDOO\EHQHȴWIURPDQ\LQWHUYHQWLRQLQWKHDJULFXOWXUDOVHFWRUVWRUHGXFHULVNVOLQNHGWRFOLPDWH change. Taking a gender responsive approach to CSA means that the particular needs, priorities and realities of men and women are recognized and adequately addressed in the design and application of CSA. Gender transformative 6 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION CSA interventions seek to transform gender roles and promote more gender-equitable relationships between men and women. &OLPDWHVPDUWWHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVKDYHVXEVWDQWLDODQGKLJKO\FRQWH[WVSHFLȴFLPSOLFDWLRQVIRUJHQGHUUROHV 6LPLODUO\ JHQGHU UROHV LQȵXHQFH DQG GULYH WKH DGRSWLRQ RI &6$ WHFKQRORJLHV DQG SUDFWLFHV ΖQ RUGHU WR VXSSRUW ZRPHQȇVDQGPHQȇVHTXDOXSWDNHRIDQGEHQHȴWRIVLWHVSHFLȴF&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVJHQGHUDQDO\VLVDV well as equal participation and engagement of women and men are the key actions to be taken at the outset of any CSA interventions. In general, capacity building of women and youth farmers should be emphasized as their contribution in the household economic activities is considerable. Awareness raising, provision of knowledge and access to information VXFK DV &6$ LQIRUPDWLRQ WR ZRPHQ LQFUHDVHV WKH XOWLPDWH H΍HFW LQ VWUHQJWKHQLQJ WKH UHVLOLHQFH RI KRXVHKROGV communities, and food systems exposed to climate-related shocks and climate change. Women for example are at OHDVWDVZLOOLQJDVPHQWRDGRSWLQQRYDWLYHFOLPDWHVPDUWWHFKQRORJLHVEXWWKH\W\SLFDOO\IDFHGL΍HUHQWDQGRIWHQOHVV visible obstacles such as formal legal or regulatory issues regarding women’s land tenure (women without formal title WRODQGFDQQRWREWDLQFUHGLWWRȴQDQFHFOLPDWHVPDUWLQQRYDWLRQV 7KHUHIRUHWKH\VKRXOGEHKHOSHGWRDFFHVVODQG and tenure security to encourage investment. Social cultural norms are other obstacles that limit women access to productive resources and advisory services. It is a priority to address these restrictions, because they limit women’s ability to adopt new technologies and to build the climate resilience and adaptive capacity of their households and communities. Alternative CSA practices, which can easily be applied by women or disadvantaged people (being low cost, less labour demanding, simple), should be HPSKDVL]HG7HFKQRORJLHVZLWKPXOWLSOHEHQHȴWVVXFKDVDJURIRUHVWU\ZKHUHPXOWLSXUSRVHWUHHVFDQSURYLGHIRUVRLO fertility improvement, fodder for livestock, and fruits for household nutrition and fuel wood for energy are among the CSA practices that are more attractive to women; however, they often need secured land tenure, or communal land to establish a tree nursery. Project implementers are encouraged to use new tools and approaches such as Women’s (PSRZHUPHQWLQ$JULFXOWXUHΖQGH[ :($Ζ DQGWRȴOOWKHNQRZOHGJHJDSV Ζ)35Ζ 

1.5 Policy and Legal Context The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania has put in place sectoral policies, legislations, strategies and plans to enhance agricultural growth, natural resource management and climate change interventions. These include; The 1DWLRQDO$JULFXOWXUH3ROLF\ 857 ZKLFKDLPVDWGHYHORSLQJDQHɝFLHQWFRPSHWLWLYHDQGSURȴWDEOHDJULFXOWXUDO industry that contributes to the improvement of the livelihoods of Tanzanians using agricultural practices that sustain WKHHQYLURQPHQWΖWDOVRVWULYHVWRLPSURYHDGDSWDWLRQPHDVXUHVWRFOLPDWHFKDQJHH΍HFWVDQGGHDOZLWKDOOWKHULVNV involved as well as up-scaling of practices that enhance the carbon storage capacity such as conservation agriculture and agro-forestry. Furthermore, both the Livestock and Fisheries policies (URT, 2006 and URT, 1997) respectively HPSKDVL]H RQ SURGXFWLYH DQG HQYLURQPHQWDOO\ IULHQGO\ OLYHVWRFN DQG ȴVKHULHV KXVEDQGU\ V\VWHPV )HUWLOL]HUV Act, Cap. 378 (2009) provides regulation on utilization of agricultural fertilizers and prohibit the use of fertilizers in a manner that it has adverse impacts on the environment. Plant Protection Act, Cap. 133 (1997) among other things provides for safeguards against pollution of groundwater and the natural environment by plant protection substances. The Tobacco Industry Act (2001) provides regulatory functions for controlling and prescribing measures for the preservation of the environment including avoidance of land degradation through compulsory reforestation and economical use of wood fuel programmes. Finally, the National Irrigation Policy (2010) provides the basis for a IRFXVHGGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHLUULJDWLRQVHFWRUE\HQVXULQJVXVWDLQDELOLW\RIZDWHUIRULUULJDWLRQDQGLWVHɝFLHQWXVHIRU HQKDQFHGFURSSURGXFWLYLW\DQGSURȴWDELOLW\LQRUGHUWRFRQWULEXWHWRIRRGVHFXULW\DQGSRYHUW\UHGXFWLRQ The National Climate Change Strategy (URT, 2012) sets out strategic interventions for climate change adaptation PHDVXUHV DQG JUHHQKRXVH JDV HPLVVLRQV UHGXFWLRQV 7KH JRDO LV WR HQDEOH 7DQ]DQLD WR H΍HFWLYHO\ DGDSW WR DQG SDUWLFLSDWHLQJOREDOH΍RUWVWRPLWLJDWHFOLPDWHFKDQJHZLWKDYLHZWRDFKLHYLQJVXVWDLQDEOHHFRQRPLFJURZWKLQWKH context of the Tanzania’s national development blueprint, Vision 2025; Five Years National Development Plan; and national cross-sectoral policies in line with established international policy frameworks. The National Climate Change Strategy has outlined objectives for all sectors and proposed strategic interventions in those sectors and themes that are highly vulnerable to climate change such as agriculture. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 7 The Agriculture Climate Resilience Plan (URT, 2014) has been developed to implement strategic adaptation and mitigation actions in the crops sub-sector. It presents a wide range of adaptation options including, but not limited to: improving agricultural land and water management, accelerating uptake of CSA, reducing impacts of climate-related shocks through risk management, and strengthening knowledge and systems to targeted climate action. The Climate-Smart Agriculture Programme for Tanzania (2015 – 2025) has the Vision to have an “Agricultural sector that sustainably increases productivity, enhances climate resilience and food security for the national economic development’’ (URT, 2015). This vision is in line with Tanzania National Development Vision 2025. The Climate-smart Agriculture Programme aims to build resilience of agricultural farming systems for enhanced food and nutrition security through six programmatic result areas namely: Improved productivity and incomes; building resilience and DVVRFLDWHGPLWLJDWLRQFREHQHȴWVYDOXHFKDLQLQWHJUDWLRQUHVHDUFKIRUGHYHORSPHQWDQGLQQRYDWLRQVLPSURYLQJDQG sustaining agricultural advisory services; and improved institutional coordination. The CSA programme enhances the implementation of the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) and responds to the 23rd Ordinary African Union Assembly Decisions and Declaration (Malabo Declaration), This CSA guideline has therefore been developed to support the implementation of Tanzania CSA programme. 8 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL RISKS IN TANZANIA CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL RISKS IN TANZANIA 9

2.1 Variability in precipitation and future projections Several studies have been conducted on precipitation projections in Tanzania. For example according to Agrawal et al. (2003), annual precipitation over the whole country is projected to increase by 10percent by 2100. However, seasonal declines of 6percent are projected for June, July, and August, and increases of 16.7percent for December, January, February (Agrawal et al., 2003). Rainfall is projected to increase under A1B scenario (Mourice et al., 2016). This is based on four General Circulation Models (GCMs) that were considered in the study, which were CNRM-CM3, CSIRO-MK3, ECHAM5 and MIROC3.2 medium resolution Global models (CIMP3). On the basis of this study, rainfall amount, duration, distribution and intensity will increase. Other rainfall projections show the increase during the middle of the rainy season (November-April) with all other months is projected to decrease in precipitation (Figure 2.1). Figure 2.1: Changes in precipitation in Tanzania with respect to lower (RCP 4.5) and higher (RCP 8.5) greenhouse gas emissions scenarios (Source: Adapted from URT, 2015) This would result in the rainy season becoming shorter but more intense, and the dry season becoming drier (Figure 2.2) Figure 2.2: Percent change in precipitation in Tanzania by 2080 under the higher RCP 8.5 greenhouse gas emissions scenario based on an ensemble of 19 climate models from the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (Source: Adapted from URT, 2015). 10 CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL RISKS IN TANZANIA Analysis of historical trends of rainfall for most meteorological stations has revealed a decreasing trend in the mean annual rainfall. These decreasing trends have been observed in Arusha, Zanzibar, Iringa and Singida by Matari et al. (2008). A study by Enfors and Gordon (2007) of rainfall records from the Same Meteorological Station from 1957 to 2004 showed that the long rainy season (masika)KDGQRQVLJQLȴFDQWGHFOLQLQJWUHQGZKHUHDVWKHVKRUWUDLQ\VHDVRQ (vuli)UDLQIDOODOWKRXJKKLJKO\YDULDEOHGLGQRWVHHPWRFKDQJH7KHVLJQLȴFDQWFKDQJHZDVREVHUYHGLQWKHGU\VSHOO events of 21 days or longer, which were observed to increase over time. Analysis of rainfall data in the Ngerengere and Morogoro river catchments showed a declining trend in October-January rainfall and increasing trends in April- June rainfall (Ludovick, 2012).

2.2 Temperature Climate trends of monthly temperature across Tanzania have increased by 1 °C over the past decades between the baseline periods of 1961 - 1999 (URT, 2007). An ensemble of the GCM and emission scenarios have projected increase of average annual temperature to 3ºC above the baseline period by the 2050s (Figure 2.3), with the latest projections indicating a high certainty of a 1 °C rise across the country. Figure 2.3: Changes in temperature in Tanzania with respect to lower (RCP 4.5) and higher (RCP 8.5) greenhouse gas emissions scenarios (Source: Adapted from URT, 2015) Analysis of historical trends of temperature by (Matari et al. 2008) using climatological records from 1961 to 2010 in several locations in Tanzania found that across the country, the mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures showed increasing trends. The increasing trend is more pronounced in mean annual minimum temperature as compared to mean annual maximum temperature. For example, the mean annual maximum temperatures for Arusha, Zanzibar, Mbeya and Dodoma show an increasing trend; with Arusha and Mbeya having higher gradient compared to Dodoma and Zanzibar (URT, 2013). Analysis of climatological data from the Same Meteorological Station for the years 1958 to 2007 revealed a pronounced increasing trend of mean annual minimum temperature but a decreasing trend of maximum temperature (Mnimbo, 2013). The Tanzania Meteorological Agency reported increasing trend of mean annual maximum temperature for four Meteorological stations of Songea, Bukoba, Arusha and Zanzibar (Figure 2.4) for the year 1958-2005 (TMA. 2007). CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL RISKS IN TANZANIA 11 y = 0.0207x + 26.277 2 y = 0.0185x + 25.281 R = 0.221 2 R = 0.3975 30 27 Temperature(°C) 26.5 29 26 Temperature(°C) 28 25.5 27 25 24.5 26 24 25 23.5 23 24 23 1958 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 YEAR YEAR a) Songea station b) Bukoba station y = 0.0156x + 25.272 y = 0.0066x + 30.397 2 R = 0.1154 2 R = 0.0817 27.5 32 27 31.5 Temperature(°C) 26.5 26 Temperature(°C) 31 25.5 25 30.5 24.5 24 30 23.5 29.5 23 22.5 29 22 1958 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 YEAR YEAR c) Arusha station d) Zanzibar station Figure 2.4: Mean annual maximum temperature time series for Songea, Bukoba, Arusha and Zanzibar stations (Source: Adapted from TMA, 2007)

2.3 Extreme events Climate change is also expected to increase the severity, duration and frequencies of weather related extreme HYHQWVVXFKDVGURXJKWDQGȵRRGV'URXJKWDQGȵRRGVDFFRXQWIRUXSWRSHUFHQWRIDOOUHFRUGHGQDWXUDOFDODPLWLHV IRUWKHODVW\HDUV &KDQJȇDDQG1GXJDQGD 'URXJKWDQGȵRRGVFDXVHODUJHVFDOHIDPLQHGLVHDVHVDQG deaths to human beings, plants and animals. 'URXJKW HYHQWV DUH FODVVLȴHG LQWR IRXU PDMRU FODVVHV 0HWHRURORJLFDO GURXJKW LQYROYHV WKH SHULRG EHORZ QRUPDO UDLQIDOODQGDERYHQRUPDOWHPSHUDWXUHK\GURORJLFDOGURXJKWLVWKHSHULRGRIEHORZQRUPDOVWUHDPȵRZDQGGHSOHWHG UHVHUYRLUVWRUDJHDJULFXOWXUDOGURXJKWLVWKHSHULRGGXULQJZKLFKVRLOPRLVWXUHLVLQVXɝFLHQWWRVXSSRUWFURSVDQG socio-economic drought is the type where there is low water availability below society’s productive and consumptive demand. According to Chang’a and Nduganda (2008), meteorological drought was reported in Tanzania for the period from 1961-2006, where severe drought (Si>3 Pedya Index) frequency was at 2-8.7percent. The October–December months are reported to experience more severe drought frequency than the March–May months. Compared to the period between 1961 and 1980, the years between 1980 and 2006; experienced more frequent and severe drought HYHQWV7KHVHHYHQWVRFFXUUHGȴYHWLPHV DQG GXULQJWKHODWHUSHULRG &KDQJȇDDQG Nduganda, 2008). $VDUHVXOWRIVHYHUHGURXJKWDQQXDODQGSHUHQQLDOFURSVDUHD΍HFWHG)RUH[DPSOHPDL]HOLYHOLKRRG]RQHVIDFH a general yield decline (URT, 2007) with up to 84percent yield drop in the central regions, 22percent decline in North-Eastern highlands, 17percent decline in the Lake Victoria region, and 10 – 15percent decline in the Southern highlands. %DVHGRQWKH3HG\DLQGH[ 6L H[WUHPHO\ZHWFRQGLWLRQZKLFKWUDQVODWHVLQWRȵRRGKDV6LOHVVRUHTXDOWR0RVW extremely wet conditions in Tanzania can be linked to El-Nino episodes of 1961, 1968 and 1997 (Chang’a and 1GXJDQGD +RZHYHUZLWKSURMHFWHGUDLQIDOOFKDQJHVGXHWRFOLPDWHFKDQJHȵRRGVDUHH[SHFWHGWRLQFUHDVH 12 CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL RISKS IN TANZANIA

2.4 Shifting of Agro-Ecological Zones Impacts of climate change and variability are expected to lead to seasonal shifts. According to URT (2007) increase in temperature by 2-4 degree centigrade will alter the distribution of the agro ecological zones (AEZ). As result, areas that used to grow perennial crops will be suitable for annual crops. These shifts will accelerate plant growth and hence the length of growing seasons. Reductions in crop yield in some parts of the country may be attributed to shifting of the AEZ. In some areas, there is a shift in rainfall patterns from bimodal to unimodal rainfall regimes in some areas. For example Manyara and some parts of Morogoro and Kigoma Regions which have long been characterized by bimodal rainfall distribution are now experiencing a shift towards unimodal rainfall regime (URT, 2008). Productivity of most crops seems to have declined due to changing climate, particularly due to the increasing unreliability of rainfall. However, the production of some crops seems to have improved with the changing climate. For example, the productivity of mangoes and oil palm in the western plateau of Tanzania has increased considerably GXULQJWKHODVW\HDUV .DKLPEDHWDO 3UHYLRXVO\PDQJRDQGRLOSDOPWUHHVSURGXFHGRQO\ȵRZHUVZLWKRXW bearing fruits in the same areas because of cold weather; but today reasonable harvests can be realized from these crops (Kangalawe et al., 2009). Warming of the environment has favoured production of both mango and oil palm in these highland areas.

2.5 Crop Production 5HJLRQDOSUHGLFWLRQVLQGLFDWHWKDW7DQ]DQLDPD\VX΍HUDORVVRIRYHUSHUFHQWRILWVJUDLQSURGXFWLRQE\WKH\HDU  3DUU\ HW DO   7KH FXOWLYDWLRQ RI PDL]H LV OLNHO\ WR EH PRVW QHJDWLYHO\ D΍HFWHG 7KHUH LV FRQVLGHUDEOH XQFHUWDLQW\UHJDUGLQJWKHH΍HFWVRIFOLPDWHFKDQJHRQWKH\LHOGVRIPRVWLPSRUWDQWFDVKFURSVVXFKDVFR΍HHDQG cotton. However, according to Tanzania Initial National Communication (2003), the two cash crops are projected to H[SHULHQFHLQFUHDVHVLQ\LHOGΖQIDFWFR΍HHRXWSXWKDGDVWHDG\LQFUHDVHLQWKHSHULRGWRIROORZHG E\WZRSURQRXQFHGGHFUHDVHVLQDQGZKLFKFDQQRWEHH[SODLQHGE\WKHELRORJLFDOF\FOHRIFR΍HH plants. 7KHVHGURSVLQRXWSXW LQDSHUPDQHQWFURSDVFR΍HH FDQRQO\EHDWWULEXWHGWRSURGXFWLRQ \LHOG SUREOHPVGURXJKW and/or pest attacks. Previous reduction in crop production was most likely associated with the lengthy periods of depressed market with low and unstable prices. In 2003/04, however, the fall in production was also driven by drought problems. Estimates from Crop Environment Resource Synthesis Model (CERES-Maize) (Jones and Kiniry, 1986) show that the average yield decrease over the entire country would be 33percent. However, simulations have indicated that decreases could be as high as 84percent in the central regions of Dodoma and Tabora when the carbon dioxide concentration is doubled. Yields in the north-eastern highlands showed decreases of 22percent, while in the Lake Victoria region decreases of 17percent were indicated. The southern highland areas of Mbeya and Songea were estimated to have decreases of 10-15percent. These reductions are mainly due to decrease in rainfall and increase in temperature that shorten the length of the growing season. Consequently, the continued reliance on maize as a staple food crop over wide areas of the country could be a risk. Change of staple crops to millet and cassava may be necessary in the hinterland. Large-scale extreme events, such as the 1997/98 El Niño, illustrate ways in which many communities are already VX΍HULQJ IURP OHVV SUHGLFWDEOH DQG PRUH H[WUHPH ZHDWKHU SDWWHUQV 7KH  (O 1L³R IRU H[DPSOH UHVXOWHG LQFHUHDOGHȴFLWDWPHWULFWRQVLQ7DQ]DQLD7KH/D1L³DHYHQWRIZDVUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHVHYHUH drought that occurred in most parts of Tanzania leading to widespread crop failure. In 2005 the agricultural sector grew by only 5.2percent compared to 5.8percent growth in 2004 and GDP was WDUJHWHGWRJURZE\SHUFHQWEXWLWJUHZE\SHUFHQW7KLVZDVDWWULEXWHGWRVHYHUHGURXJKWWKDWD΍HFWHGPRVW parts of the country, triggering food shortage and power crisis (URT, 2005). According to the Agriculture Climate Resilient Plan (URT, 2014), the potential impacts of higher temperatures on crop CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL RISKS IN TANZANIA 13 agriculture is largely on water availability and pests and diseases, including possible expansion of pest and disease UDQJHVDQGVLJQLȴFDQWLPSDFWVRQVRLOPRLVWXUHDQGIHUWLOLW\GXHWRLQFUHDVLQJHYDSRUDWLYHORVVHV6WXGLHVE\3HUIHFW and Majule (2010) also indicated that climate change and variability pose a serious challenge to irrigated agriculture DQGZDWHUVHFWRUVZKLFKUHTXLUHVVSHFLȴFLQWHUYHQWLRQVWRVXVWDLQSURGXFWLYLW\

2.6 Livestock Production and Aquaculture Climate change is expected to further shrink the rangelands which are important for livestock production in Tanzania. Impacts of climate change and variability are expected to lead to pasture and water shortages. According to Coulibaly et al., (2015), 40percent of pastoralists in Arusha and 26percent of agro-pastoralists in Kiteto and Longido districts LGHQWLȴHG FOLPDWH YDULDELOLW\ DQG H[WUHPH FOLPDWH HYHQWV HVSHFLDOO\ GURXJKW DV WKH PDMRU FKDOOHQJH WR VXVWDLQHG livestock productivity due to water scarcity and lack of adequate good quality pasture. Because of drought, livestock deaths are frequent in these pastoral districts, forcing them to migrate to other areas in search of pasture and/or sell part of their herds to cope with food insecurity. The impacts on aquaculture from climate change will likely be both positive and negative arising from direct and LQGLUHFWLPSDFWVRQQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVUHTXLUHGIRUDTXDFXOWXUHWKHPDMRULVVXHVEHLQJZDWHUODQGȴVKVHHGIHHG and energy. Increased temperature brings about associated changes in the hydrology of water bodies, exacerbates the occurrence of algal blooms and red tides etc. These factors can have important impacts on aquaculture. The potential indirect impacts are associated with global warming, sea level rising, ocean productivity and changes LQ FLUFXODWLRQ SDWWHUQV FKDQJHV LQ PRQVRRQ DQG RFFXUUHQFH RI H[WUHPH FOLPDWLF HYHQWV HJ ȵRRGV FKDQJHV LQ monsoonal rain patterns and storminess), water stress and changes in hydrological regimes in inland waters. Unlike other farmed animals, all cultured aquatic animal species and plants for human consumption are poikilothermic (their internal temperatures varies considerably). Consequently, any rise and/or decrease of the KDELWDWWHPSHUDWXUHVZRXOGKDYHDVLJQLȴFDQWLQȵXHQFHRQJHQHUDOPHWDEROLVPDQGKHQFHWKHUDWHRIJURZWKDQG WKHUHIRUHWRWDOSURGXFWLRQUHSURGXFWLRQVHDVRQDOLW\DQGHYHQUHSURGXFWLYHHɝFDF\ UHODWLYHIHFXQGLW\DQGQXPEHU of spawning); increased susceptibility to diseases and toxicants. Climate change induces temperature variations that impacts on spatial distribution of aquatic species. Aquaculture occurs in fresh water, marine and brackish water, each suited to particular group of aquatic species ZLWKSDUWLFXODUSK\VLRORJLFDOWUDLWV&OLPDWHFKDQJHLVOLNHO\WREULQJVLJQLȴFDQWFKDQJHVZLWKUHVSHFWWRVDOLQLW\DQG WHPSHUDWXUHV LQ EUDFNLVK ZDWHUV DQG WKHUHIRUH PD\ LQȵXHQFH DTXDFXOWXUH SURGXFWLRQ LQ VXFK HQYLURQPHQW 7KH PRVW REYLRXV DQG FRPPRQO\ LQGLUHFW LPSDFW RI FOLPDWH FKDQJH RQ DTXDFXOWXUH LV UHODWHG WR ȴVKPHDO DQG ȴVK RLO supplies and their concurrent usage in aquaculture. These are important if aquaculture is considered to promote food security.

2.7 Biophysical Drivers of Vulnerability

2.7.1 Infrastructure In Tanzania, land based road travel is the dominant mode of transport and accounts for over 80percent of passenger WUDɝFDQGRYHUSHUFHQWRIIUHLJKWWUDɝF7KHURDGQHWZRUNGHQVLW\LQ7DQ]DQLDLVPHWUHVSHUVTXDUHNP RU 5.0 metres per square km for paved roads). Tanzania has one of the lowest road densities in Africa, meaning that a large part of Tanzania is inaccessible. On the other hand, the railway network operates erratically. For example the TAZARA Railway which operates between Dar es Salaam and Zambia faces this challenge. The inaccessibility, especially in the rural areas makes travel burdensome, transport costs become too high, and crop markets become too far. The magnitude of each of these problems is felt more during the long rains than in short rains. Thus transport becomes a major driver of vulnerability to climate change in the country. 14 CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL RISKS IN TANZANIA

2.7.2 Water Resources ΖQFUHDVLQJUDLQIDOOYDULDELOLW\DQGSURORQJHGGURXJKWVOHDGWRSUHVVXUHRQWKHFRXQWU\ȆVDYDLODEOHZDWHUUHVRXUFHV 6HYHUHDQGUHFXUUHQWGURXJKWVLQWKHSDVWIHZ\HDUVWULJJHUHGDGHFUHDVHLQZDWHUȵRZVLQULYHUVKHQFHVKULQNDJHRI receiving lakes, declines of water levels in satellite lakes and hydropower dams. Furthermore, some of the perennial rivers have changed to seasonal rivers and some wetlands have dried up (URT 2007). 7KXV ZDWHU DV D ȴQLWH UHVRXUFH LV XQGHU SUHVVXUH EHFDXVH RI FOLPDWH FKDQJH DQG YDULDELOLW\ GHJUDGDWLRQ GXH WR pollution, over-abstraction, and encroachment of water catchments for various land uses including agriculture. This scarcity and vulnerability has negative impacts on crop production by making it have lower yields over time. Increased population in major watersheds will put pressure on water resources as a result of climate change in terms of the quantity abstracted and also siltation and sedimentation of rivers as a result of soil erosion. Socially, the impacts of climate change on water resources are felt by the whole society regardless of gender. However, ZKHUHZDWHUVRXUFHVDUHGHSOHWHGRUTXDOLW\FRPSURPLVHGZRPHQDQGFKLOGUHQDUHWKHPRVWD΍HFWHG due to their vulnerability.

2.7.3 Soil Erosion and Land Degradation &OLPDWH FKDQJH ZLOO KDYH WZRIROG H΍HFWV RQ VRLO HURVLRQ RQ WKH ODQGVFDSH $GKLNDUL HW DO   'LUHFW H΍HFW RI climate change is in the event of increased precipitation, in terms of amounts and intensity which translates into high erosivity. In the event of decreased precipitation and increased temperature as a result of climate change, soil moisture content is decreased, thus the landscape becomes incapable of supporting dense vegetation that becomes sparse with time. 7KHUHIRUHLQVXɝFLHQWYHJHWDWLRQFRYHUPD\DFFHOHUDWHVRLOHURVLRQDQGLWVQHJDWLYHH΍HFWVWRWKHFRPPXQLW\/DQG XVH FKDQJH DV DQ DGDSWDWLRQ VWUDWHJ\ WR FOLPDWH FKDQJH PD\ D΍HFW WKH UDWH DW ZKLFK D JURZLQJ FURS FRYHUV WKH JURXQGDQGKHQFHD΍HFWWKHUXQR΍3RRUIDUPHUVZKRDUHQRWPRWLYDWHGWRDGRSWVRLOFRQVHUYDWLRQPHWKRGVZLOO be on high risk of losing their productive surface soil to erosion. The latter will be worsened by nutrient mining where the extraction of mineral nutrients through crop removal is higher than replenishment through fertilizers and organic matter. According to National Sample Census of Agriculture (Small Holder Agriculture Volume II) the number of households reported to have soil erosion problem was 779,563 accounting for 13percent of total agricultural KRXVHKROGVLQYROYHGΖQFR΍HHEDQDQDIDUPLQJV\VWHPVVRLOHURVLRQLVOHVVVHYHUHWKDQLQRWKHUV\VWHPVIRUWZR UHDVRQVȴUVWLVWKHFRQWLQXRXVYHJHWDWLRQFRYHUXQOLNHLQRWKHUV\VWHPVDQGVHFRQGLVWKDWLQFR΍HHEDQDQDV\VWHP WKHLQDQGRXWȵRZVRIQXWULHQWVLVVRPHZKDWEDODQFHGXQOLNHLQRWKHUV\VWHPVZKHUHKDUYHVWLQJLQYROYHVSXOOLQJ WKHZKROHSODQWVZLWKWKHLUURRWVVXFKWKDWWKHȴHOGGRHVQRWEHQHȴWIURPQXWULHQWUHF\FOLQJ .DLKXUDet al., 2001). In pastoral livelihood zone (e.g. Loliondo) and semi-arid sorghum livestock livelihood zone (e.g. Dodoma) where soil cover is virtually non-existent, soil erosion is widespread, resulting in huge gullies, thus reducing land productivity.

2.7.4 Pests and Diseases Warmer temperatures, wetter climates and increased carbon dioxide levels are also projected to favour increase in LQVHFWSHVWVDQGIXQJLOHDGLQJWRLQFUHDVHLQWKHXVHRISHVWLFLGHVDQGIXQJLFLGHVZKLFKPD\QHJDWLYHO\D΍HFWKXPDQ health and the environment. The severity of crop pests or diseases and emergence of new invasive pests or diseases is also changing. For example, African army worm moth (Spodoptera exempta Walk.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) outbreak follows a prolonged drought period and its lifecycle depends on the prevailing temperature. Banana Xanthomonas wilt, (BXW), a new deadly banana wilt pathogen, is thought to have emerged due to climate change and is posing a WKUHDWWREDQDQDSURGXFWLRQLQFR΍HHEDQDQDOLYHOLKRRG]RQHV0RQJLet al. (2010) reported that farmers had the perception that food security problems were caused by prevalence of crop pest and disease due to climate change in the cotton-paddy-cattle livelihood zone. FAO (2008) Climate Change and Food Security Framework document points out that meteorological conditions as a result of climate change may become favourable for some animal and plant pests and diseases and unfavourable for others, thus enabling pests and diseases to establish in new CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL RISKS IN TANZANIA 15 areas that were previously unsuitable. Also new animal or plant pests and diseases may emerge due to natural VHOHFWLRQE\DQGDGDSWDWLRQWRQHZPHWHRURORJLFDOFRQGLWLRQV$OWKRXJKWKHH΍HFWVRIFOLPDWHFKDQJHRQDQLPDO plant pest and pathogen species distribution, severity and frequency of incidence of pest and disease has not been ZHOOGRFXPHQWHGLQ7DQ]DQLDWKHUHLVDJHQHUDOSHUFHSWLRQWKDWWKHLQFUHDVHLQWHPSHUDWXUHRUUDLQIDOOZLOOD΍HFW pests and disease dynamics. Nonetheless, pest and diseases intensity is higher in wet and humid livelihood zones than in arid and less humid livelihoods.

2.8 Socio-Economic Drivers of Vulnerability

2.8.1 Population Based on the 2002 Population and Housing Census, Tanzania was reported to have a population of about 34,569, 232, with 33,584,607 from mainland with an annual average growth rate (1988 to 2002) of 2.9percent (URT, 2002). By 2012 the country had about 44.5 million people (of which 21.9 million were male and 22.6 million female) (URT, 2013). The average household size was estimated at 4.9 and the population density was estimated to be 39 persons per sq.km. Rapid urbanization is taking place in the country. Whilst the urban population was only 4percent of the national population at independence in 1961, it rose to 23percent in the 2002 national population census. With this trend, it is estimated that by the year 2030, 50percent of the national population will be urbanized through natural growth, inward migration and transformation of rural settlements into urban centers. History shows that over the years of SUH DQG SRVWLQGHSHQGHQFH RI PDQ\ GHYHORSLQJ FRXQWULHV WKH GL΍HUHQFH LQ OLYHOLKRRG EHWZHHQ XUEDQ DQG UXUDO areas has catalyzed rural-urban migration. Recently, climate change and other extreme weather events have caused instability in peasant farmer activities in rural areas hence aggravating rural to urban migration. One factor for gradual growth in urban areas compared to rural areas may be failure of the agricultural system, causing rural populations to migrate into urban centres in search of alternative livelihood strategies. Although total population growth rate has been decreasing in Tanzania, there is dissimilarity between urban and rural population growth rates. &RQȵLFWV 0DQ\FRQȵLFWVHPDQDWHIURPWUDQVERXQGDU\UHVRXUFHFRPSHWLWLRQHLWKHUEHWZHHQSDVWRUDOLVWVDQGFURSSURGXFHUV RUZLOGOLIHDQGSDVWRUDOLVWVRUFURSSURGXFHUV&RQȵLFWVDUHDUHVXOWRIFRPELQHGH΍HFWVRIFOLPDWHFKDQJHZKHUH rangelands cannot sustain wildlife population in terms of water and forage due to droughts and high temperature or loss of habitat. Change in forage species composition, and habitat characteristics may force wild animals to seek DOWHUQDWLYHVIURPKXPDQVHWWOHPHQWVDQGKHQFHFDXVHFRQȵLFWV2QWKHRWKHUKDQGDQWKURSRJHQLFIDFWRUVVXFKDV HQFURDFKPHQWODQGIUDJPHQWDWLRQDQGGHVWUXFWLRQPD\FDXVHFRQȵLFWV)RUH[DPSOHLQFUHDVHGZDWHUDEVWUDFWLRQ for rice cultivation in the Katuma river system of the maize-rice farming system has been reported to cause water shortage problems for wildlife in Katavi National Park (Elisa et al., 2011). Prolonged dry season and increased rainfall variability negatively impact on forage and water availability for livestock, FRPSHOOLQJSDVWRUDOLVWVWRPLJUDWHWRGLVWDQWDUHDVLQVHDUFKRIZDWHUDQGSDVWXUH$VDUHVXOWFRQȵLFWVEHWZHHQFURS producers and pastoralists arise and sometimes with severe human casualties, for example in the sugarcane farming regions of Morogoro, Kagera and Kilimanjaro, and sisal farming regions of Morogoro, Tanga, Coast and Lindi in which also pastoralists are found. 0DMRUFRQȵLFWSURQHUHJLRQVLQFOXGHWKRVHZKLFKKDUERUODUJHKHUGVRIFDWWOHHVSHFLDOO\ULFHIDUPLQJ]RQHLQWKH Usangu plains where large herds of livestock from elsewhere have migrated into for the water and pasture. Since models predict that southern Tanzania is projected to receive increased precipitation than central and northern SDUWVRIWKHFRXQWU\ 0RXULFHHWDO WKHUHLVDSRWHQWLDOFRQȵLFWEHWZHHQOLYHVWRFNKHUGHUVDQGFURSSURGXFHUV 7KLVLVEHFDXVHZDWHUDQGIRUDJHVXSSO\PD\QRWEHDGHTXDWHIRUODUJHSRSXODWLRQRIOLYHVWRFNDVDUHVXOWRILQȵX[ into the southern region from other parts of the country. 16 CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 17

3.1 Rationale and History of the Guideline Climate-Smart Agriculture contributes to a cross-cutting range of development goals. The CSA guideline opens up many opportunities for capturing synergies between the pillars of climate-smart agriculture and for being aware of WKHSRWHQWLDOWUDGHR΍V&6$LVDPXOWLVHFWRUDODSSURDFKDVLWLQYROYHVVHFWRUVVXFKDVFURSOLYHVWRFNȴVKHU\ODQG forestry, and water. The guideline provides a platform for application of sustainable approaches and practices across the agricultural, food security and climate change related policies at all levels. The Agricultural sector must become climate-smart to successfully tackle current food security and climate change challenges. Agriculture, including crop, OLYHVWRFNIRUHVWU\DQGȴVKHULHVLVFUXFLDOIRUIRRGVHFXULW\DQGUXUDOLQFRPHVDVZHOODVRWKHUHVVHQWLDOSURGXFWVVXFK DVHQHUJ\ȴEUHIHHGDQGDUDQJHRIHFRV\VWHPVHUYLFHV 6RPH H΍HFWLYH FOLPDWHVPDUW SUDFWLFHV DOUHDG\ H[LVW DQG FRXOG EH VFDOHGXS 7KLV FDQ RQO\ EH GRQH ZLWK VHULRXV investments in building the knowledge base and developing suitable technology and approaches. Early action is needed to identify pilot and scale-up best practices, strengthen institutional capacities, and build experiences that can help stakeholders to make informed decisions to adopt climate-smart agricultural practices. The CSA guideline will provide an avenue for having shared approaches and strategies. The idea to prepare the CSA guideline started during the development of Agriculture Climate Resilient Plan (ACRP 2014 - 2019) in 2014. The preparation of the ACRP is also a result of the Ministry’s initiatives for the implementation of the National Climate Change Strategy. The Ministry through the ACRP recognises that the development of a CSA guideline would assist in the successful implementation of CSA practices in the country. This initiative is in line with the Malabo Declaration on Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Transformation for Shared Prosperity and Improved Livelihoods through Harnessing Opportunities for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development. It is expected that the CSA guideline will assist in the planning of sustainable use of natural resources and enhance ecosystem management, which in turn will result in improvement of peoples’ livelihoods and poverty alleviation in the country. In October 2014, by then Ministry of Agriculture Food Security and Cooperatives (MAFC), in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Agro-forestry Centre in Tanzania (ICRAF) and CARE-Tanzania organized a National Climate Change and Agriculture Workshop. The purpose of the workshop was to share evidence and experience on Climate-Smart Agriculture in Tanzania in order to build the case for accelerating WKHDGRSWLRQRI&6$LQWKHFRXQWU\7KHZRUNVKRSZDVFRQGXFWHGDVDȴQDORXWSXWRIWKH0Ζ&&$SURMHFWOHGE\)$2 and jointly implemented by FAO, ICRAF and CARE-Tanzania (Rioux et al., 2016). In line with this event, MALF by then MAFC presented the Agriculture Climate Resilience Plan (ACRP 2014 - 2019) that intends to implement strategic interventions for adaptation and mitigation of Climate Change and its impacts. Increasing yield through CSA is among the four Priority Resilience Actions proposed in the ACRP. Other actions are: Improvement of Agricultural Land and Water; Protecting the most vulnerable against climate related shocks; and strengthening the Knowledge Systems to target Climate Actions. During the national workshop, participants recommended the development of a CSA guideline. The stakeholders clearly pointed out the need to develop the guideline to inform implementation and up-scaling of CSA practices in Tanzania. The guideline, once developed would streamline the implementation process. A team of experts was therefore formed to lead the process.

3.2 Objectives of the Guideline i. 7RJXLGHLGHQWLȴFDWLRQRIVXLWDEOHWHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVIRUVXFFHVVIXOLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI&6$WRHQKDQFH agricultural production; ii. 7RJXLGHLQLGHQWLȴFDWLRQRIDSSURDFKHVDQGNH\UHTXLUHPHQWVIRUVXFFHVVIXO&6$LPSOHPHQWDWLRQDQG iii. To facilitate planning for implementation and up-scaling of CSA. 18 CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

3.3 Target Audience and Uses of the Guideline 7KH VFRSH RI WKLV JXLGHOLQH LV ȴUVW DQG IRUHPRVW WR GHVFULEH WKH &6$ WHFKQRORJLHV DQG SUDFWLFHV WR KHOS XVHUV understand them. The primary users of the guideline are the districts development planners and extension agents. The guideline also targets policy makers and private sectors engaging in agricultural related activities, practitioners such as researchers from private and public sectors, farmers and also the CSOs (NGOs, FBOs and CBOs). The JXLGHOLQHWDNHVLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQWKHDJURHFRORJLFDO]RQHVLQ7DQ]DQLDWRIDFLOLWDWHWKHLGHQWLȴFDWLRQDQGXSVFDOLQJ of CSA technologies and practices. 7KLVJXLGHOLQHLVGHYHORSHGIRUJXLGLQJGL΍HUHQWSHRSOHLQSURPRWLQJDQGDGRSWLQJFOLPDWHVPDUWDJULFXOWXUHSUDFWLFHV in Tanzania. It is therefore useful for planners and extension agents. Planners will use this guideline to plan and budget for agricultural development by considering the current climate change and climate variability. Planners can also use this guideline to facilitate community level planning. For extension agents, this guideline will aim to sensitize, mobilize, train and supervise smallholder farmers to adopt agricultural practices considered climate- smart. This guideline is a strategic document to implement the ACRP Action 2 of Accelerating uptake of CSA and the Tanzania CSA programme (2015 - 2025). Therefore, it is also addressed to policy and decision makers who will use it to make evidence-informed decisions and programming. Additionally, the guideline can be used for the following purposes: i. Informing policy makers to formulate policies and regulations and support strategies, programmes, plans and related incentives for CSA implementation and up-scaling; ii. Guiding development actors, extension services, research institutions and private sector to promote CSA practices and technologies; iii. Create awareness, building knowledge and capacity on CSA as an approach for climate change mainstreaming and environmental management in the agriculture sector; and iv. Monitoring of CSA implementation.

3.4 Methodology

3.4.1 Task Team Formation and Tasks Undertaken MAFC through the Environment Management Unit (EMU) formed a task team of 18 members to prepare the CSA guideline under the leadership of the Head of the Environment Management Unit (HEMU). The Task team (Annex 1) ZDVFRPSRVHGRISHRSOHIURPGL΍HUHQWVHFWRUVLQFOXGLQJSXEOLFDQGSULYDWHDVZHOODV&62V7KHWHDPFRPSULVHG experts from agriculture, environment, climate and development and related sectors. The main activities of the Task Team were to prepare and organize an inception workshop; Information seeking and data gathering; data analysis and drafting of the CSA Guideline; preparation of a consultative stakeholders’ workshop; presentation of the ȴQGLQJVDQGWKH'UDIW&6$*XLGHOLQHGXULQJWKHFRQVXOWDWLYHVWDNHKROGHUVȇZRUNVKRSLQFRUSRUDWLRQRIFRPPHQWV DQGUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVSURYLGHGE\WKHVWDNHKROGHUVDQGȴQDOL]DWLRQRIWKH&6$*XLGHOLQHV

3.4.2 Inception Workshop The inception workshop was organized to review the Terms of Reference of the task team. In addition, it also paved the way for the preparation of the implementation road map towards developing the CSA guideline. The inception workshop also directed the processes and the tools for developing the guideline. During the inception workshop, WKHDFWLRQSODQZDVGHYHORSHGIRUJDWKHULQJDQGDQDO\VLQJGDWDDQGLQIRUPDWLRQFRPSLOLQJȴQGLQJVDQGGUDIWLQJWKH JXLGHOLQH7KHQWKHWDVNWHDPZDVGLYLGHGLQWRIRXUVPDOOJURXSVIRUFRQGXFWLQJȴHOGZRUNLQVHOHFWHGDJURFOLPDWLF and agro-ecological zones to gather the required information for preparing the guideline. The team also drafted the content outline of the CSA Guideline. This was intended to guide the data collection exercise during the baseline survey. CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 19

3.4.3 Baseline Survey The baseline survey was conducted to document current agricultural technologies and practices in the country based on the livelihood and agro-ecological zones (AEZ). The country has 16 livelihood zones in 18 regions that overlay 64 AEZ (Annex 2). The criteria for site selection were a purposive selection based on agro-climatic zones (Annex 3), livelihood zones and AEZ (Table 1). Description of the study sites are shown in Annex 4. Small groups of the task team members visited selected agro-ecological zones to gather information by using semi- structured questionnaires. The team interviewed 600 farmers, 25 extension agents, 6 civil society organizations, 2 SURJUDPPHOHDGHUVUHVHDUFKLQVWLWXWLRQVSULYDWHVHFWRUUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVDQGGLVWULFWRɝFHUV UHIHU0$)& - CSA Baseline Survey Report, 2015). The task team then continued with the analysis of the information gathered DQGWKHUHDIWHUFRPSLOHGȴQGLQJVIRUWKHSUHSDUDWLRQRIWKH&6$JXLGHOLQH7KHORFDWLRQRIWKHVWXG\VLWHVZLWKLQWKH agro-climatic and agro-ecological zones are shown in Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2 respectively. The methods used for conducting the survey included preparation of checklists, questionnaires, observations and FRQYHUVDWLRQVZLWKGLVWULFWRɝFLDOV7KHW\SHRILQIRUPDWLRQFROOHFWHGZHUHPDLQO\RQH[LVWLQJOLYHOLKRRGVH[LVWLQJ technologies and practices and their climate-smart potential, climate change impacts and climate information services available, situation analysis and institutional framework that govern implementation of agricultural technologies and practices. The types of tools used were: face to face semi-structured questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions, and VHFRQGDU\GDWD7KHUHVSRQGHQWVLQYROYHGLQWKHVWXG\ZHUHIDUPHUVH[WHQVLRQRɝFHUVSULYDWHVHFWRUFLYLOVRFLHW\ organizations and higher learning institutions and researchers. The survey was conducted in the villages of the chosen District Councils. Table 1: Study Sites in Agro-climatic and Livelihood Zones Agro-Climatic Region/District Ward/Village AEZ Livelihood Zone* Zone C Pwani – Bagamoyo Kiwangwa C1 7UHHFURSVȴVKLQJFRDVWDO C Pwani - Bagamoyo Zinga C2/C3 7UHHFURSVȴVKLQJFRDVWDO C Dar-es-salaam - Temeke Chamazi C2 7UHHFURSVȴVKLQJFRDVWDO B Lindi Mchinga C2/C3 7UHHFURSVȴVKLQJFRDVWDO C Tanga - Pangani Madanga C4/C1 7UHHFURSVȴVKLQJFRDVWDO D Tanga - Korogwe Magoma E2 Sisal Sugarcane cattle D Mtwara - Newala Chikwedu – Mcholi I E5 Maize cassava cashew and sesame B Morogoro - Mvomero Dakawa E9 Sisal sugarcane cattle C Kilimanjaro - Moshi Iwa – Kirua Vunjo I N4 &R΍HH%DQDQD+XPLG+LJKODQGV C Arusha - Arumeru Makiba N5 Pastoral A Manyara - Babati Gedamar - Gallapo E2 Pastoral A Dodoma Chololo – Kikombo P9 Semi-Arid Sorghum Livestock Lake Tanganyika Fishing Maize E Kigoma – Kigoma Ujiji Kagera and Kibirizi W2 6XQȵRZHU B Tabora - Nzega Usagari - Magengati P3 Cotton-Paddy Rice-Cattle Midlands A Mwanza – Misungwi Nange – Igokelo P8 E Ruvuma - Namtumbo Msindo E7 Maize Tobacco E Kigoma – Buhigwe Mwayaya W2 &R΍HH%DQDQD+XPLG+LJKODQGV Tree Plantation with Pyrethrum D ΖULQJD0XȴQGL 0DȴQJDȂ/\DVD H1 and Tea C Iringa Urban Kising’a - Igingilangi H1 Rice Maize Bimodal E Songwe - Mbozi Ihanda H5 &R΍HH%DQDQD+XPLG+LJKODQGV E Rukwa - Sumbawanga Mollo – Ulinji U Rice Maize Bimodal * (Source: Perfect and Majule, 2010) 20 CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY Figure 3.1: The study sites in the agro climatic zones and regions based on Pidwirny, 2006 CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 21 Figure 3.2: The study sites in the agro-ecological zones based on De Pauw, 1984

3.4.4 Compilation of the CSA Guideline 'L΍HUHQWVHFWLRQVRIWKH*XLGHOLQHZHUHGUDIWHGE\VPDOOHUJURXSVRIWKHWDVNWHDPDQGODWHUFRPSLOHGDOOWRJHWKHU 7KHVPDOOHUJURXSVUHYLHZHGWKHȴQGLQJVIURPWKHȴHOGEDVHOLQHVXUYH\DQGDOVRFURVVFKHFNHGWKHPZLWKLQIRUPDWLRQ from various literature and expert knowledge to prepare the zero draft. The zero draft was then shared with stakeholders for inputs and further reviewed by the team to incorporate the comments from the stakeholders. 22 CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

3.4.5 Stakeholders Workshop and Validation $VWDNHKROGHUVȇZRUNVKRSZDVFRQYHQHGLQZKLFKWKH)LQDO'UDIWRI&6$*XLGHOLQHZDVSUHVHQWHG7KHȴQDOL]DWLRQ RIWKHJXLGHOLQHZDVGRQHE\LQFRUSRUDWLQJLQSXWVIURPWKHYDOLGDWLRQZRUNVKRSVKDULQJRIWKHUHȴQHGGUDIWZLWK VWDNHKROGHUVSURGXFWLRQRIWKHȴQDOGUDIWSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHȴQDOGUDIWWR0$/)PDQDJHPHQWWHDPIRURZQHUVKLS presentation of the document to the Minister of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries for endorsement and approval. Thereafter, CSA Guideline dissemination plan was developed.

3.4.6 Limitations One of the major limitations was that the team could not cover all the 64 AEZ in the country, and only 16 were FRYHUHG7KLV*XLGHOLQHLVWKHUHIRUHDȴUVWDWWHPSWDQGLWVKRXOGEHXSGDWHGIURPWLPHWRWLPHLQRUGHUWRFRYHURWKHU regions and AEZ of the country. CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 23 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 24 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES

4.1 Climate Change Impacts and Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies

4.1.1 Perceptions Results from the baseline survey show that climate change has already occurred and has caused negative impacts on agriculture. In all agro-climatic zones visited, 60-100 per cent of farmers reported perceiving impacts of climate change (Annex 5). To a great extent farmers are knowledgeable on issues related to climate change in Tanzania. Findings from the baseline survey indicated that farmers also had some knowledge (though limited) on climate-smart agriculture. The local farmers for example noted changes in temperature, rainfall and wind, which they associated ZLWKFOLPDWHFKDQJH7KHFKDQJHVKDYHD΍HFWHGWKHLUOLYHOLKRRGDFWLYLWLHVHVSHFLDOO\DJULFXOWXUHDQGOLYHVWRFNNHHSLQJ This shows that local farmers understand climate change in terms of its impacts and that they are the ones hardest hit by climate change. In various places, as noted also by scholars, crops have failed due to prolonged droughts or extreme precipitation. This was pointed out by various categories of respondents, who were interviewed including farmers, extension RɝFHUV1*2VSULYDWHVHFWRUDQGUHVHDUFKHUVIURP$JULFXOWXUDO5HVHDUFKΖQVWLWXWHV $5ΖV DQG8QLYHUVLWLHV$OOWKH respondents perceived that the impacts of climate change are evident in their areas. Responses from majority of IDUPHUV DGPLWWHG WKDW FOLPDWH FKDQJH KDV DOUHDG\ RFFXUUHG DQG WKH LPSDFWV KDYH D΍HFWHG WKHP $OWKRXJK WKH impacts varied from one place to another, the most common impacts observed and witnessed include changes in rainfall amount and distribution, temperature rises and change in wind patterns. Other impacts stated were shift in agricultural seasons and increase in rainfall variability, incidence of pests and diseases and frequency of extreme weather events, particularly drought. 6LPLODUO\UHVHDUFKHUVH[WHQVLRQRɝFHUV1*2VDQGSULYDWHVHFWRUDOVRDFNQRZOHGJHGWKDWFOLPDWHFKDQJHLVUHDODQG the impacts have caused challenges in agricultural production among smallholder farmers. According to agriculture H[WHQVLRQ RɝFHUV FOLPDWH FKDQJH KDV QHJDWLYHO\ LPSDFWHG WKH DJULFXOWXUH VHFWRU GXH WR LWV KLJK GHSHQGHQF\ RQ UDLQIDOO7KH\LQVLVWHGWKDWFKDQJHVLQZHDWKHUDUHD΍HFWLQJWKHDJULFXOWXUHVHFWRUHVSHFLDOO\FURSSURGXFWLRQDQG livestock keeping.

4.1.2 Adaptation Strategies ΖQYLHZRIWKHREVHUYHGLPSDFWVGL΍HUHQWVWUDWHJLHVDUHEHLQJHPSOR\HGWRDGDSWWRWKHFKDQJLQJFOLPDWH$OWKRXJK the strategies varied from place to place, in most places they included early land preparation, early planting, dry planting, planting of drought tolerant crops, planting of early maturing crops, mulching, irrigation, tree planting, and the use of indigenous knowledge (Annex 4). Other strategies include replanting, intercropping, crop rotation, minimum tillage, use of water harvesting pits, digging irrigation trenches and terracing. Livestock farmers also adapt by growing grasses and perennial fodders, using farm by products and doing additional activities such as crop farming. In addition to farmers’ initiatives, extension agents build the capacity of farmers to adapt to climate change impacts by promoting the use of improved seeds (short maturing and drought resistant crop varieties) and adoption of improved agricultural practices that conserve soils and water (such as intercropping, minimum tillage and water harvesting technologies), ridging and agroforestry. They also promote appropriate use of fertilizers, manure application, crop rotation, ox-ploughing, drip irrigation, agro-processing, mushroom cultivation, mulching and use of water harvesting pits. In livestock production, extension agents promote use of improved livestock breed, improved OLYHVWRFN PDQDJHPHQW DUWLȴFLDO LQVHPLQDWLRQ PLON YDOXH DGGLWLRQ LPSURYHG IRGGHU DQG VXSSOHPHQWDO IHHGLQJ RI concentrates. Also they have been training farmers through Farmer Field Schools (FFS), demonstrations, study WRXUVȴHOGH[FKDQJHYLVLWVDQGH[KLELWLRQV/LYHVWRFNNHHSHUVDUHHQFRXUDJHGWRSUDFWLFHFURSIDUPLQJLQDGGLWLRQ to keeping animals and these strategies are promoted through group training and follow up, engaging with policy makers and using of research institutions for demonstrations. 5HVHDUFKLQVWLWXWLRQVVXFKDV68$DQG$5ΖVDUHSURPRWLQJGL΍HUHQWFOLPDWHUHODWHGWHFKQRORJLHVSUDFWLFHVLQFOXGLQJ 6\VWHPRI5LFHΖQWHQVLȴFDWLRQ 65Ζ XVHRIZDWHUKDUYHVWLQJSLWVSRFNHWNLWFKHQJDUGHQVUDLQZDWHUKDUYHVWLQJXVH of weather information through knowledge sharing, face to face meetings, village meetings, workshops and training. ARIs are also conducting various climate change research initiatives and develop various improved seeds and breeds CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 25 FURSVOLYHVWRFNDQGȴVK WKDWDUHKLJKO\SURGXFWLYHGURXJKWWROHUDQWDQGGLVHDVHUHVLVWDQW NGOs promote climate-smart technologies and practices through training, radios, seminars, demonstrations, FFS and integrating approaches. In crop production, they promote CSA technologies and practices such as Conservation Agriculture (minimum tillage, soil cover and crop rotation). Other crop technologies and practices promoted include application of organic fertilizers, use of bio-pesticides; use of early maturing varieties, drought tolerant crop varieties particularly Open Pollinated Varieties (OPVs) which farmers can recycle for a number of years; and improved FURS YDULHWLHV HJURRWFURSV RUDQJHȵHVKVZHHWSRWDWRHV 1*2V DOVRSURPRWHLPSURYHG OLYHVWRFNSURGXFWLRQ technologies and practices including cross breeding of local chicken, goats, sheep, pigs and cattle. Other technologies SURPRWHGDUHDUWLȴFLDOLQVHPLQDWLRQOLYHVWRFNSURFHVVLQJLQWURGXFWLRQRIGDLU\JRDWVDQGFDWWOHSHVWDQGGLVHDVH control through dipping and use of hand sprayers to control ticks. Livestock intensive and semi-intensive systems as well as crop-livestock integration are also promoted as they reduce movement of livestock and increase production. ΖQVRPHDUHDVWKH\DOVRSURPRWHLPSURYHGIRGGHUΖQȴVKHULHV1*2VSURPRWHDTXDFXOWXUHDQGVXVWDLQDEOHȴVKLQJ DVDPHDVXUHWRDGDSWDQGPLWLJDWHWKHLPSDFWVRIFOLPDWHFKDQJHLQȴVKHULHV HJLQ3DQJDQL'LVWULFW 

4.2 CSA Practices and Technologies Using the information gathered during the baseline survey, combined with expert knowledge and literature review, WKHVXLWDEOH&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVZHUHLGHQWLȴHGDQGVXPPDULVHG7DEOHFRQWDLQVWKHȆ5HFRPPHQGHG &6$SDFNDJHVRIWHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVȇWKDWZLOOJXLGHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI&6$DFWLYLWLHVLQWKHGL΍HUHQWVWXG\ sites. The current practices and technologies used by farmers surveyed during the baseline are summarized in Annex 5. These shows the current status of “CSA-readiness” of farmers, and what CSA practices and technologies could be suitable and adopted.

4.2.1 Crop Subsector Practices and Technologies

4.2.1.1 Rain Water Harvesting and Storage Practices and Technologies a. Rain Water Harvesting and Storage Structures 5DLQ ZDWHU KDUYHVWLQJ 5:+  LV D PHWKRG IRU LQGXFLQJ FROOHFWLQJ VWRULQJ DQG FRQVHUYLQJ ORFDO VXUIDFH UXQR΍ IRU DJULFXOWXUH %RHUVDQG%HQ$VKHU ΖQFURSSURGXFWLRQV\VWHPV5:+LVFRPSRVHGRIDUXQR΍SURGXFLQJDUHD QRUPDOO\FDOOHGWKH&DWFKPHQW$UHD &$  DQGDUXQR΍XWLOLVDWLRQDUHDQRUPDOO\FDOOHG&URSSHG %DVLQ &%  Hatibu and Mahoo, 5DLQZDWHUKDUYHVWLQJV\VWHPVIRUFURSSURGXFWLRQDUHGLYLGHGLQWRGL΍HUHQWFDWHJRULHVEDVLFDOO\ determined by the distance between CA and CB as follows: In-situ rain water harvesting such as majaluba (Bunded basins) is a method to increase the amount of water stored LQWKHVRLOSURȴOHE\WUDSSLQJRUKROGLQJWKHUDLQZKHUHLWIDOOV Internal (micro) catchment is a system where there is a distinct division of CA and CB but the areas are adjacent to each other, ([WHUQDO PDFUR FDWFKPHQWVXFKDVDGDPLVDV\VWHPWKDWLQYROYHVWKHFROOHFWLRQRIUXQR΍IURPODUJHDUHDVZKLFK are at an appreciable distance from where it is being used. In areas where traditional water harvesting technologies exist, they should be improved and promoted e.g. Ndiva system in Pare Mountains, or Kitivo in Usambara Mountains. ΖQHVVHQFHLQVLWXUDLQZDWHUKDUYHVWLQJWHFKQRORJLHVDUHVRLOPDQDJHPHQWVWUDWHJLHVWKDWDLPDWPD[LPXPLQȴOWUDWLRQ DQG PLQLPXP VXUIDFH UXQR΍ WR DFKLHYH EHWWHU \LHOGV ZKHUH VRLO PRLVWXUH LV D FRQVWUDLQW 7KLV WHFKQRORJ\ RIWHQ serves primarily to recharge soil water for crop and other vegetation growth in the landscape. On the other hand, as the storage systems of ex - situ systems often are wells, dams, ponds or cisterns, water can be abstracted easily for multiple uses including irrigation or domestic, public and commercial uses through centralized or decentralized distribution systems. Increase in water availability will improve agricultural yield and farmers’ livelihood at scale. Through this, adaptation to climate change impacts will therefore be possible. :DWHUVKRUWDJHD΍HFWVPRUHUXUDOZRPHQVLQFHLWLVWKHLUFXOWXUDOUROHWRSURYLGHZDWHU7KH\DUHPRUHFRQFHUQHG 26 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES ZLWKUDLQZDWHUKDUYHVWLQJDVFRPSDUHGWRPHQ7KHUHIRUHVPDOOVFDOHUDLQZDWHUKDUYHVWLQJFDQHQVXUHDVLJQLȴFDQW and steady supply of water for farming even in times of drought, and permit year-round vegetable cultivation with VLJQLȴFDQWQXWULWLRQDOLPSDFWVRQIDPLOLHV6PDOOVFDOHUDLQZDWHUKDUYHVWLQJV\VWHPVFDQDOVRUHGXFHWKHWLPHWKDW women and girls spend collecting water and increase time and energy available for education and productive work. b) Chololo Pits &KRORORSLWLVDQLQVLWXUDLQZDWHU UXQR΍ KDUYHVWLQJWHFKQRORJ\LQLWLDWHGE\DIDUPHULQ&KRORORYLOODJH'RGRPD Chololo pits consist of pits of about 0.2 – 0.25m deep and 0.2-0.25m diameter dug in a line across the slope spaced at 0.5m within line and about 1.0m between lines. The adjacent line of pits is set such that the pits are dug in a middle SRVLWLRQWRWKHRQHVDERYHVRDVWRWDSUXQR΍WKDWKDVGUDLQHGWKURXJKWKHȴUVWOLQHRISLWV7KH\DUHPDGHGXULQJ land preparation (before rains) and the soil is heaped below the pit. Crop seeds (millet seeds) are planted in the pits and part of the soil (sometimes mixed with manure) is returned to cover the seeds. The pit holds and conserves UXQR΍ZDWHUGXULQJWKHJURZLQJVHDVRQ&RQWRXUEXQGVDUHFRQVWUXFWHGRQWKHXSSHUVLGHRIWKHIDUPWRFRQWURO H[FHVVLYHUXQR΍

4.2.1.2 Irrigation Practices and Technologies a. Drip/Trickle Irrigation 'XH WR FOLPDWH FKDQJH PRUH DWWHQWLRQ VKRXOG EH SODFHG RQ XVLQJ ZDWHU HɝFLHQWO\ UHGXFLQJ HYDSRUDWLRQ DQG HQKDQFLQJ LQȴOWUDWLRQ DQG PRLVWXUH UHWHQWLRQ LQ WKH VRLO SURȴOH WKURXJK VRLO RUJDQLF PDWWHU 620  PDQDJHPHQW combined with the use of more drought-resilient species. Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, is an irrigation method that saves water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the plant roots, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone, through a network of YDOYHVSLSHVWXELQJDQGHPLWWHUV'ULSLUULJDWLRQLVDQHɝFLHQWPHWKRGRILUULJDWLQJΖWLVHDV\WRGHVLJQLQVWDOODQG much less water is wasted during irrigation. The farmers can use low cost drip irrigation system, which will enable them to produce high value crops especially vegetables. 'ULSLUULJDWLRQFDQLPSURYHZDWHUXVHHɝFLHQF\$ZHOOGHVLJQHGGULSLUULJDWLRQV\VWHPUHGXFHVZDWHUUXQR΍WKURXJK deep percolation or evaporation to almost zero. If water consumption is reduced, production costs are lowered. Also, conditions may be less favourable for the onset of diseases including fungus. Irrigation scheduling can be managed precisely to meet crop demands, holding the promise of increased yield and quality. Agricultural chemicals can be DSSOLHGPRUHHɝFLHQWO\DQGSUHFLVHO\ZLWKGULSLUULJDWLRQ6LQFHRQO\WKHFURSURRW]RQHLVLUULJDWHGQLWURJHQWKDW is already in the soil is less subject to leaching losses. In the case of insecticides, fewer products might be needed. Fertiliser costs and nitrate losses can be reduced. Nutrient applications can be better timed to meet plants’ needs. Drip irrigation is a versatile technology suitable for application in a wide range of contexts. It can be implemented at small or large scales and with low-cost or more sophisticated components. This technology can be employed in conjunction with other adaptation measures such as the establishment of water user boards, multi-cropping DQGIHUWLOLVHUPDQDJHPHQW3URPRWLQJGULSLUULJDWLRQFRQWULEXWHVWRHɝFLHQWZDWHUXVHUHGXFHVUHTXLUHPHQWVIRU fertilisers and increases water productivity. It is particularly suitable in areas with permanent or seasonal water scarcity, since crop varieties can also be adaptable to these conditions. Drip irrigation reduces the irrigation water volume required to grow crops, which can lower the risk of water supply VKRUWDJHVIRULUULJDWLRQΖWDOORZVIRUȵH[LELOLW\LQWKHWLPLQJDQGDPRXQWVRIDSSOLHGZDWHUDFFRUGLQJWRWKHHYDSR transpiration/plant demand; and because less water is applied, nutrient leaching is reduced. Nutrient applications can also be better timed to meet plant needs. Application of fertilizers in irrigation water means the nutrients can be delivered directly to the root zone. Drip irrigation allows for the use of polyethylene mulch, which helps soil-water conservation and reduces fertilizer leaching from rainfall. b. 6\VWHPRI5LFHΖQWHQVLȴFDWLRQ 65Ζ 7KH6\VWHPRI5LFHΖQWHQVLȴFDWLRQ 65Ζ LVDPHWKRGRORJ\IRULQFUHDVLQJWKHSURGXFWLYLW\RILUULJDWHGULFHE\FKDQJLQJ the management of plants, soil, water and nutrients. SRI is a low water, labour-intensive, and organic method that uses younger seedlings singly spaced and typically hand weeded with hand tools such as push-weeders. SRI leads CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 27 to healthier soil and plants supported by greater root growth and the nurturing of soil microbial abundance and diversity. It is a climate-smart and agro-ecological methodology for increasing the productivity of rice and more recently of other crops by changing the management of plants. SRI is now well used by farmers in Mcholi 1 ward in Ruvuma River Basin and Dakawa in Wami River Basin. 65Ζ LV D ZDWHU VDYLQJ WHFKQRORJ\ IRU ORZODQG SDGG\  ULFH IDUPHUV LW LQYROYHV FRQWUROOHG LUULJDWLRQ ULFH ȴHOGV DUH DOWHUQDWHO\ȵRRGHGDQGGULHGDQGȴHOGVPRQLWRUHGYLDVLPSOHSHUIRUDWHGWXEHV ΖWLPSURYHVIDUPHUVȇOLYHOLKRRGV decreases costs of (water-related) inputs and increases resilience to both price shocks (e.g., increased energy costs) and weather variability. Paddy rice cultivation is a primary source of non-CO2 GHG emissions from the agriculture VHFWRU7KHUHIRUH65ΖLVZLGHO\DFFHSWHGDVFOLPDWHVPDUWWHFKQRORJ\IRULWVSRWHQWLDOWRVLJQLȴFDQWO\UHGXFHPHWKDQH emissions and increasing yields. c. Irrigation Canal Lining Canal lining is the process of reducing seepage loss of irrigation water by adding an impermeable layer to the edges of the trench. Seepage can result in losses of 30 to 50 percent of irrigation water from canals, so adding lining FDQPDNHLUULJDWLRQV\VWHPVPRUHHɝFLHQW&DQDOOLQLQJVDUHDOVRXVHGWRSUHYHQWZHHGJURZWKZKLFKFDQVSUHDG WKURXJKRXWDQLUULJDWLRQV\VWHPDQGUHGXFHZDWHUȵRZ/LQLQJDFDQDOFDQDOVRSUHYHQWZDWHUORJJLQJDURXQGORZ lying areas of the canal. The most commonly used types of lining include: concrete; concrete blocks, bricks or stone masonry; sand cement; plastic; and compacted clay.

4.2.1.3 Soil and Water Conservation Practices and Technologies 6RLO DQG ZDWHU FRQVHUYDWLRQ VWUXFWXUHV UHGXFH UXQR΍ DQG HYHQWXDOO\ VRLO HURVLRQ FRQVHUYH WKH VRLO SURGXFWLYLW\ DQGWKHUHIRUHKHOSWRLQFUHDVH\LHOGVHVSHFLDOO\RQVORSLQJIDUPODQGV7KHUHDUHGL΍HUHQWW\SHVRIVRLODQGZDWHU FRQVHUYDWLRQSUDFWLFHVZKLFKFDQEHXVHGXQGHUVSHFLȴFFRQGLWLRQVVXFKDVORZUDLQIDOOKLJKUDLQIDOOVWHHSVORSHV gentle slopes, deep soil, shallow soil etc. a. Ridging Ridging is the farming practice of ploughing or placing stones across the slope following its contour line for the SXUSRVHRIFRQWUROOLQJVRLOHURVLRQDQGHQKDQFLQJZDWHULQȴOWUDWLRQ7KLVSUDFWLFHLVPRVWO\DGRSWHGLQJHQWOHVORSHV WRFRQWUROUXQR΍DQGUHWDLQPRLVWXUHDQGQXWULHQWV5LGJLQJFUHDWHVDZDWHUEUHDNZKLFKUHGXFHVWKHIRUPDWLRQ RIULOOVDQGJXOOLHVGXULQJWKHWLPHVRIKHDY\ZDWHUUXQR΍ZKLFKLVDPDMRUFDXVHRIVRLOHURVLRQ7KHULGJHVVKRXOG traverse the slope to capture the rainfall rather than running downhill, channelling water and soil away. b. Tie-Ridging 7LHULGJLQJLVDVRLODQGZDWHUFRQVHUYDWLRQSUDFWLFHXVHGPDLQO\WRFRQVHUYHVRLOPRLVWXUHLQDUHDVUHFHLYLQJLQVXɝFLHQW UDLQIDOO6PDOOHDUWKWLHVDUHPDGHZLWKLQWKHULGJHIXUURZWRFROOHFWDQGVWRUHUXQR΍LQWKHVRLOWREHXVHGE\FURSV planted on the ridges c. Water Retaining/Harvesting Pits :DWHUUHWDLQLQJSLWVWUDSUXQR΍DQGDOORZLWWRVHHSLQWRWKHVRLO$VHULHVRISLWVDUHGXJLQWRWKHJURXQGZKHUHUXQR΍ normally occurs. The soil from the pit is used to make banks around the pits. Furrows carry excess water from one pit to the next. Traditionally, this system is mainly practiced by the Matengo tribe of Mbinga District, living on the steep slopes of the Matengo highlands. The pits are locally called Matengo pits or Ngoro. The system is suitable for steep slopes of 20percent - 50percent, which are prone to erosion. Ngoro is a pit that is surrounded by four ridges that are tied together. The purpose of this pit is to intercept and SUHYHQW GHVWUXFWLYH H΍HFWV RI VXUIDFH UXQR΍ RQ WKH FXOWLYDWHG VWHHS VORSHV 7KLV LV D WZR\HDU FXOWLYDWLRQ V\VWHP where by one cycle of crop alternate with a short fallow period. The construction starts at the end of the wet season (March - April) when soils are wet and rains are about to end. Prior to cultivation, grass is cut (not burned) and once dried it is piled into ridges on vertically and horizontally square grids traditionally about 2m x 2m. Soil is then dug (0.5 m deep) from the centre of each square and placed to cover the dried grass to form four bunds surrounding each pit. 6RPHRIWKHEHQHȴWVRI0DWHQJRSLWVDUHWRPLQLPL]HVRLOHURVLRQZDWHUUXQR΍DQGQXWULHQWORVVLWLPSURYHVVRLO 28 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES fertility due to its combination with anti-erosion mechanism maintenance techniques, helps in water conservation because of the pit that is surrounded by four ridges that are tied together, the system has enabled people to farm intensively in the steep areas without deterioration of land and without a decline in crop production and contributes WRSHVWFRQWUROGXHWRFURSURWDWLRQ2QHPDMRUFKDOOHQJHD΍HFWLQJWKHSUDFWLFHLVWKHQRQDYDLODELOLW\RIVXɝFLHQW ODERXUWRZRUNRQWKHȴHOGVDQGLQDGHTXDWHVXSSO\RIFRPSRVWLQJPDWHULDO7KLVSUDFWLFHZDVGHYHORSHGVLQFHWKH WKFHQWXU\KDVDOVREHHQDFFODLPHGDVDQH΍HFWLYHVRLOFRQVHUYDWLRQPHDVXUH d. Terraces Terrace farming is a method of farming using “steps” that are built into the side of a mountain or hill. On each level, various crops are planted. When it rains, instead of washing away all of the nutrients in the soil, the nutrients are FDUULHGGRZQWRWKHQH[WOHYHO$GGLWLRQDOO\WKHVHVWHSVSUHYHQWDIUHHȵRZLQJDYDODQFKHRIZDWHUWKDWZRXOGWDNH plants with it and destroy the crops on the hillside. Terraces are pieces of sloped plane that have been cut into a VHULHVRIVXFFHVVLYHO\UHFHGLQJȵDWVXUIDFHVRUSODWIRUPVZKLFKUHVHPEOHVWHSVIRUWKHSXUSRVHVRIPRUHH΍HFWLYH farming. This type of landscaping, therefore, is called terracing. Terrace farming is common in mountainous areas of Uluguru and Lushoto (URT, 2014) 7HUUDFHGȴHOGVGHFUHDVHERWKHURVLRQDQGVXUIDFHUXQR΍DQGPD\EHXVHGWRVXSSRUWJURZLQJFURSVWKDWUHTXLUH irrigation. Small terraces with the size of a ladder are dug on steep slopes for the purpose of breaking the slope and controlling soil erosion. They are used for growing mainly vegetable crops such as cabbage, onions, green pea and EHDQV7KHUHDUHGL΍HUHQWW\SHVRIWHUUDFHVVXFKDVWKHIROORZLQJ x Fanya Juu Terraces Fanya Juu terraces are made by digging a trench along the contour and throwing the soil uphill to form an embankment. The embankments are stabilized with fodder grasses and in between cultivated portions. Over time, the Fanya Juu develops into bench terraces. They are useful in semi-arid areas in harvesting and conserving water. The measure is suitable for soil too shallow for level bench terracing and moderate slopes below 20percent. However, they are not applicable on stony soils. Fanya Juu is a very versatile technology - ideally suited to smallholder farms, especially in sub-humid areas where the land is sloping and erosion a threat. Fodder grasses may be planted on the bunds and fed to livestock. In the dry areas, water harvested from roads is directed into the trenches which allow production of bananas and fruits. x Fanya Chini Terraces Fanya Chini terraces are made by digging a trench along the contour and the soil is put on the lower side of the contour trench. It is used to conserve soil and divert water. The embankment can be used to grow fodder. This is applicable on slopes of up to 20percent. x Bench Terraces Bench terraces are level or nearly level steps constructed or formed on the contour and separated by embankments known as risers. They are formed by excavation or developed from grass strips or Fanya Juu terraces. They are suitable on slopes up to 55percent. x Stone Terraces Stone terraces are useful in areas with steep slopes but high population density and scarce land. The terrace risers are made of stones collected from the land. Stone terraces are suitable where there is abundant availability of stones.

4.2.1.4 Agroforestry Practices and Technologies Agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resource management system that, through integration of WUHHVRQIDUPVDQGLQWKHDJULFXOWXUDOODQGVFDSHGLYHUVLȴHVDQGVXVWDLQVSURGXFWLRQIRULQFUHDVHGVRFLDOHFRQRPLF DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO EHQHȴWV $JURIRUHVWU\ V\VWHPV LQFOXGH ERWK WUDGLWLRQDO DQG PRGHUQ ODQGXVH V\VWHPV ZKHUH trees are managed together with crops and/or animal production systems in agricultural settings. CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 29 Agroforestry systems play important roles in increasing the resilience to climate change impacts for small scale IDUPHUVDQGLQODUJHUODQGVFDSHDSSURDFKHV7UHHVKHOSȴJKWFOLPDWHFKDQJHE\VWRULQJFDUERQ&DUERQVHTXHVWHUHG by trees intercropped with food and fodder crops and stored in above ground biomass and soil, contributes to UHGXFLQJJUHHQKRXVHJDVFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQWKHDWPRVSKHUH7UHHVEX΍HUDJDLQVWZHDWKHUUHODWHGSURGXFWLRQORVVHV such as reducing soil erosion through e.g. hedgerow and contour planting - thus enhancing resilience against climate LPSDFWV7UHHV EULQJ QXWULHQWVIURPGHHSHU VRLO OD\HUVRU LQ FDVHRIOHJXPHWUHHVWKURXJKQLWURJHQȴ[DWLRQDQG decomposition of leaf litter into fertilizer for crops. And trees on farms provide additional income and diversity of food sources through tree-based products. The combination of trees, crops and livestock mitigates environmental ULVNFUHDWHVDSHUPDQHQWVRLOFRYHUDJDLQVWHURVLRQDQGPLQLPL]HVGDPDJHIURPȵRRGLQJDQGDFWVDVZDWHUVWRUDJH EHQHȴWWLQJFURSVDQGSDVWXUHV $JURIRUHVWU\ VHUYHV WR HQULFK IDUPHUV WKURXJK WKH KDUYHVWLQJ RI GLYHUVH SURGXFWV DW GL΍HUHQW WLPHV RI WKH \HDU ΖW DOVR EULQJV MRE RSSRUWXQLWLHV IURP WKH SURFHVVLQJ RI WUHH SURGXFWV H[SDQGLQJ WKH HFRQRPLF EHQHȴWV WR UXUDO communities and national economies. Agroforestry is increasingly acknowledged as a climate-smart production system which through provisions of VXVWDLQDEOH HQYLURQPHQWDO DQG VRFLRHFRQRPLF EHQHȴWV KHOSV WR LQFUHDVH UHVLOLHQFH RI IDUPLQJ V\VWHPV DQG WKH adaptive capacity of farmers to impacts of climate change (Kimaro et al. 2015). Recent studies in Mwanga Kilimanjaro, Tanzania (Charles et al., 2013) and Western Kenya (Thorlakson and Neufeldt, 2012) revealed that agroforestry SUDFWLWLRQHUVKDYHPRUHGLYHUVLȴHGVRXUFHVRIIRRGIRGGHUZRRGIXHODQGLQFRPHLQFUHDVLQJWKHLUDGDSWLYHFDSDFLW\ to climate change than non-Agroforestry practitioners. According to Sanou et al., (2011), amelioration of temperature and light conditions under baobabs tree canopy improved millet and taro production by 39percent and 50percent, respectively under semiarid conditions in the Sahel. It has been noted that inclusion of trees in farmlands also HQKDQFHVHɝFLHQF\XVHRIIHUWLOL]HUDQGSUHFLSLWDWLRQIRUFURSSURGXFWLRQ 6LOHVKLet al., 2011 and Kimaro et al., 2015). 0XOFKRUJUHHQPDQXUHIURPWUHHOHDYHVDGGVRLOQXWULHQWVLPSURYHLQȴOWUDWLRQDQGGHFUHDVHHYDSRUDWLRQIURPVRLOV and hence improving soil moisture retention. Moreover, the presence of trees/shrubs in the farmland enhance the ability of the land to capture rainfall, store and make it available to crops through the build-up of soil organic matter by maintaining a leaf canopy during the dry season (Sileshi et al., 2011; Kimaro et al., 2015). 6RPHRIWKHFRPPRQDJURIRUHVWU\SUDFWLFHVIRXQGLQWKHȴHOGGXULQJWKHEDVHOLQHVXUYH\ZHUHERXQGDU\WUHHSODQWLQJ DQGLQWHUFURSSLQJZLWKQLWURJHQȴ[LQJWUHHV2WKHUDJURIRUHVWU\SUDFWLFHVLQFOXGHLPSURYHGIDOORZVZRRGORWVFR΍HH home-gardens with fruit and shade trees and livestock based agroforestry practices, including ngitili and zero grazing. Agroforestry practices for replenishing soil fertility are attractive to women farmers because they involve low inputs EXW KLJK UHWXUQV $JURIRUHVWU\ ZLWK ΖQGLJHQRXV IUXLWV WUHHV FDQ DOVR SURYLGH ZRPHQ ZLWK VLJQLȴFDQW LQFRPH )RU example, in Tabora Region, women are generating income through processing and selling of jam, wine and juice from indigenous fruits. Among the widely promoted agroforestry practices include; trees in cropland, woodlots, improved fallows and fodder banks. Others include; boundary planting live fence and bee keeping. a. Tree in Crop Land This is the practice of growing crops in association with trees left during land preparation or planted for their economic, social or cultural value. Among the common values include production of fruits, fuelwood, timber, medicine, and shade or soil fertility improvement. Some of the common species found on cropped lands are Afzelia quanzensis (Timber, fuel wood), Parinari curatellifolia (Fruit), Pterocarpus angolensis (Soil fertility, timber), Faidherbia albida (soil fertility, fodder), Piliostigma thonningii (soil fertility, fodder) b. Rotational Woodlot The rotational woodlot is an agroforestry practice which involves alternating arable crops with improved tree fallow on the same piece of land over time (Otsyina et al, 7KHSUDFWLFHLVLQWHQGHGWRVLPXODWHWKHH΍HFWVRIVKLIWLQJ cultivation systems, with tree species carefully selected for their fast growth rates, high wood yields, and/or soil enrichment capacity (Young, 1989). The practice involves three phases namely; tree establishment phase (crop and young trees), fallow phase (woodlot) and the post-fallow phase (clearing for cultivation) (Otsyina et al 1994, Chidumayo 1988). Some of the recommended tree species (for soil fertility improvement) include; Leucaena spp, Acacia polyacantha, Gliricidia sepium, Albizialebbeck. 30 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES c. Improved Fallow This is a practice of improving a farm which after continuous cultivation is rested (fallowed) for one or two seasons to regain fertility by introducing fast growing, high fertility enriching plants normally herbaceous legumes, grasses and/ or shrubs. Some of the species used to improve fallow land are; Sesbania sesban (sesbania), Tephrosia vogeli (utupa), Cajanus cajan (mbaazi), sun hemp (Marejea), and herbaceous legumes like Lablab purpureus. d. Fodder Bank The practice involves growing of high quality fast-growing and high-yielding trees, shrubs, grass and herbaceous legumes in small homestead plots in order to provide low cost fodder supply to alleviate shortages of fodder DQG QXWULWLRQ GHȴFLHQFLHV DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ LQFUHDVH DQG VXVWDLQ OLYHVWRFN SURGXFWLRQ 7KH DQLPDOV DUH JLYHQ VXSSOHPHQWVRISURWHLQULFKIHHGVWX΍VGXULQJWKHGU\VHDVRQZKHQRWKHUJRRGTXDOLW\IRGGHULVVFDUFH7KHIRGGHU may be cut, carried and fed to livestock in their enclosure (kraal). The kraal manure in turn is applied to crops thus enhancing nutrient cycle (soil resilience). The amount and quality of manure increase with good feeding of the animals. Alternatively, livestock can be allowed to graze on the fodder bank, although not all fodder species tolerate this well. Some species used in fodder bank include; Leucaena leucocephala, Panicum maximum, Acacia spp e. 7UHH3ODQWLQJ$΍RUHVWDWLRQ Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping SXUSRVH7KHDFWLYLW\LVNQRZQDVUHIRUHVWDWLRQRUD΍RUHVWDWLRQGHSHQGLQJRQZKHWKHUWKHDUHDEHLQJSODQWHGKDV or has not recently been forested. It involves planting seedlings over an area of land where the forest has been KDUYHVWHGRUGDPDJHGE\ȴUHRUGLVHDVHRULQVHFWV7UHHSODQWLQJLVJURXQGHGLQIRUHVWVFLHQFHDQGLISHUIRUPHG properly can result in the successful regeneration of a deforested area. Trees contribute to climate change adaption by reducing wind speed, and decreasing damage to crops and degradation/erosion to the soil. They contribute to climate change mitigation by removing CO2 from the atmosphere. Trees provide shades to mitigate the impact of climate induced temperature rise. Reforestation provides other EHQHȴWV E\ UHGXFLQJ ODQG GHJUDGDWLRQ DQG VRLO HURVLRQ DQG LPSURYLQJ ZDWHU LQȴOWUDWLRQ 3UDFWLFHV WKDW SURPRWH VXVWDLQDEOHPDQDJHPHQWRIIRUHVWVIRUWKHLUUROHLQFOLPDWHVWDELOLVDWLRQFDQVLPXOWDQHRXVO\SURYLGHPXOWLSOHEHQHȴWV IRUORFDOFRPPXQLWLHV)RUHVWVSURGXFHZRRGDQGQRQZRRGSURGXFWVIUXLWVȴEUHPHGLFLQHVDQGKRQH\DOORIZKLFK can be important for the livelihood. Local people often prefer indigenous species for a variety of uses such as charcoal, furniture, housing material, and medicine. Examples include: Afzelia Quanzensis, Khaya Annthotheca, Milicia Exelsa, Pterocarpus Angolensis, Gmelina Arbores, Terminalia Superba, Terminalia Ivorensis and Trichilia Emetica. Exotic tree species are planted because they are fast growing species that serve a variety of uses such as fuel wood, timber, and fodder in order to relieve pressure on existing forests. Examples of exotic tree species are Eucalyptus Camaldulensis, Eucalyptus Citrodora, Eucalyptus Tereticornis, Casuarinas Equisetifolia, Cedrella Odorata, Acacia Mangium and Tectona Grandis. 7UHHSODQWLQJLQLWLDWLYHVWKDWVSHFLȴFDOO\HQOLVWSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIZRPHQKDYHKDGJUHDWVXFFHVV)RUH[DPSOHWKHȊ/DWH Wangari Mathais’ Greenbelt Movement Women Tree Planting Initiative” is one of the World best practices. Tree planting was linked to women economic empowerment which helped the women earn carbon credit.

4.2.1.5 Conservation Agriculture Practices and Technologies Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a set of soil management practices that minimize the disruption of the soil structure, composition and natural biodiversity and has a potential to improve crop yields, while improving the long-term HQYLURQPHQWDO DQG ȴQDQFLDO VXVWDLQDELOLW\ RI IDUPLQJ ΖW HQFRPSDVVHV IDUPLQJ SUDFWLFHV ZKLFK KDYH WKUHH NH\ characteristics: First, minimal mechanical soil disturbance (i.e. no tillage and direct seeding); second, maintenance of a mulch of carbon-rich organic matter covering and feeding the soil (e.g. straw and/or other crop residues including cover crops); and third, rotations or sequences and associations of crops including trees and legumes which are QLWURJHQȴ[LQJ &$ R΍HUV FOLPDWH FKDQJH DGDSWDWLRQ DQG PLWLJDWLRQ VROXWLRQV ZKLOH LPSURYLQJ IRRG VHFXULW\ WKURXJK VXVWDLQDEOH SURGXFWLRQ LQWHQVLȴFDWLRQ DQG HQKDQFHG SURGXFWLYLW\ RI UHVRXUFH XVH 0DQDJHPHQW RI VRLO IHUWLOLW\ DQG RUJDQLF CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 31 PDWWHUDQGLPSURYHPHQWRIWKHHɝFLHQF\RIQXWULHQWLQSXWVHQDEOHPRUHWREHSURGXFHGZLWKSURSRUWLRQDOO\OHVV fertilizers. It also saves on energy use in farming and reduces emissions from the burning of crop residues. Moreover, it helps to sequester carbon in soil. Conservation Agriculture also contributes to adaptation to climate change by reducing crop vulnerability. Conservation Agriculture also contributes to protect crops from extreme temperatures. +HQFH&$R΍HUVRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUFOLPDWHFKDQJHDGDSWDWLRQDQGPLWLJDWLRQVROXWLRQVZKLOHLPSURYLQJIRRGVHFXULW\ WKURXJKVXVWDLQDEOHSURGXFWLRQLQWHQVLȴFDWLRQDQGHQKDQFHGSURGXFWLYLW\ a. Cover Cropping; Cover cropping is a technology that aims to maintain or cover soil surface during and between cropping operations. It is well known by farmers and extension agents. It can be achieved by, for example, planting leafy legumes between the plants of the main crop, providing shade, suppressing weeds, reducing ground temperature and evapo- WUDQVSLUDWLRQDQGWKHUHE\UHWDLQLQJVRLOPRLVWXUH 857 ΖWKDVDOVREHHQXVHGIRUUHGXFLQJH΍HFWVRIUDLQGURS impact and aggregate disintegration from slaking. Ground cover also prevents raindrops from directly striking the soil surface and allows rainfall to slowly penetrate the soil surface. Ground cover helps to sequester carbon dioxide in the soils but also control soil erosion. b. Mulching Mulching is a technology of applying a protective covering, usually of organic matter such as grass, leaves, straw, or peat, around plants or on the surface of the soil. Mulching helps to conserve moisture, improve the fertility and health of the soil and reduce weed growth. When applied correctly, mulching can dramatically improve soil productivity. Maintenance of a mulch layer provides a substrate for soil-inhabiting microorganisms which helps to improve and maintain water and nutrients in the soil. This also contributes to net increase of soil organic matter - derived from carbon dioxide captured by photosynthesis in plants, whose residues above and below the surface are subsequently transformed and sequestered by soil biota. From the baseline survey, farmers know and adopt mulching in their farms to cover soils and thus protect the soils from direct contact with the Sun and therefore control water losses by evaporation. Also by suppressing weed, mulching reduces the cost of weeding, and therefore reduces overall cost of production. c. Crop Rotation &URSURWDWLRQLVDWHFKQRORJ\RIJURZLQJGL΍HUHQWFURSVLQDȴHOGHDFK\HDURUVHDVRQ7KHQHZFURSSODQWHGGXULQJ WKHVXFFHHGLQJVHDVRQZLOOEHIURPDGL΍HUHQWIDPLO\7KHLGHDEHKLQGWKLVLVWRFKDQJHZKDWVRLOQXWULHQWVWKHFURS XVHVDQGWKHLQVHFWVLWDWWUDFWV6RWKHSHVWVQHYHUJHWXVHGWRRQHȴHOGEHFDXVHFURSVDUHFRQVWDQWO\FKDQJHG ΖQWHUPVRIVRLOVHDFKFURSQHHGVGL΍HUHQWQXWULHQWV&KDQJLQJWKHFURSHYHU\\HDUSUHYHQWVGHSOHWLRQRIDQ\RQH QXWULHQWLQWKHȴHOG&URSURWDWLRQLVDOVRH΍HFWLYHLQVXSSUHVVLQJZHHGVEHFDXVHRIUHJXODUFKDQJHVLQWKHURRW]RQH composition and patterns of nutrient absorption. Rotations and crop associations that include legumes are capable RIKRVWLQJQLWURJHQȴ[LQJEDFWHULDLQWKHLUURRWVZKLFKFRQWULEXWHVWRRSWLPXPSODQWJURZWKZLWKRXWLQFUHDVHGJDV emissions induced by fertiliser’s production. Crop rotation over several seasons also minimises the outbreak of pests and diseases. d. Intercropping ΖQWHUFURSSLQJLVDPXOWLSOHFURSSLQJWHFKQRORJ\LQYROYLQJJURZLQJWZRRUPRUHFURSVLQSUR[LPLW\LQWKHVDPHȴHOG The farmers commonly use a cereal-legume intercrop, mixing of crops for example millet, sorghum or maize with cowpeas or groundnuts (Chololo Eco-village 2011-2014 Project). Farmers acknowledge leguminous crops such as beans, cowpeas, lablab and pigeon peas are suitable for intercropping as they contribute nutrients to the soils by ELRORJLFDOQLWURJHQȴ[DWLRQΖQWKLVFDVHLQWHUFURSSLQJUHGXFHVGHSOHWLRQRILQGLYLGXDOVRLOQXWULHQWV ΖELG ΖWFDQDOVR involve new crop varieties (e.g. drought resistant). The most common goal of intercropping is to produce higher yields on a given piece of land by making use of resources that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop. It provides a family with a balanced diet of staple grains, protein-rich beans, and green leaves for essential vitamins. It also reduces risk of total crop failure by having two crops instead of one. Also intercropping increase resilience to drought and reduced pest and diseases incidences. 32 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES e. Minimum / Zero Tillage Minimum Tillage (MT) means reducing tillage operations required to plant a crop (Conservation Farming Unit -CFU, 2007). Minimum Tillage usually involves scratching or ripping along the row where the crop is to be planted and leaving the rest of the land untouched until weeding is required. Alternatively, farmers may just dig holes or pits where the seed will be sown (such as chololo pits in Dodoma and basins in Newala). Minimum tillage is one of key FRQVHUYDWLRQ DJULFXOWXUH &$  SUDFWLFHV WKDW PLQLPL]HV UXQR΍ DQG LQFUHDVHV LQȴOWUDWLRQ UDWHV ΖW DFWXDOO\ HQVXUHV enough moisture is stored in the soil for plant growth. Avoidance of tillage minimises occurrence of net losses of carbon dioxide by microbial respiration and oxidation of the soil organic matter and builds soil structure and bio-pores through soil biota and roots. Zero tillage has many advantages among others including minimal soil disturbance; retention of crop residues; seeds planted directly into previous crop’s residue; and crop rotation. It reduces erosion; improves soil quality and structure, soil biota; reduces evaporation of water, helps retain nutrients. In addition, depending on rotation, no-till reduces greenhouse gas emissions of nitrous oxides. f. Crop Residue Management &URSUHVLGXHVPDQDJHPHQWLVWKHSUDFWLFHZKHUHE\FURSUHVLGXHVDUHOHIWLQWKHȴHOGIDUPDIWHUWKHFURSVKDYH been harvested. These residues include sticks and stubble/stems, leaves and seed pots. Crop residues can also be XVHGDVDQLPDOIHHGRXWVLGHWKHFURSȴHOG7KHSURWHFWLYHVRLOFRYHURIOHDYHVVWHPVDQGVWDONVIURPWKHSUHYLRXVFURS protect the soil surface from heat, wind and rain, keeps the soil cooler and reduces moisture losses by evaporation. In drier conditions, it reduces crop water requirements, makes better use of soil water and facilitates deeper rooting RI FURSV ΖQ H[WUHPHO\ ZHW FRQGLWLRQV FURS UHVLGXHV PDQDJHPHQW IDFLOLWDWHV UDLQ ZDWHU LQȴOWUDWLRQ UHGXFLQJ VRLO HURVLRQDQGWKHULVNRIGRZQVWUHDPȵRRGLQJ

4.2.1.6 Soil Fertility Management Practices and Technologies A healthy soil is fundamental for sustained agricultural productivity and the maintenance of other vital soil-mediated HFRV\VWHPSURFHVVHV7RFRSHZLWKFOLPDWHFKDQJHVSHFLȴFPDQDJHPHQWSUDFWLFHVQHHGWREHDGDSWHGWDNLQJLQWR account: the types of crop, grazing and forest systems, the diversity and current status of soils (e.g. sand/loam/clay VRLOVSHDWVRLOVVRGLFVRLOVVKDOORZVRLOVQXWULHQWGHSOHWHGVRLOV WHUUDLQ HJVWHHSȵDWODQGVZHWODQGV DQGFOLPDWLF conditions (e.g. short rains seasons, erratic rains, high temperatures and storms). Management practices that increase soil organic carbon (SOC) content from year to year through organic matter PDQDJHPHQW ZLOO EULQJ EHQHȴWV  3URGXFWLYH VRLOV WKDW DUH ULFK LQ FDUERQ UHTXLUH IHZHU FKHPLFDO LQSXWV DQG ZLOO maintain vital ecosystem functions such as the hydrological and nutrient cycles. A shift away from specialised high input systems towards the design and adoption of more integrated production systems (crop-livestock, agroforestry, agro-pastoral) will reduce inorganic fertiliser use and resulting in lesser GHG emissions. a. Manuring x Farm Yard Manure Farm Yard Manure (FYM) is an appropriate technology to enhance nutrient availability for ensuring high yields. FYM is also good for improving soil structure and control evaporation. Use of farm yard manure increases crop–livestock integration such that crop residues from well managed crops are fed to livestock. The livestock PDQXUHLVWKHQUHWXUQHGWRWKHȴHOGVDWWKHVWDUWRIWKHFURSSLQJVHDVRQ A large proportion of the mitigation potential of agriculture (excluding bio-energy) arises from soil carbon sequestration, which has strong synergies with sustainable agriculture and generally reduces vulnerability to climate change (IPCC, 2007). With regard to CO2 sequestration in soils, use of FYM can achieve high carbon and improve soil structure and quality, because the accumulated carbon is in the organic form of humus. This will LPSURYHFOLPDWHDGDSWDWLRQE\UHGXFLQJWKHLPSDFWVRIȵRRGLQJGURXJKWVZDWHUVKRUWDJHVDQGGHVHUWLȴFDWLRQ thereby also improving food and water security. CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 33 x Compost Manure Composting is a partially controlled and accelerated bio-oxidative process through which highly diverse and KHWHURJHQHRXVRUJDQLFPDWHULDOLVGHFRPSRVHGDQGWUDQVIRUPHGLQWRXQLȴHGPDWHULDO&RPSRVLWLRQRIWKH raw materials to be composted determines CO2 evolution during composting, and residual carbon levels in ȴQLVKHGFRPSRVW&RPSRVWUHIHUVWRDPL[WXUHRIRUJDQLFPDWWHUIURPOHDYHVDQGPDQXUHWKDWKDVGHFD\HG or has been digested by organisms, and can be used to improve soil structure and provide nutrients. It helps dry soil to absorb and retain more water, compacted soils to regain their elasticity and poor soils to bring forth abundant farm produce; they provide plants with nutrients which they require to grow to their full potential. Action to raise soil carbon levels through more widespread adoption of organic farming practices and grass- EDVHG DQG PL[HG IDUPLQJ V\VWHPV FDQ PDNH D VLJQLȴFDQW DQG LPPHGLDWH FRQWULEXWLRQ WR JUHHQKRXVH JDV mitigation. Harvesting crops removes carbon from the soil that would otherwise return to the soil when the plant dies and decomposes. Compost returns organic matter to the soil. The nitrogen in compost can increase soil productivity, which can lead to increased crop residues and an increased return of carbon to the soil. Composting increases the formation of stable carbon that remains bound in the soil for long periods of time. $SSO\LQJ RUJDQLF PDWWHU WR VRLOV LV RQH RI WKH PRVW H΍HFWLYH ZD\V WR GLYHUW &2 IURP WKH DWPRVSKHUH DQG convert it into organic carbon in the soil. Compost use can supply at least some of the mineral nitrogen that would otherwise have to be provided through mineral fertilisers, as well as most, if not all, of the crop’s phosphorous, potassium and trace element UHTXLUHPHQWV6XEVWLWXWLQJWKHXVHRIPLQHUDOIHUWLOLVHUWKURXJKFRPSRVWXVHR΍HUVDQRSSRUWXQLW\RIUHGXFLQJ GHG emissions caused by the manufacturing and transportation of fertilisers. b. (ɝFLHQW8VHRI)HUWLOL]HU 0LFUR'RVLQJ 0LFURGRVLQJRIIHUWLOLVHULVDKLJKO\HɝFLHQWWHFKQLTXHWKDWPLQLPLVHVWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIDQGRYHUUHOLDQFHRQIHUWLOL]HUV )HUWLOLVHUPLFURGRVLQJLQYROYHVWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIVPDOODQGD΍RUGDEOHTXDQWLWLHVRIIHUWLOLVHURQWRRUFORVHWRWKH VHHGDWSODQWLQJWLPHRUDIHZZHHNVDIWHUHPHUJHQFH7KLVFDQEHGRQHE\ȴOOLQJDVRGDERWWOHFDSZLWKIHUWLOLVHUDQG DSSO\LQJLWGLUHFWO\WRWKHURRWRIWKHFURS7KHPLFURGRVLQJWHFKQLTXHLQFUHDVHVWKHHɝFLHQF\RIIHUWLOL]HUXVHDQG helps improve productivity. c. Integrated Soil Fertility Management ΖQWHJUDWHG6RLO)HUWLOLW\0DQDJHPHQW Ζ6)0 DLPVWRPDNHDYDLODEOHUHTXLUHGVRLOQXWULHQWVE\EDODQFLQJGL΍HUHQWRQ IDUPVRLORUJDQLFVRXUFHV DPHQGPHQWV ZLWKQXWULHQWVIURPPLQHUDOIHUWLOL]HUV WRDGGUHVVGHȴFLHQFLHV DQGUHGXFLQJ nutrient losses through soil and water conservation. It is advised that use of fertilizers should be under the concept of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) which is a set of agricultural practices adapted to local conditions to RSWLPLVHWKHHɝFLHQF\RIQXWULHQWDQGZDWHUXVHDQGLPSURYHDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLYLW\ 6DQJLQJDDQG:RRPHU  ISFM aims to optimise the use of organic matter that provides nutrients, sequesters C and enhances water storage HJ FRPSRVW DQLPDO PDQXUHV RU JUHHQ PDQXUHV  DQG HQKDQFH QXWULHQW HɝFLHQF\ WKURXJK FURS URWDWLRQV RU LQWHUFURSSLQJZLWKQLWURJHQȴ[LQJFURSVDQGMXGLFLRXVSUHFLVLRQXVHRILQRUJDQLFIHUWLOL]HUWRUHGXFHORVVHV$OVRΖ6)0 PLQLPL]H*+*VHPLVVLRQV UHGXFHGWUDɝFDQGWLOODJHDQGHɝFLHQWXVHRIRUJDQLFDQGLQRUJDQLFIHUWLOL]HUV  ISFM strategies centre on the combined use of mineral fertilizers and locally available soil amendments (such as lime and rock phosphate) and organic matter (crop residues, compost and green manure) to replenish lost soil nutrients. 7KLV LPSURYHV ERWK VRLO TXDOLW\ DQG WKH HɝFLHQF\ RI IHUWLOL]HUV DQG RWKHU DJURLQSXWV ΖQ DGGLWLRQ Ζ6)0 SURPRWHV improved germ-plasm, agroforestry and the use of crop rotation and/or intercropping with legumes (a crop which also improves soil fertility). Farmers who have adopted ISFM technologies have more than doubled their agricultural production and increased their farm-level incomes. ISFM improves resilience of soils and agricultural production to weather variability; increases soil organic matter and soil organic carbon; improves soil health and fertility leading to increased yields and; lowers potential for nitrogen leaching and greenhouse gas emissions, potentially increases soil carbon. Other soil fertility management practices include; mulching, crop rotation (see under conservation agriculture). 34 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES

4.2.1.7 Crop Management Practices and Technologies a. Adapted crops and crop varieties (Improved seeds, high yielding, fast maturing, drought tolerant, VDOLQLW\WROHUDQWȵRRGWROHUDQW &OLPDWHFKDQJHD΍HFWVWKHDJULFXOWXUDO\LHOGGLUHFWO\WKURXJKFKDQJHVLQWHPSHUDWXUHDQGSUHFLSLWDWLRQDQGLQGLUHFWO\ through changes in soil quality, pests and diseases. Drought is the principal constraint of crop production in dry land DUHDVΖWPD\EHGHȴQHGDVSHULRGVLQWKHQDWXUDOF\FOHRIVWUHVVDQGUHQHZDOGXULQJZKLFKWKHDPRXQWRIPRLVWXUH in the soil no longer meets the needs of a particular crop. Drought occurs frequently in dry lands, partly because average rainfall is low, ranging across locations and years from an average of about 300 to 800 mm per annum, but also because it may be highly erratic, followed by long dry spells. Improved crop varieties provide one of the key technologies for addressing climate change impacts especially in areas where rainfall is expected to be more erratic or to decrease (Lobell et al., 2008). One key technology is improved seeds which are early maturing and drought tolerant crop varieties. It is noted that farmers understand and are using improved seeds in their crop production with the main objective to grow high yielding varieties as an adaptation strategy to climate change. Improved, high-yielding varieties include grain, legume, fruit, and vegetable varieties that have been bred to improve and increase yields. Early maturing crop varieties enable the crop to escape stress at the end of the season and are ideal for intercropping as they provide less competition IRUPRLVWXUHOLJKWDQGQXWULHQWVDVFRPSDUHGWRODWHPDWXULQJYDULHWLHVΖQDGGLWLRQWKH\R΍HUȵH[LELOLW\LQSODQWLQJ dates, which enables multiple plantings in a season to avoid risk of losing a single crop due to drought and avoidance of known terminal drought periods during the cropping season. These advantages make the early maturing crop YDULHWLHVPRUHUHPXQHUDWLYHDQGOHVVULVN\WRFOLPDWHFKDQJHLPSDFWV'URXJKWWROHUDQWFURSVEUHGVSHFLȴFDOO\WREH adapted to climate challenges in a particular region escape drought through early maturity. b. Integrated Pest and Diseases Management (IPM) Integrated pest management (IPM), also known as Integrated Pest Control (IPC) is a broad-based approach that integrates practices for economic control of pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the Economic Injury Level (EIL). It is a strategy that promotes a safer and more sustainable management of pesticides. IPM lies at the centre of insect, disease, and weed control. The combination of farming strategies, biological control agents, and necessary pesticide and herbicide use can help farmers address pest problems using a variety of methods. IPM reduces the need for pesticides by using several pest management methods; shields the environment from excessive or unnecessary pesticide applications; fosters clean water supplies; and promotes sound structures and healthy plants. IPM contributes to climate change adaptation by providing a healthy and balanced ecosystem in which the YXOQHUDELOLW\RISODQWVWRSHVWVDQGGLVHDVHVLVGHFUHDVHG%\SURPRWLQJDGLYHUVLȴHGIDUPLQJV\VWHPWKHSUDFWLFHRI IPM builds farmers’ resilience to potential risks posed by climate change, such as damage to crop yields caused by newly emerging pests and diseases. +RZHYHUWKHPXOWLSOHLPSDFWVRIFOLPDWHFKDQJHFRXOGVLJQLȴFDQWO\UHGXFHWKHH΍HFWLYHQHVVRIFXUUHQWΖ30VWUDWHJLHV OHDGLQJ WR KLJKHU FURS ORVVHV %HWWHU NQRZOHGJH DQG XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI SHVW EHKDYLRXU XQGHU GL΍HUHQW SURMHFWHG scenarios are required to adopt and develop new IPM technologies to respond to threats resulting from climate change. c. Timely/Early Planting/Sowing Timely land preparation and early planting/sowing (in some places also dry sowing) is a practice of adapting to FOLPDWHFKDQJH7KHSUDFWLFHHQVXUHVRSWLPDOXVHRIWKHVKRUWUDLQVHDVRQDQGPDNHVHɝFLHQWXVHRIDFFXPXODWHG QXWULHQWVIURPRUJDQLFVRXUFHVGXULQJWKHGU\VHDVRQ QLWURJHQȵXVK 7KHXVHRIWKLVSUDFWLFHFDQEHVWUHQJWKHQHG by climate services through timely provision of weather information.

4.2.1.8 Crop Insurance Safety nets are a form of social insurance comprising programmes supported by the public sector or NGOs that provide transfers to prevent the poor from falling below a certain poverty level. These programmes include cash CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 35 transfers, food distribution, seeds and tools distributions, or conditional cash transfers (Devereaux, 2002). Several new initiatives for safety net programmes have recently emerged, including Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Programme (wfp, 2012) and the Kenya Hunger Safety Net Programme (Oxfam, 2010). There has been a continuing debate about WKHUROHRIVXFKSURJUDPPHVYLV¢YLVGHYHORSPHQWDFWLYLWLHV+RZHYHUUHFHQWHYLGHQFHLQGLFDWHVWUDGHR΍VEHWZHHQ protection and development are not pronounced (Ravallion, 2006). Instead, safety net programmes can actually be a form of social investment into human capital (e.g. nutrition, education) and productive capital (e.g. allowing households to adopt higher risk and higher productivity strategies; (SOFI, 2010). Safety nets are increasingly being linked to rights based approaches to food security moving from a charity to entitlements.

4.2.2 Livestock Subsector Practices and Technologies

4.2.2.1 Improved Livestock Breeds One key technology is improving the genetic potential of cattle, chicken, pigs, sheep and goats to produce livestock which grow bigger and faster but also are resistant to drought and diseases. This can be done through cross- breeding of indigenous breeds with improved or exotic breeds to combine the high yield and early maturity of the exotic breeds with the hardiness, disease resistance, and adaptability of local breeds. The aim of cross-breeding is to improve local breeds to improve production of meat, milk and eggs, while reducing time to maturity. This way livestock keepers gain increased incomes on selling more produce, more often.

4.2.2.2 Adapted Livestock 'L΍HUHQW OLYHVWRFN W\SHV DQG EUHHGV UHTXLUH VSHFLȴF HQYLURQPHQWDO FRQGLWLRQV &OLPDWH GHWHUPLQHV WKH W\SH DQG quality of pasture, availability of water, livestock pests and diseases and therefore overall livestock types and their productivity. Adapted livestock types and breeds often survive and do well under extreme climatic conditions. Under the changing climate, care should be taken in deciding on the appropriate livestock enterprise for any particular area.

4.2.2.3 Improved Feeding This entails storing animal feeds (stover, grass, grain) and making better use of feed (by combining types of feed), JURZLQJ JUDVV YDULHWLHV VSHFLȴFDOO\ VXLWHG WR WKH DJURHFRORJLFDO ]RQH DQG PDQ\ RWKHU SUDFWLFHV VXFK DV IRGGHU conservation and animal fattening. Livestock production can be enhanced by adopting improved feeding strategies such as cut and carry, rotational grazing by paddocks, fodder crops, and grassland restoration and conservation. This also involves livestock keepers managing paddocks and/or pastures for ensuring enough fodder for livestock. It can also involve cutting and carrying fodder for feeding livestock at home especially under zero grazing. Keeping animals in paddocks helps also in improving the manure management practices. Livestock feed can be altered to improve its digestibility and provide needed nutrients. Examples of feed supplements are urea–molasses multi-nutrient blocks, low bypass protein, lipids, and calcium hydroxide. Stover mixtures for feed can also be designed to improve digestibility. In addition to providing direct nutrients, urea is converted and V\QWKHVL]HGGXULQJGLJHVWLRQVRWKDWLWFDQSURYLGHPRUHSURWHLQ6WRYHUIURPGL΍HUHQWYDULHWLHVRIWKHVDPHFURS VSHFLHVȋLVPL[HGLQIHHGDQGR΍HUVDZLGHUDQJHRIGLJHVWLELOLW\ Concentrates are livestock feeds for providing basic nutrients required for animal production, including energy, proteins and amino acids (macro-nutrients), and minerals, vitamins and other micro-nutrients. Concentrates may be fed in raw or milled forms as individual feeds (sometimes referred to as straights), or may be blended or formulated into balanced rations for particular production purposes (compound feeds). Compound feeds may be mixed on- farm but are also produced by the commercial feed compounding industry. Other than nutrients, concentrates increase livestock productivity including outputs of livestock products that are achieved from fewer animals. 6HHGFDNHVXFKDVVXQȵRZHUVHHGFDNHLVDE\SURGXFWIURPVXQȵRZHURLOSURFHVVLQJDQGFDQEHXVHGWRIHHGOLYHVWRFN The seedcake can be blended with grass or leguminous pastures, or even crop residues to produce supplementary feed for livestock. This can contribute to development of zero grazing system and enhance productivity as well. This will therefore control extensive use of pastureland hence control associated problems such as soil erosion. 36 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES $OWKRXJKSULPDULO\DPLWLJDWLRQVWUDWHJ\LPSURYLQJOLYHVWRFNIHHGDOVRR΍HUVDGDSWLYHEHQHȴWVE\LQFUHDVLQJERWKWKH H΍HFWLYHQHVVRIIHHGDQGWKHUHVLOLHQFHRIOLYHVWRFN$VIRRGUHVRXUFHVIDFHLQFUHDVHGVWUDLQLQDFKDQJLQJFOLPDWH improving the nutrient quality of available feed will help ranchers maintain herd numbers with less feed. Nutrients DOVR KHOS DQLPDOV FRSH ZLWK H[WUHPH FRQGLWLRQV )RU LQVWDQFH DQLPDOV IDFLQJ KHDW VWUHVV QHHG D VSHFLȴF GLHW WR maintain normal levels of meat or milk production. 2QH SULPDU\ FREHQHȴWV RI LPSURYLQJ OLYHVWRFN IHHG LV D UHGXFWLRQ LQ PHWKDQH &+4) emissions. Climate change PLWLJDWLRQ EHQHȴWV UHVXOW IURP D PRUH HɝFLHQW DEVRUSWLRQ RI QXWULHQWV ZLWK D FRQVHTXHQW UHGXFWLRQ LQ JDVHRXV losses, and the ability to produce comparable amounts of dairy and meat with fewer animals. a. Traditional in-situ Fodder Conservation System Like farmers, livestock keepers (pastoralists) have a rich indigenous knowledge in regard to natural resources management, human and animal diseases relative to their environment. The communities control resource use pattern, and conservation using the traditional knowledge of the ecosystem and the biological diversity of the areas. Among such age old livestock management systems are fodder conservation and grazing land management. Apart IURPFRQVHUYLQJIRGGHUWKHVHV\VWHPVKDYHRWKHUEHQHȴWVZKLFKFRQWULEXWHWRFOLPDWHFKDQJHUHVLOLHQFHVXFKDV soil conservation; restoration of land from degradation; regulation of local climate of an area and conservation of biodiversity. b. Ngitili This is a traditional fodder conservation system that was developed by the Wasukuma agro-pastoralists (Shinyanga) as means of alleviating acute dry season fodder shortage. Ngitili encompasses retaining of an area of standing hay until the rainy season ends, the area remains closed to livestock and other activities at the onset of the rainy season and is opened up at the peak of the dry season to allow the livestock get dry season fodder. Grazing under ngitili normally starts from July/August after crop residues and forage in fallow areas has been depleted; and animals are removed from ngitili after all the fodder is exhausted or when fodder becomes available outside the ngitili. c. Olelii This is a traditional fodder conservation system developed by the Maasai pastoralists (Arusha) as means of conserving fodder for the dry season or for the calves, sick animals and/or milking herd. The vegetation is left to grow and regenerate during wet season and livestock are allowed to graze in dry season. The elder groups oversee and direct the management and use of resources such as grazing pattern and conservation of fodder for dry season grazing. The Traditional ecological and farming knowledge (TEK) systems such as grassland and forest conservation and use, uses of biological diversity (including ethno-veterinary, nutritional and medicinal uses) is practiced and passed from one generation to another through the traditional institutions. d. Alternative Source of Water for Livestock In semi-arid areas, water content of forages is very low during the dry season and due to high evaporation rates, ZDWHUVRXUFHVPD\FRQWDLQKLJKFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIVDOW6XFFXOHQWSODQWVFDQR΍HUDQDOWHUQDWLYHVRXUFHRIZDWHUDV ZHOODVIHHGWRJUD]LQJDQLPDOV6RPHDUHVXɝFLHQWO\SDODWDEOHWREHSUHIHUUHGHYHQZKHQGULQNLQJZDWHULVDYDLODEOH e.g. the juicy herb Commelina and the swollen stems of Pyrenacantha malvifolia, Water melons (Citrullus vulgaris) are available in appreciable quantities in some villages of semi-arid Central Tanzania and are used by livestock as a source of water during the dry season. e. Zero Grazing A zero-grazing system is where grass is mechanically mown and brought to cattle. Its appeal is that it allows cattle to FRQVXPHIUHVKJUDVVIURPȴHOGVWKDWDUHWRRIDUDZD\RUDUHVHSDUDWHGE\EXV\URDGWREHLQFOXGHGLQWKHJUD]LQJ URWDWLRQ=HURJUD]LQJFDQDOVRSOD\DUROHZKHQXWLOLVLQJȴHOGVWRRZHWIRUJUD]LQJSURYLGHGWKHPDFKLQHVHPSOR\HG KDYHVXɝFLHQWO\ZLGHZKHHOVWRVDIHO\GLVWULEXWHWKHLUORDG f. Pasture Management 3DVWXUHPDQDJHPHQWLVDSUDFWLFHRIJURZLQJKHDOWK\JUDVVDQGUHODWHGSODQWVWRSURȴWDEO\VXVWDLQIRUDJHDYDLODELOLW\ DQG OLYHVWRFN SURGXFWLRQ ZKLOH HQVXULQJ HFRORJLFDO KHDOWK 3DVWXUH PDQDJHPHQW FDQ SURYLGH VLJQLȴFDQW EHQHȴWV including improved forage yields, lower feed costs and improve livestock performance. CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 37 Pasture management tends to decrease carbon levels in pastures, releasing it to the atmosphere. The key to preventing *+*FUHDWLRQLVWRPDLQWDLQKHDOWK\KLJKTXDOLW\SDVWXUHV+LJKTXDOLW\IHHGPHDQVKLJKHUIHHGHɝFLHQF\DQGPRUH nutrients absorbed by the animal. The rate of consumption by animal (e.g. cattle) is improved with high quality forage, LQFUHDVLQJWKHHɝFLHQF\RIGLJHVWLRQDQGUHGXFLQJWKHDPRXQWRIWLPHQHHGHGWRJUD]H)DVWHUGLJHVWLRQDQGJUHDWHU IHHGXVHHɝFLHQF\PHDQVOHVVFUHDWLRQRI*+*HPLVVLRQV 3DVWXUHVDOVRKDYHQXPHURXVLQGLUHFWEHQHȴWVWRUHGXFH*+*SURGXFWLRQIURPDQLPDOSURGXFWLRQ3HUHQQLDOIRUDJHV trap atmospheric CO2 with their extensive roots systems, storing carbon (C) meters below ground. Grasses and alfalfa not only improve the soil by increasing organic C, but are capable of absorbing excess water, lowering the water table DQGKHOSLQJWRFRQWUROVRLOVDOLQLW\5HGXFLQJVRLOPRLVWXUHDOVROLPLWVWKHULVNRI1ORVVHVE\GHQLWULȴFDWLRQFXWWLQJ down the amount of nitrous oxide (N2O) creation. Pastures also provide soil cover, protecting against erosion, and maintain or improve water quality.

4.2.2.4 Manure Management Major emissions from manure come in the form of methane (CH4) from anaerobic decomposition of manure during storage, and N22IRUPHGGXULQJVWRUDJHDQGDSSOLFDWLRQ7KHFUHDWLRQRIWKHVHJDVHVLVLQȵXHQFHGE\DYDULHW\RI IDFWRUVWHPSHUDWXUHR[\JHQOHYHOPRLVWXUHRUDPRXQWRIQXWULHQWVΖQWXUQWKHVHIDFWRUVDUHD΍HFWHGE\PDQXUH type, animal diet, the type of manure storage and handling and manure application techniques. To help reduce GHGs creation and work with large amounts of excess manure, it is important that manure management in the province concentrates on disposing manure in an environmentally and economically friendly manner. Objectives for manure management should focus on maintaining or improving local water and air quality by limiting XQSOHDVDQWRGRXUVUHGXFLQJQLWURJHQ 1 DQGSKRVSKRUXV 3 FRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQPDQXUHDQGHɝFLHQWO\VSUHDGLQJ manure. Although many management technologies exist, not all are realistic or cheap enough for farmers to LPSOHPHQW'L΍HUHQWQXWULHQWPDQDJHPHQWVWUDWHJLHVZLOOZRUNEHWWHUIRUGL΍HUHQWIDUPV a. On Farm Biogas Production This is a method to reduce Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emissions and develop more sustainable livestock operations. The GHGs are reduced by production of renewable energy as a substitute for fossil fuels via reduction of fugitive GHGs emissions from stored and land applied manures, as well as by reduction in use of chemical fertilizers in crop production. Utilization of livestock residue in this way is important not only for energy recovery and material recycling but also for preventing environmental pollution.

4.2.3 Fishing and Aquaculture Enterprises

4.2.3.1 Pond Aquaculture/Fish Ponds 7KLVLVDFRPPRQWHFKQRORJ\XVHGLQDTXDFXOWXUHIRUȴVKIDUPLQJ)DUPHUVXVHȴVKSRQGVWRIDUPRUUDLVHȴVKIRU domestic or market purposes. It is very common in areas with easy access to water though in some dry areas farmers DOVRWU\WRGHYHORSȴVKSRQGVRIWHQDVDVHDVRQDODFWLYLW\GXULQJWKHUDLQ\VHDVRQ7KHJUHDWEXONRIDTXDFXOWXUHLQ WKHFRXQWU\LVȴQȴVKFXOWXUH7KHGRPLQDQWIRUPRILQODQGȴQȴVKDTXDFXOWXUHLVLQSRQGVWKHVL]HRIZKLFKUDQJH from a few hundred square meters to a few hectares which are often shallow ponds. 3RO\FXOWXUHLVWKHSUDFWLFHRIFXOWXULQJPRUHWKDQRQHVSHFLHVRIȴVKLQWKHVDPHSRQG)LVK\LHOGXQGHUSRO\FXOWXUH FDQEHKLJKHUDQGIRRGVLQWKHSRQGFDQEHSURSHUO\XWLOL]HGVLQFHWKHGL΍HUHQWȴVKVSHFLHVH[SORLWIRRGDWGL΍HUHQW trophic levels. Fish pond management is critical to environmental impacts. It requires proper management gears at reducing QR[LRXV JDVHV SURGXFWLRQ DQG PLWLJDWH KLJK ULVNV RI GLVHDVHV +RZHYHU LW LV LPSRUWDQW WR XVH ȴVK VSHFLHV ZKLFK FDQHDVLO\DGDSWDQGDUHWROHUDQWWRDSDUWLFXODUVLWXDWLRQ6RPHRIWKHIDUPHGDQGIUHVKZDWHUȴVKDUHWROHUDQWWR ORZR[\JHQOHYHOVKLJKWHPSHUDWXUHDQGVDOLQHFRQGLWLRQV6XFKVSHFLHVLQFOXGH1LOH7LODSLDDQGFDWȴVKΖQ0DULQH HFRORJLHVPLONȴVKLVNQRZQWREHWROHUDQWWRORZR[\JHQOHYHOVKLJKWHPSHUDWXUHDQGSRRUZDWHUTXDOLW\ΖQEUDFNLVK ZDWHUV0R]DPELTXHWLODSLDFDWȴVKDUHH[WUHPHO\WROHUDQWWRSRRUZDWHUTXDOLW\ KLJKOHYHORIDPPRQLDQLWUDWHQLWULWH 38 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES and turbidity), Fish species that can adapt saline water to the level of brackish water are Nile tilapia and Mozambique tilapia. 3RQGSODQDQGPDQDJHPHQWEDVLQJRQNQRZOHGJHRIFOLPDWHLPSDFWVVXFKDVȵRRGLQJWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWFKDOOHQJH WRȴVKSURGXFWLRQLVIHHGLQJSRQGPDQDJHPHQWSRQGVLWHVHOHFWLRQDQGDTXDWLFGLVHDVHPDQDJHPHQW7KHVHDUH very important when considering minimizing climate change impacts.

4.2.3.2 Mariculture Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other SURGXFWVLQWKHRSHQRFHDQDQHQFORVHGVHFWLRQRIWKHRFHDQRULQWDQNVSRQGVRUUDFHZD\VZKLFKDUHȴOOHGZLWK seawater. Aqua-silviculture, the integration of aquaculture and mangrove forestry is an environmentally-friendly and GHGs mitigating mariculture system. Such systems not only sequester carbon, but they are also more resilient to shocks and extreme events and also lead to increased production due to improved ecosystem services.

4.2.3.3 Integrated Aquaculture and Cage Culture a. Integrated aquaculture ΖQWHJUDWHGDTXDFXOWXUHLVDSUDFWLFHWKDWPD\WDNHPDQ\IRUPVULFHFXPȴVKFXOWXUHDQGRUDTXDFXOWXUHLQWHJUDWLRQ with animal husbandry. All these forms are traditional practices, conducted on small-scale, often single unit family RSHUDWLRQVΖQJHQHUDOȴVKVSHFLHVFXOWXUHGDUHWKRVHIHHGLQJORZLQWKHWURSKLFFKDLQ The potential climatic change impact lies in the fact that an increase in water temperature could occur, albeit to less VLJQLȴFDQWOHYHOVWKDQLQWHPSHUDWHFOLPDWHV2YHUDOOWKHUHIRUHFOLPDWLFFKDQJHLQȵXHQFHVRQLQWHJUDWHGDTXDFXOWXUH could be minimal and perhaps as an adaptive measure these practices, which help carbon sequestration, should be further popularized and encouraged and developed to meet the food safety standards. b. Cage culture Globally cage aquaculture is becoming an increasingly important facet of aquaculture development in inland and marine waters and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. This trend is driven through utilizing existing LQODQGZDWHUVIRUIRRGȴVKSURGXFWLRQLQWKHPDULQHHQYLURQPHQWWRIXOȴOWKHLQFUHDVLQJGHPDQGVIRUKLJKHUTXDOLW\ YDOXHGIRRGȴVKDQGDOVRLQODQGFDJHFXOWXUHLVFRQVLGHUHGDQLPSRUWDQWPHDQVRISURYLGLQJDOWHUQDWLYHOLYHOLKRRGV for people.

4.2.3.4 Sustainable Fishing :HOOGHVLJQHGDQGUHVSRQVLEO\XVHGSDVVLYHȴVKLQJJHDUVVXFKDVJLOOQHWVSRWVKRRNDQGOLQHVDQGWUDSVFDQUHGXFH WKH UHTXLUHPHQW IRU IRVVLO IXHO FRQVXPSWLRQ E\ DV PXFK DV  SHUFHQW RYHU FRQYHQWLRQDO DFWLYH ȴVKLQJ JHDUV VXFKDVWUDZOV0RUHRYHUWKHXVHRIELRGHJUDGDEOHPDWHULDOVFDQPLQLPL]HWKHDPRXQWRIJKRVWȴVKLQJZKHQȴVKLQJ JHDUVDUHLQDGYHUWHQWO\ORVWDVDUHVXOWRIEDGZHDWKHU1HZGHVLJQVRIVHOHFWLYHȴVKLQJJHDUFDQUHGXFHWKHFDSWXUH of juveniles and other forms of by catch as well as reducing discards. Innovative technologies such as echo-sounders FDQDOVREHXVHGWRHQVXUHWKDWȴVKLQJJHDUVDUHQRWVHWRQYXOQHUDEOHRUVHQVLWLYHKDELWDWV a. Seaweed Farming Globally, the farming of seaweed has expanded rapidly in recent decades as demand has outstripped the supply available from natural resources. In Tanzania seaweed farming is practiced in Zanzibar and along the Indian Ocean coastal belt. The culture of seaweed requires minimal energy inputs and, therefore, has a relatively small carbon footprint. Moreover, the rapid turnover in seaweed culture, approximately three months per crop (in the tropics), far exceeds the potential carbon uptake that could be obtained through other agricultural activity for a comparable DUHD$GGLWLRQDOO\VXFKV\VWHPVFDQȴOWHUQXWULHQWVDQGSURYLGHDȊFOHDQLQJVHUYLFHȋWRFRDVWDOPDULQHHQYLURQPHQWV CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 39

4.2.4 Other Practices and Technologies

4.2.4.1 Bee-Keeping Traditional beehives are hung on trees close to a nearby forest. To make a hive, a tree is felled and cut into cylindrical logs which are carefully scooped out to form hollows. They are then sealed, leaving some small holes for exit and entry. The hive is split into halves, which the beekeeper attaches together before baiting and installation. At harvest WLPHEHHNHHSHUVPDNHDȴUHQHDUWKHKLYHWRFUHDWHVPRNHDQGGLVPDQWOHWKHZKROHEHHKLYH%HIRUHGLVPDQWOLQJWKH EHHKLYHLWLVGLɝFXOWWRNQRZZKHWKHUWKHUHLVKRQH\LQWKHKLYHV7KHKDOYHVDUHWKHQUHMRLQHGIRUWKHEHHVWRVWDUW the next honey crop. However, this method is tedious in the sense that it is labour intensive and time consuming. The Tanzanian transitional long hive is a single-box rectangular hive that uses frames instead of top-bars. Usually it FRQWDLQVWRIUDPHV$OOWKHIUDPHVDUHSDWWHUQHGDIWHUWKH/DQJVWURWKW\SHEXWWKHGLPHQVLRQVGL΍HUWRVXLW the tropical African bees. Modern hives have straws to test whether the honey is ready for harvesting. By opening the hive and taking out the straw, the farmer will know whether the honey is ready to harvest. This method helps beekeepers to increase production capacity.

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4.2.4.3 Improved Cooking Stoves ΖPSURYHGFRRNLQJVWRYHV Ζ&6 DUHDPDWXUHHQHUJ\WHFKQRORJ\IRUWKHHɝFLHQWFRQYHUVLRQRIHQHUJ\IURPELRPDVVWR KHDW7KH\FDQLQȵXHQFHDJULFXOWXUDOSUDFWLFHVEHFDXVHWKH\UHTXLUHOHVVZRRGZKLFKFDQUHGXFHZRPHQȇVZRUNORDG and the time needed to prepare food. ΖPSURYHGFRRNLQJVWRYHVFDQR΍HUWKHIROORZLQJNH\EHQHȴWVWRORFDOFRPPXQLWLHVRYHUWUDGLWLRQDOVWRYHVRUVWRQHV ȴUHSODFHPRUHIXHOHɝFLHQWDVPRQH\DQGWLPHLVVDYHGLQDFTXLULQJIXHODQGUHGXFHGDPRXQWVRIVPRNHDQG LQGRRU DLU SROOXWLRQ )XUWKHUPRUH RWKHU ZLGHU VRFLDO EHQHȴWV DUH OHVV SUHVVXUH RQ IRUHVW DQG HQHUJ\ UHVRXUFHV reduction of disease caused by indoor air pollution; and, skill development and job creation in the community. 0DQ\RIWRGD\ȇVPRUHHɝFLHQWFRRNLQJVWRYHVKDYHEHHQVKRZQWRUHGXFHIXHOXVHE\SHUFHQWUHVXOWLQJLQ fewer greenhouse gas emissions and reduced impacts on forests, habitats, and biodiversity. Recent evidence also GHPRQVWUDWHVWKDWDGYDQFHG HɝFLHQWDQGORZHPLVVLRQ FRRNLQJVWRYHVDQGIXHOVFDQUHGXFHEODFNFDUERQHPLVVLRQV by 50-90percent (Global Alliance for Clean Stoves, 2013-2016).

4.2.4.4 Improved Post-Harvest Post-harvest practices such as improved storage and processing methods, reduce food losses and women’s workloads and improve food safety. Utilizing improved postharvest practices often results in reduced food losses, LPSURYHGRYHUDOOTXDOLW\DQGIRRGVDIHW\DQGKLJKHUSURȴWVIRUJURZHUVDQGPDUNHWHUV6RPHRIWKHFRPPRQO\XVHG postharvest practices includes winnowing, drying using either solar driers especially for horticultural products or direct sun as in maize and rice using tarpaulin or heavy polythene, concrete slab to maintain the quality, 40 Table 2: CSA packages of technologies and practices in the study regions Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 1 & 2 Bagamoyo C1, (other C Weakly Mainly Loamy  Low natural Maize, cassava, x Ridge cultivation on slopping x Capacity building to District, similar AEZ bimodal / sands, sandy soil fertility paddy, land supported with women and youth Pwani C2, C3, C5, unimodal loams or sand and Low pineapple, application of manure, cover farmers C6, C7) with rainfall clay loam on WHC in cashew nut, cropping, orchards x Orchards are perennials ranging from sloping lands of sloping coconut, x Irrigation with high water thus require gender 1000 to low natural fertility areas livestock, XVHHɝFLHQWWHFKQRORJLHV analysis to understand 1200 mm and low WHC;  Slope (in poultry and and practices on valleys and inter and intra- and Sand clay places) ȴVKLQJ gardening (vegetable) household dynamics loam, sand clay  Moderate x Use of adapted crop in terms of land access or clay of medium soil fertility varieties, application of and control. The same fertility and WHC and WHC appropriate organic and applies to other AEZs on valleys, bottom on valleys inorganic fertilizers, and x Gender inclusiveness lands and bottom good agronomic practices in selection of crop lands. including integrated pest varieties or livestock management; appropriate breeds is crucial agro-forestry practices that because women are the integrate crops and livestock custodians of household x Use of adapted livestock granaries, but also the breeds and improved managers of vegetable livestock management gardens. This applies to practices similar practices in the x Aquaculture or integrated other AEZs aquaculture and cage x Introduction of improved farming livestock breeds e.g dairy require gender analysis to understand socio-cultural norms and practices in term of livestock management, division of labour and VKDULQJRIEHQHȴWVIURP WKHGL΍HUHQWHQWHUSULVHV CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 3 Temeke C2 (other C Weakly Mainly Loamy  Low natural Vegetable, x Ridge cultivation on slopping x Enhance women and district, Dar similar AEZ bimodal/ sands, sandy soil fertility paddy, land supported with youth capacity to adapt es Salaam C1, C3, C5, Unimodal loams or sand and Low cassava, maize, application of manure, cover x As above for the C6, C7) with rainfall clay loam on WHC in pineapple, cropping, orchards; agro- orchards, use of adapted ranging from sloping lands sloping livestock and forestry crops and livestock. 800 to 1000 of low natural areas ȴVKIDUPLQJ x Irrigation with water use Gender analysis is mm fertility and low  Slope (in HɝFLHQWWHFKQRORJLHVDQG crucial. WHC; and deep, places) practices on valleys and moderately well  Moderate gardening (vegetable) drained usually soil fertility x Use of adapted crop calcareous, black, and WHC varieties, application of dark grey or on valleys appropriate organic and brown cracking and bottom inorganic fertilizers, and clays of moderate lands. good agronomic practices natural fertility on including integrated pest valleys, bottom management lands x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management practices x Aquaculture or integrated aquaculture and cage farming CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 41 42 Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 4 Lindi district, C2, (other B Unimodal Soils are deep,  Low natural Cassava, x Ridge cultivation on slopping x Capacity building to Lindi similar AEZ with rainfall well drained, soil fertility sesame, land supported with women and youth C1, C3, C5, ranging from reddish and and Low sorghum, application of manure, cover farmers C6, C7) 800 to 1200 yellowish sandy WHC in maize, coastal cropping, orchards x Potential for women to mm clay loams and sloping ȴVKLQJDQG x Use of conservation EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG sandy clays, areas livestock agriculture practices and productivity with low natural  Slope (in technologies x Labour intensive fertility; and places) x Use of adapted crop interventions such as complex of rock  Moderate varieties, application of Conservation Agriculture outcrops, surface soil fertility appropriate organic and where terracing may ironstone, stony and WHC inorganic fertilizers, and require heavy labour, and shallow soils; on valleys good agronomic practices careful attention to and moderately and bottom including integrated pest gender heterogeneity of well drained, lands. management household needs and shallow, usually x Use of adapted livestock constraints is important calcareous, dark breeds and improved for adapting CA to grey or black, livestock management PD[LPLVHEHQHȴWVDWWKH cracking clays x 8VHRIDSSURSULDWHȴVKLQJ individual and household with moderately practices (and gears) level. natural fertility. 13 Mvomero E9, (other B Unimodal Flat alluvial plains  Moderate Paddy, maize, x Irrigation with water use x Enhance women and district, similar AEZ with Rainfall with homogenous soil fertility VXQȵRZHUDQG HɝFLHQWWHFKQRORJLHVDQG youth capacity to adapt Morogoro C4, E10) range from sedimentation  Drainage (in livestock practices (e.g. SRI) x As above for the 800 – 1000 pattern. places) x Use adapted crop orchards, use of adapted mm. Variable Major soils are  Rainfall varieties, Application of crops and livestock. deep, variability appropriate organic and Gender analysis is imperfectly to inorganic fertilizers, and crucial. poorly drained, good agronomic practices dark grey or grey including integrated pest brown, often management mottled clays x Use of conservation (clay agriculture practices and 40-70percent), technologies more compact x Use of adapted livestock and contain fewer breeds and improved sandy strata. livestock management Natural fertility practices status is low to CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES moderate Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 4 Newala E2, other B Unimodal soils are  Inadequate Cashew nut, x Use of soil and water x Enhance women and district, similar AEZ with Rainfall moderately deep rainfall cassava, conservation technologies youth capacity to adapt Mtwara E2, E3, E4, range from to deep, well  Low natural VXQȵRZHU (tie ridging, contour ridges); x Potential for women to E8, N1, N2, 800 – 1000 drained, reddish soil fertility sorghum, appropriate agro-forestry EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG N5, N7, N8, mm. and yellowish  Low soil pigeon pea, practices productivity N9, N10, sandy loams water sesame and x Use of conservation x As above for the P1, P9) and sandy clays; holding livestock agricultural practices with orchards, use of adapted and moderately capacity emphasis of minimum tillage, crops and livestock. deep to deep well  Slope (in cover crops, manuring and Gender analysis is drained, places) crop rotation crucial. dark red to red, x Use of adapted crop varieties friable clays with (drought tolerant and early low natural fertility maturing) supported with good agronomic practices including integrated pest management x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management 14 Magoma in E2, other D Unimodal Mainly deep, well  Inadequate Maize, paddy, x Irrigation with water use x Enhance women and Korogwe similar AEZ with Rainfall drained, dark rainfall cassava, fruit, HɝFLHQWWHFKQRORJLHVDQG youth capacity to adapt district, E2, E3, E4, range from reddish brown,  Very low to vegetable and practices (e.g. SRI) x Potential for women to Tanga E8, N1, N2, 800 – 1000 yellowish red or moderate livestock x Use of conservation EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG N5, N7, N8, mm. red sandy clay natural soil agricultural practices with productivity N9, N10, loams and sandy fertility emphasis of minimum tillage, x As above for the P1, P9) clays with low  Low soil cover crops, manuring and orchards, use of adapted natural fertility; water crop rotation; appropriate crops and livestock. and deep, holding agro-forestry practices Gender analysis is moderately well capacity x Use of adapted crop crucial. to imperfectly  Slope varieties supported with CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES drained, brown, (inplaces) good agronomic practices pale yellow, light including integrated pest grey sands and management loamy sands with x Aquaculture or integrated very low natural aquaculture and cage fertility farming x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management. 43 44 Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 15 Madanga C1, (other C Bimodal Major soils are  Low natural Cashew, x Ridge cultivation on slopping x Enhance women and in Pangani similar AEZ with Rainfall moderately deep soil fertility coconut, land supported with youth capacity to adapt districts, C2, C3, C5, range from to deep, well and Low maize, cassava, application of manure, cover x Potential for women to Tanga C6, C7) 100 – 1200 drained, WHC in sesame, fruits, cropping, orchards EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG mm. red, yellowish red sloping livestock and x Irrigation with water use productivity or orange sands areas FRDVWDOȴVKLQJ HɝFLHQWWHFKQRORJLHVDQG x As above for the and  Slope (in practices on valleys and orchards, use of adapted loamy sands with places) gardening (vegetable) crops and livestock. very low natural  Moderate x Use of adapted crop Gender analysis is fertility; and soil fertility varieties, application of crucial. shallow to deep, and WHC appropriate organic and moderately well to on valleys inorganic fertilizers, and imperfectly and bottom good agronomic practices drained, lands. including integrated pest calcareous, management; appropriate black, dark grey agro-forestry practices or brown cracking x Use of adapted livestock clays breeds and improved with moderate livestock management natural fertility. practices x 8VHR΍DSSURSULDWHȴVKLQJ practices (and gears) CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 19 Nzega P3, (other B Unimodal Major soils  Moderate Tobacco, x Ridge cultivation on x Enhance women and district, similar AEZ with rainfall are deep, well slope (in cotton, maize, slopping land (tie ridges, pit youth capacity to adapt Tabora P4, P5, P6, ranging from drained, red, places) paddy, cassava, cultivation, Fanya Juu – Fanya x Potential for women to P7, P8, P9, 600 - 1000 yellowish red or  Moderate sorghum and Chini ridges) supported with EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG P13) orange loamy natural soil livestock application of manure, cover productivity sands, gravely fertility cropping x Heavy labour demand in sandy loams and  Low to x Use of appropriate rain Conservation Agriculture sandy clay loams, moderate water harvesting and storage gender analysis a with very low soil water practices prerequisite to maximise natural fertility holding x Use of adapted crop varieties EHQHȴWVDWWKHLQGLYLGXDO and low WHC; and capacity,) and good agronomic and household level. shallow, stony,  Shallow soil practices including rock outcrops, or depth in integrated pest management surface ironstone; places. on slopping lands and imperfectly x Use of conservation drained, shallow agricultural practices with to deep often emphasis of minimum calcareous, black, tillage, cover crops and crop dark grey or rotation brown cracking x Use of agroforestry and clays with high improved bee keeping natural fertility x improved bans in tobacco curing x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management. CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 45 46 Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 9 & 20 Kigoma UjijiW2, (other E Unimodal Soils are deep,  Moderate Palm oil, x Soil and water conservation x Enhance women and and Buhigwe similar AEZ with rainfall well drained, to very low maize, cassava, technologies and practices youth capacity to adapt Districts, W1, W3, ranging from yellowish or natural soil banana, (terracing, Fanya Juu – Fanya x Potential for women to Kigoma W4) 1000 - 1500 reddish sandy fertility tea, cotton, Chini) EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG clays to clays with  Low soil beans, sweet x Permanent soil cover productivity very low to low water potatoes, crops (fruit, vegetable, x As above for the natural fertility; holding FR΍HH agroforestry) in combination orchards, use of adapted and deep, well capacity livestock and with, application of crops and livestock. drained,  Steep slopes ȴVKLQJ appropriate organic and Gender analysis is yellowish or (in places) inorganic fertilizers, and crucial. reddish sandy  Shallow soil good agronomic practices clays to clays depth in including integrated pest with moderate places management natural fertility. x Use of adapted crop varieties and good agronomic practices including integrated pest management on slopping lands x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management. x 8VHRIDSSURSULDWHȴVKLQJ practices (and gears) x Aquaculture or integrated aquaculture and cage farming CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 18 Igokelo in P8, (other A Unimodal Major soils  Moderate Cotton, paddy, x Ridge cultivation on slopping x Enhance women and Misungwi similar AEZ with rainfall are shallow, slope (in PDL]HȴVKLQJ land (tie ridge cultivation, youth capacity to adapt district, P3, P4, P5, ranging from imperfectly places) and livestock Fanya Juu – Fanya Chini x Potential for women to Mwanza P6, P7, P9, 600 - 1000 drained, dark grey  Moderate ridges) supported with EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG 13) or brown sands natural soil application of manure, cover productivity to sandy clays fertility cropping x As above for the with hardpan  Low to x Use of adapted crop varieties orchards, use of adapted within 50 cm moderate and good agronomic crops and livestock. depth, calcareous soil water practices including Gender analysis is and sodic in holding integrated pest management crucial. the subsoil capacity,) x Use of conservation with moderate  Shallow soil agricultural practices with natural fertility; depth in emphasis of minimum and shallow to places. tillage, cover crops and crop deep, imperfectly rotation drained, x Use of agroforestry and calcareous, black, improved bee keeping dark grey or x Use of adapted livestock brown cracking breeds and improved clays with high livestock management. natural fertility; x 8VHRIDSSURSULDWHȴVKLQJ and moderately practices (and gears) deep, well drained, red or brown gravely, sandy loams and sandy clay loams, with low natural fertility. CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 47 48 Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 7 Ihanda in H5, (other E Unimodal Major soils are  Steep slope Maize, Beans, x Soil and water conservation x Enhance women and Mbozi district similar AEZ with rainfall deep, (high erosion Paddy, Cocoa, technologies and practices youth capacity to adapt Mbeya H1, H2, H3, ranging from well drained, dark risk), Banana, (terracing, Fanyajuu – x Potential for women to H6, H7, R1, 1000 – 2000 grey brown loamy  Moderate to &R΍HH fanyachini) EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG R2, R3 sands, sandy Low natural 6XQȵRZHU x Use of agroforestry (fruit productivity loams and loams soil fertility, Livestock and crops, vegetable) with x As above for the with high natural ȴVKIDUPLQJ improved bee keeping in orchards, use of adapted fertility; combination with, application crops and livestock. and deep, well of appropriate organic and Gender analysis is drained, yellowish inorganic fertilizers, and crucial. or reddish sandy good agronomic practices clays to clays with including integrated pest moderate natural management fertility. x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management x Aquaculture or integrated aquaculture and cage farming CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 10 0XȴQGL H1, (other D Unimodal Major soils  Steep slope Maize, x Soil and water conservation x Enhance women and district, Iringa similar AEZ, with rainfall are deep, well (high erosion Sorghum, technologies and practices youth capacity to adapt H2, H3, H6, ranging from drained, yellowish risk), 6XQȵRZHU (ridging (contour ridges, x Potential for women to H7, R1, R2, 600 – 1600 or reddish sandy  Moderate to Tobacco, Fanya Juu – Fanya Chini EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG R3) mm clays to clays Low natural Tea, Rice, ridges etc) productivity with moderate soil fertility, Beans, Fruits, x Use of conservation x As above for the natural fertility; Vegetables and agricultural practices with orchards, use of adapted and moderately livestock emphasis of minimum tillage, crops and livestock. deep to deep, well cover crops, manuring and Gender analysis is drained, reddish crop rotation crucial. and yellowish x Use of agroforestry (fruit x In tobacco farming use sandy loams crops, vegetable) with of child labour has been and sandy clays, improved bee keeping in a major concern and with low natural combination with, application thus the need for gender fertility. of appropriate organic and responsive interventions. inorganic fertilizers, and good agronomic practices including integrated pest management x Use of improved tobacco and tea curing bans x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 49 50 Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 6 Namtumbo E7, (other E Unimodal Major soils  Steep slope Maize, Cassava, x Ridge cultivation on x Enhance women and district, similar AEZ, with rainfall are deep to (high erosion Yam, Sweet slopping land (tie ridges, pit youth capacity to adapt Ruvuma E10, E11, ranging from moderately deep, risk), potatoes, cultivation, Fanya Juu – Fanya x Potential for women to E12, E13, 800 – 1000 well drained,  Moderate to Paddy, Chini ridges) supported with EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG E14, E15) mm dark red to red Low natural Tobacco and application of manure, cover productivity to friable (acidic) soil fertility, livestock cropping x As above for the clays with low to x Use of adapted crop varieties orchards, use of adapted moderate natural and good agronomic crops and livestock. soil practices including Gender analysis is integrated pest management crucial. on slopping lands x Gender responsive x Use of conservation interventions in the agricultural practices with tobacco farming emphasis of minimum communities. tillage, cover crops and crop rotation x Use of agroforestry and improved bee keeping x improved bans in tobacco curing x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management. CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 8 Sumbawanga U, E Unimodal Major soils are  Very low to Maize, beans, x Ridge cultivation on slopping x Enhance women and district, (associated with rainfall moderately deep moderate cassava, wheat, land (tie ridge cultivation, youth capacity to adapt Rukwa AEZ, R1), ranging from to deep, well natural soil VXQȵRZHU Fanya Juu – Fanya Chini x Potential for women to 800 – 1000 drained, reddish fertility livestock and ridges) supported with EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG mm and yellowish  Low soil ȴVKIDUPLQJ application of manure, cover productivity sandy clay loams water cropping x As above for the and sandy clays holding x Use of adapted crop varieties orchards, use of adapted with low natural capacity and good agronomic crops and livestock. fertility; and  Slope (in practices including IPM on Gender analysis is moderately deep places) slopping lands crucial. to deep, well  Shallow soil x Use of conservation drained, red, depth in agricultural practices with yellowish red or places emphasis of minimum orange sands and tillage, cover crops and crop loamy sands with rotation very low natural x Use of agroforestry and fertility and low improved bee keeping WHC; x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management x Aquaculture or integrated aquaculture and cage farming (with adapted species) x Fishing using appropriate ȴVKLQJJHDUV CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 51 52 Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 17 Moshi Rural N4, (other C Unimodal Major soils  Steep slope 0DL]H&R΍HH x Soil and water conservation x Enhance women and district, similar AEZ, with rainfall are deep, well  Limited soil Banana, technologies and practices youth capacity to adapt Kilimanjaro N2, N5, N6) ranging from drained, depth (stony) beans, fruits, (terracing or contour ridges, x Potential for women to 500 – 1400 reddish clay in places vegetable and Fanya Juu – Fanya Chini EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG mm loams and clays livestock ridges etc) productivity with high natural x Use of agroforestry (fruit x As above for the fertility and crops, vegetable) with orchards and other accumulation of improved bee keeping in agroforestry practices, partly decayed combination with, application use of adapted crops plant material of appropriate organic and and livestock. Gender in permanent inorganic fertilizers, and analysis is crucial. swamps good agronomic practices . including integrated pest management x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management x Aquaculture or integrated aquaculture and cage farming (with adapted species) CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 16 Arumeru N5, (other C Unimodal Major soils are  Low to &R΍HH x Soil and water conservation x Enhance women and district, similar AEZ, with rainfall shallow to deep, moderate banana, technologies and practices youth capacity to adapt Arusha N2, N4, N6) ranging from well drained, dark natural soil vegetable, (terracing or contour ridges, x Potential for women to 600 – 1200 brown or dark fertility avocado and Fanya Juu – Fanya Chini EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG mm grey calcareous  Low soil round potato, ridges etc) supported with productivity sandy loams with water Maize, Cassava, application of manure, cover moderate natural holding Beans, fruits, cropping fertility; and deep, capacity Vegetable and x Use of agroforestry (fruit well drained, dark  Slope (in Livestock crops, vegetable) with grey or brown places) improved bee keeping in loamy sands,  Shallow soil combination with, application sandy loams and depth in of appropriate organic and loams with high places inorganic fertilizers, and natural fertility. good agronomic practices including IPM x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management x Aquaculture or integrated aquaculture and cage farming (with adapted species) x Irrigation with water use HɝFLHQWWHFKQRORJLHVDQG practices on valleys and gardening (vegetable) x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 53 54 Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 12 Kikombo Semi-Arid A Unimodal Major soils are  Moderate Sorghum, x Use of appropriate rain x Enhance women and Ward in P9, (other with rainfall deep, soil fertility 6XQȵRZHU water harvesting and storage youth capacity to adapt Dodoma similar E2, ranging from imperfectly to  Drainage (in Groundnut, practices example Chololo x Potential for women to district, E3, E4, E8, 800 – 1000 poorly drained, places) Bulrush Millet, pits) EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG Dodoma N1, N2, N5, mm dark grey or grey  Rainfall Maize, Sesame x Use of conservation productivity N7, N8, N9, brown, clays variability Livestock and agricultural practices with N10, P1, with low to beekeeping emphasis of minimum tillage, P2, P10, moderate natural cover crops, manuring and P12, S1, S2, fertility. crop rotation x Use of adapted crop varieties (drought tolerant and early maturing) supported with good agronomic practices including integrated pest management x Use of agroforestry and improved bee keeping practices x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management. CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES Study District and Livelihood Recommended CSA packages AEZ ACZ Rainfall Soil type Limitations Gender Recommendations sites region Enterprise of Technologies and Practices 21  Babati  Semi- A  Unimodal  Mainly deep,  Inadequate  Maize, x Use of appropriate rain x Enhance women and district, Arid with well drained, rainfall 6XQȵRZHU water harvesting and storage youth capacity to adapt Manyara  E2, Rainfall dark reddish  Very low to Pigeon pea, practices, pit cultivation e.g. x Potential for women to (other range brown, moderate sorghum Chololo pits) EHQHȴWIURPLQFUHDVHG similar from 800 yellowish red natural soil and livestock x Use of soil and water productivity AEZ, E3, – 1000 or red sandy fertility conservation practices on x As above for the E4, E8, mm. clay loams  Low soil slopping land terracing, orchards and other N1, N2, and sandy water ridging, Fanya Juu – Fanya agroforestry practices, N5, N7, clays with low holding Chini ridges) supported with use of adapted crops N8, N9, natural fertility; capacity application of manure, cover and livestock. Gender N10, and deep,  Slope (in cropping analysis is crucial. P1, P2, moderately well places) x Use of conservation P9, P10, to imperfectly  Shallow soil agricultural practices with P12, S1, drained, brown, depth in emphasis of minimum tillage, S2) pale yellow, places cover crops, manuring and light grey sands crop rotation and loamy x Use of agroforestry and sands with very improved bee keeping low natural practices fertility x Use of adapted crop varieties (drought tolerant and early maturing) supported with good agronomic practices including IPM x Use of adapted livestock breeds and improved livestock management. CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES, CSA PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES 55 56 CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING 57 Strong institutional support is required to: promote inclusivity in decision making; improve the dissemination of LQIRUPDWLRQSURYLGHȴQDQFLDOVXSSRUWDQGDFFHVVWRPDUNHWVSURYLGHLQVXUDQFHWRFRSHZLWKULVNVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK climate shocks and the adoption of new practices; and support farmers’ collective actions. Many institutions and stakeholders, including farmers (and farmer organizations), private sector entities, public sector organizations, research institutes, educational institutions, and Civil Society Organizations can play important roles in supporting the adoption and up-scaling of climate-smart agriculture. Successful CSA technologies and practices can be up- scaled with active participation of all stakeholders. Communities need to be involved and farmers are encouraged to be innovative. Multi-stakeholders’ participation and active community involvement in projects/program design and development are critical for successful climate-smart agriculture implementation and up-scaling.

5.1 Roles

5.1.1 Government x The Government should sensitize and create awareness on impacts of climate change, and appropriate technologies and practices for adaptation. This can be done using various means such as mass media (radio, TV, newspapers, social media and drama groups), farmers’ exhibitions and resource centres (demonstrations). )RUH[DPSOHLQWKHFDVHRIPDVVPHGLDWKHJRYHUQPHQWVKRXOGȴUVWLGHQWLI\DQGVHOHFWLQWHUHVWHGPHGLDWR engage in disseminating and promoting the CSA guideline. Government can also help in bringing together GL΍HUHQWPHGLDJURXSVWRIRUPDWLRQRIPHGLDQHWZRUNVRUZRUNLQJJURXSVRQ&6$SURPRWLRQLQ7DQ]DQLD x Government should organize and conduct meeting for capacity building for media representatives to enable them understand and then engage in disseminating and promoting the CSA guideline appropriately. x 7KHJRYHUQPHQWVKRXOGSURPRWHGRFXPHQWDWLRQZLGHVKDULQJDQGGLVVHPLQDWLRQRILGHQWLȴHG&6$WHFKQRORJLHV DQGSUDFWLFHV7KLVZLOOHQDEOHPRUHIDUPHUVDQGRWKHUSOD\HUVWRH΍HFWLYHO\DGRSW&6$ x Build the capacity of extension, producers and other stakeholders in the use of existing/new/improved CSA technologies and practices; x The government should establish partnership/collaboration with institutions and the private sector that will help and improve access of required implements/equipment including promoting local manufacturing of equipment and maintenance/service of equipment or facilitating purchase of those equipment such as rippers, biogas plants, and the ngwambaKRHIRUXSVFDOLQJLGHQWLȴHG&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHV x Links should be established to connect farmers with input and output markets and service providers (strengthen YDOXHFKDLQDQGWHFKQLFDOEDFNVWRSSLQJ IRUIDFLOLWDWLQJXSVFDOLQJRILGHQWLȴHG&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHV x )LQDQFLDOVXSSRUWRURSSRUWXQLWLHVIURPERWKSXEOLFDQGSULYDWHVHFWRUVWRIDUPHUVSDVWRUDOLVWVȴVKDQGIRUHVW GHSHQGHQWFRPPXQLWLHVVKRXOGEHSURYLGHGWRXSVFDOHLGHQWLȴHG&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHV x Increase public expenditure into research and development and innovations through national budget; x ΖQWHQVLI\ ȴHOG GHPRQVWUDWLRQȴHOG GD\VȇVWXG\ WRXUV WR HQKDQFH DGRSWLRQ RI H[LVWLQJQHZLPSURYHG &6$ technologies and practices; x 6HQVLWL]HDQGSURPRWHSULYDWHVHFWRUWRLQYHVWRQXSVFDOLQJEHVWLGHQWLȴHG&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHV including provision of climate services. Also support development of private sector input and appropriate CSA technologies outreach and distribution networks; x Develop and provide improved Early Warning information (weather and climate) to help farmers and other VWDNHKROGHUVLQXSVFDOLQJLGHQWLȴHG&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHV x Establish and ensure public–private partnership in coordinating climate information services at all levels. The aim of climate information service is to develop and provide appropriate climate knowledge and information, which local farmers, experts (e.g. planners and extension workers) and also researchers use for agricultural related activities; x (VWDEOLVKDIHHGEDFNPHFKDQLVPIRUHYDOXDWLRQSURFHVVRIPHVVDJHVGHOLYHUHGIRUXSVFDOLQJRILGHQWLȴHG&6$ technologies and practices; and x 0RQLWRUFURSVOLYHVWRFNDQGȴVKSHVWVDQGGLVHDVHVD΍HFWLQJXSVFDOLQJRILGHQWLȴHG&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQG practices. 58 CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING

5.1.2 NGOs, and Development and Research Partners x NGOs are heavily engaged in areas of climate-smart agriculture and natural resources management and can SURYLGHWHFKQLFDODVVLVWDQFHWR0$/)IRULPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH$&53LQFOXGLQJFOLPDWHȴQDQFHUHDGLQHVVDQG project feasibility studies. x 5HVHDUFKHUVΖQVWLWXWLRQV FDQ KHOS LQ EULQJLQJ WRJHWKHU GL΍HUHQW VWDNHKROGHUV XVLQJ /HDUQLQJ DQG 3UDFWLFH Alliance (LPA) approach which engages key stakeholders including policy makers, practitioners and farmers to join and work together in addressing existing problems and identify potential solutions. The LPA approach has WKHFDSDFLW\WRLQȵXHQFHFKDQJHLQDWWLWXGHVWUDWHJLHVSODQQLQJDQGUHVRXUFHDOORFDWLRQVIRUXSVFDOLQJ&6$ best technologies and practices. x NGOs, development partners and researchers and institutions (Universities) should facilitate capacity building to increase knowledge and skills on up scaling best CSA technologies and practices through training to farmers DQGH[WHQVLRQVWD΍ x NGOs and development partners can also help in changing the mind-set of policy makers, practitioners and also farmers by emphasizing the importance of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) that is compatible with best CSA WHFKQRORJLHV DQG SUDFWLFHV DQG VXSSRUWHG ZLWK VFLHQWLȴF NQRZOHGJH LQ VFDOLQJ XS WKURXJK FRPPXQLFDWLQJ UHVHDUFKȴQGLQJVRQΖ.DQGWKURXJKWUDLQLQJ x Researchers and development partners to conduct participatory research work on improved technologies and practices that is informed by needs of users and agro-ecological zones along the value chain. In addition to conduct on-farm research into low-cost appropriate technologies and practices and deliver them as packages.

5.1.3 Private Sector They mainly collaborate with research institutions to develop and test technologies that can yield good results in adapting to climate change. Climate change is a challenge that needs both public and private interventions, so the SULYDWHVHFWRUFDQSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQLGHQWLI\LQJRSSRUWXQLWLHVPD[LPL]LQJSURȴWDQGPDQDJLQJULVNV:RUNLQJ with the private sector allows public institutions to multiply the number of partners to work with, thus enabling scale. But the public sector must empower the private sector to invest in climate-relevant activities and products. They can do this by creating enabling environments and enacting conducive policies that encourage investments. CSA initiatives R΍HU opportunities to UHȴQH approaches for private sector engagement with smallholder farmers in ways that improve outcomes for both parties through commercially viable partnerships. This challenge brings on board other partners such as governments, donors, and services providers who have an interest in supporting smallholder farmers.

5.1.4 Farmers x )DUPHUV VKRXOG IRUP JURXSV EXW DOVR LGHQWLI\ FKDPSLRQ IDUPHUV ZKR DUH YHU\ H΍HFWLYH LQ REWDLQLQJ DQG disseminating knowledge of CSA technologies and practices. Establishing farmers’ groups and champion farmers should of course consider social dimensions due to the fact that the preferences of dissemination SDWKZD\VDOZD\VGL΍HUDPRQJJHQGHUJURXSV x )DUPHUVVKRXOGHQJDJHLQIDUPHUȴHOGVFKRROV ))6 ZKLFKZLOOLQFOXGHGHPRSORWVWRKHOSOHDUQDQGGLVVHPLQDWH practical knowledge on CSA packages; x /HDUQLQJYLVLWVDQGRUIDUPHUȴHOGGD\VVKRZVVKRXOGEHRUJDQL]HGDQGIDFLOLWDWHGIRUIDUPHUVΖQDGGLWLRQ H[WHQVLRQVWD΍SULYDWHVHFWRUDQGSROLF\DQGGHFLVLRQPDNHUVVKRXOGOHDUQE\VHHLQJ7KLVZLOOKHOSIDUPHUV share knowledge and experiences of CSA practices among themselves, but also with policy and decision makers, extension agents and private sector; x )DUPHUVVKRXOGEHVXSSRUWHGȴQDQFLDOO\DQGRUHPSRZHUHGWRHVWDEOLVKDQGRSHUDWHUHJLVWHUHGVDYLQJVDQG ORDQJURXSVWRFDWDO\VHXSVFDOLQJEHVWLGHQWLȴHG&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHV x Knowledge sharing products (KSPs) should be designed to suit each category of stakeholder. For those with ORZ HGXFDWLRQ OHYHO ȴHOG GD\V FRXOG EH PRUH DSSURSULDWH PRGH RI GLVVHPLQDWLRQ IDUPHUV ZLWK VPDOO IDUP VL]H SUHIHU IHOORZ IDUPHUWUDLQHUV ȴHOG YLVLWV ZKLOH \RXQJ DQG HGXFDWHG IDUPHUV SULQW PDWHULDOV HOHFWURQLF knowledge sharing such as use of media and mobile phones could be appropriate; CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING 59

5.1.5 Media x 0HGLDVKRXOGHQJDJHLQVROLFLWLQJLQIRUPDWLRQIURPUHVHDUFKHUVLQFOXGLQJXQGHUWDNLQJȴHOGYLVLWVWRYDULRXV locations in Tanzania for information gathering and sharing x Organize programmes especially radios, TV and social networks to disseminate CSA technologies and practices that can be adopted by farmers to improve their production; x 0HGLDVKRXOGGLVVHPLQDWHWKH&6$JXLGHOLQHDQGKHQFHLQȵXHQFHSROLF\PDNHUVWRSXWJUHDWHUDWWHQWLRQRQ CSA technologies and practices in policy formulation and planning to enhance agricultural production in relation to climate changes; x 3UHSDUHGRFXPHQWDULHVRQ&6$DQGGLVWULEXWHWRYDULRXVXVHUVDQGEHQHȴFLDULHVLQ7DQ]DQLDDQGEH\RQG

5.2 Approaches The agricultural extension approach in Tanzania involves farmers’ groups in the planning and implementation SURFHVVΖWLVDOVRLQWHJUDWLQJGL΍HUHQWH[WHQVLRQSURYLGHUVDOORZLQJURRPIRUSOXUDOLVWLFH[WHQVLRQDSSURDFKHVDQG HPSRZHULQJIDUPHUVRUJDQL]DWLRQDOO\DQGȴQDQFLDOO\WRGHPDQGIRUDSSURSULDWHVHUYLFHV7KHH[WHQVLRQVHUYLFHVXVH DFRPELQDWLRQRIGLVVHPLQDWLRQSDWKZD\VVXFKDVGHPRQVWUDWLRQSORWV))6IDUPHUȴHOGGD\VH[FKDQJHYLVLWVVWXG\ tours, technology transfer model, technical publications, training manuals/guidelines, radio/TV programs, cinema shows, agricultural shows/exhibitions, ICT facilities including mobile phones, website, emails and use of WARCs (equipped with technical information and few have computers). Also they use focus farmer groups and innovation and/or stakeholder platforms. 7KHVSHFLȴFDSSURDFKHVDQGPHWKRGVDUHVHOHFWHGEDVHGRQWKHORFDOVLWXDWLRQDQGWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHWDUJHW JURXSZKLOHDVVXULQJPRVWFRVWH΍HFWLYHFRPELQDWLRQRIDSSURDFKHVDQGPHWKRGVWRRSWLPLVHWKHLQWHQGHGLPSDFW

5.2.1 Gender Responsive Approach To succeed, the climate-smart agricultural practices depend on institutional and behavioral change, which is not SRVVLEOH ZLWKRXW VRFLDO DQDO\VLV LQFOXGLQJ JHQGHU DQDO\VLV  LQȵXHQFLQJ SROLFLHV SURMHFWV DQG RWKHU LQWHUYHQWLRQV aimed at achieving sustainable CSA. Social inequality and social inclusion, particularly in reference to gender, have been recognized as a foundational issue in development, and a growing body of evidence demonstrates that more equal gender relations within households and communities lead to better agricultural and development outcomes, including increases in farm productivity and improvements in family nutrition (Farnworth et al. 2013; Farnworth and Colverson 2015). $ QXPEHU RI GRFXPHQWV UHȵHFW WKH FRQVHQVXV WKDW JHQGHUEDVHG FRQVWUDLQWV PXVW EH DGGUHVVHG WR LQFUHDVH agricultural productivity, improve food and nutrition security, reduce poverty, and build the resilience of rural populations. Recent work calls for development practitioners to understand and systematically engage with the complexities and variability of gendered roles and resources. By the same token, CSA strategies are unlikely to be H΍HFWLYH OHW DORQH HTXLWDEOH RU WUDQVIRUPDWLYH ZLWKRXW DFWLYH DWWHQWLRQ WR JHQGHU %HUQLHU HW DO   *HQGHU UHVSRQVLYHSROLF\DQGSUDFWLFHUHFRJQL]HDQGDGGUHVVWKHVSHFLȴFQHHGVDQGUHDOLWLHVRIZRPHQDQGPHQEDVHGRQ the social construction of gender roles. Gender transformative interventions seek to transform gender roles and promote more gender-equitable relationships between men and women. They challenge the underlying causes of gender inequality that is rooted in broad political, economic, and socio-cultural structures. Because gender- transformative approaches seek to change rigid gender roles and relations, such approaches often go beyond the individual level to focus on interpersonal, social, structural, and institutional practices to address gender inequalities (FAO, 2015).

5.2.2 Community Based Approach The approach is community-based extension whereby a practicing farmer or livestock keeper selected by their FRPPXQLW\ DQG WUDLQHG WR D VWDQGDUG ZKHUH WKH\ FDQ R΍HU FUHGLEOH DGYLFH DQG VHUYLFHV LQ D VSHFLȴF DUHD RI SURGXFWLRQ$VL]HDEOHSURSRUWLRQRIWKRVHWUDLQHG\HDUVDJRKDYHEXLOWDOR\DOFOLHQWEDVHE\FKDUJLQJD΍RUGDEOH IHHVIRUWKHLUVHUYLFHVDQGSODQWRFRQWLQXHLQWKHUROHLQGHȴQLWHO\(YHQWKHSRRUHVWIDUPHUVDQGOLYHVWRFNNHHSHUV 60 CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING DUHEHQHȴWLQJIURPWKHLUVHUYLFHV&RPPXQLW\%DVHG$GDSWDWLRQ &%$ UHTXLUHVFRPSUHKHQVLYHFOLPDWHYXOQHUDELOLW\ DVVHVVPHQW DQG WKHQ FRPPXQLW\ DGDSWDWLRQ SODQQLQJ 7KLV SDUWLFLSDWRU\ PHWKRGRORJ\ EXLOGV ȆDGDSWLYH FDSDFLW\ȇ which increases decision making skills in farming communities under increasing uncertainty. CBA is a model that explores options and enhances the capacity to adapt through community decision making on adoption. They will adopt when they themselves lead adaptation planning. This is why scenario planning is an integral part of good CBA ȂLWGULYHVDGRSWLRQEHFDXVHIDUPHUVDFWRQȆQRUHJUHWVȇEDVLV

5.2.3 Farmer-Centred Research, Learning and Training Approach i. Farmers Field School Approach It is used throughout the country and is incorporated within DADPs. It uses experiential learning and group approach and currently its successes have been seen especially in smallholder’s irrigated rice farms where production has increased, key farmers train others. The impact of the approach is an increase in production seen in FFS members compared to non-FFS.Agricultural resource centres are permanently established in each District/ward used for demonstration of good agricultural technologies/practices. ii. Farming System Approach (FSA)  7KH DSSURDFK EXLOGV JUHDWHU IDUPHU LQȵXHQFH DQG SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ WHFKQRORJ\ GHYHORSPHQW DQG WUDQVIHU through a Client Oriented Research and Development Management Approach (CORDEMA), Farmers priorities are incorporated into the research agenda & user-friendly technologies are developed. It is also used in some parts of the country. iii. Farmer-to-Farmer Extension Approach This is the most common approach in some parts of the country whereby there are trained farmers who can train others; the approach is now used by other institutions. iv. Champion Farmers This approach is also common in many parts of the country whereby extension services choose farmers to work with them in implementing their programs. Those farmers selected to lead “farmer-to-farmer” extension are often called model, master, or lead farmers and are chosen according to their agricultural expertise. In other initiatives, they are called farmer promoters or trainers, emphasizing their networking or training skills. An additional variant is the community knowledge worker, sometimes equipped with a smart phone to improve farmers’ access to information and advisory services. Surprisingly, as pervasive as these programs are, little KDVEHHQGRQHWRGHVFULEHWKHPDVVHVVWKHLUH΍HFWLYHQHVVRUGLVWLOOHVVRQVRQVXFFHVVIXOLPSOHPHQWDWLRQΖQ the context of document the farmers involved as “lead farmers” although we recognize that many other names are used to call them.

5.2.4 Landscapes and Ecosystems Services Approach A landscape approach deals with large-scale processes in an integrated and multidisciplinary manner, combining natural resources management with environmental and livelihood considerations. The landscape approach also factors in human activities and their institutions, viewing them as an integral part of the system rather than as H[WHUQDO DJHQWV 7KLV DSSURDFK UHFRJQL]HV WKDW WKH URRW FDXVHV RI SUREOHPV PD\ QRW EH VLWHVSHFLȴF DQG WKDW D development agenda requires multi stakeholder interventions to negotiate and implement actions. The landscape approach helps to identify and develop positive externalities (including ecosystem services) and reduce negative impacts, especially from individual land users. Placing human well-being and needs at the centre of the land use decision-making process, the rights and cultural values (including religion) of involved communities and minority groups are respected alongside their land use objectives. This involvement helps ensure local commitment WR VROXWLRQV DQG WKH ORQJWHUP VXFFHVV RI VXVWDLQDEOH GHYHORSPHQW LQLWLDWLYHV (FRV\VWHP DSSURDFK GL΍HUV IURP landscape approaches in that it may include multiple ecosystems. CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING 61

5.2.5 Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) 3D\PHQW IRU (FRV\VWHP 6HUYLFHV DOVR NQRZQ DV SD\PHQWV IRU HQYLURQPHQWDO VHUYLFHV RU EHQHȴWV  DUH LQFHQWLYHV R΍HUHGWRIDUPHUVRUODQGRZQHUVLQH[FKDQJHIRUPDQDJLQJWKHLUODQGWRSURYLGHVRPHVRUWRIHFRORJLFDOVHUYLFH 7KH\ KDYH EHHQ GHȴQHG DV ȊD WUDQVSDUHQW V\VWHP IRU WKH DGGLWLRQDO SURYLVLRQ RI HQYLURQPHQWDO VHUYLFHV WKURXJK conditional payments to voluntary providers. In Tanzania this approach is rather at its infant stage. It is possibly used in few cases in forestry development and agroforestry. In agricultural development, it has been applied to support sustainable land management in the Ruvu river catchment (pilot project)

5.2.6 Innovation Platforms Innovation platforms/Focus farmer groups, these facilitate extension delivery and can share new innovations and market information within the group therefore use of farmer innovative ways (e.g. farmer facilitators, innovation SODWIRUPV KDYHHQKDQFHGEHQHȴFLDU\LQWHUDFWLRQDQGLQWHUQDOL]DWLRQRILVVXHVUHYROYLQJDURXQGDJULFXOWXUDOVHUYLFHV delivery and their livelihoods in general.

5.2.7 Information and Knowledge Generation and Sharing Approach i. ICT facilities This approach is mainly used in the LGAs whereby availability of cellular phones in rural areas is enhancing access on marketing information and supply of inputs. Therefore, integration of extension service with other support services (input subsidy, ICT) accelerates pace of adoption of technologies. Also demand-driven concept and use of participatory approaches has led to farmer empowerment and promoted self-development, empowerment is seen in the formulation and implementation of Opportunity and Obstacles for Development (O& OD). ii. Awareness Raising Campaigns  7KHDSSURDFKLVPDLQO\XVHGLQGL΍HUHQWDUHDVRIWKHFRXQWU\ZKHUHE\VHQVLWL]DWLRQDQGFUHDWLRQRIDZDUHQHVV on impacts of climate change is done and appropriate technologies and practices for adaptation. This can be done using various means such as mass media (radio, TV, newspapers), farmer exhibitions and resource centres (demonstrations). The approach helps to promote documentation, wide sharing and dissemination of LGHQWLȴHG&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVDQGHQDEOHVPRUHIDUPHUVDQGRWKHUSOD\HUVWRH΍HFWLYHO\DGRSW &6$ΖWLVDOVRLPSRUWDQWRQXSRIVFDOLQJEHVW&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVLGHQWLȴHGLQFOXGLQJSURYLVLRQRI climate services.

5.2.8 Coordination Forum Approach i. Learning Platform Alliance  7KLV DSSURDFK LV PDLQO\ XVHG E\ 5HVHDUFKHUVΖQVWLWXWLRQV DQG FDQ KHOS LQ EULQJLQJ WRJHWKHU GL΍HUHQW stakeholders using Learning and practice alliance (LPA) approach which engages key stakeholders including policy makers, practitioners and farmers to join and work together in addressing existing problems and identify SRWHQWLDOVROXWLRQV7KH/3$DSSURDFKKDVWKHFDSDFLW\WRLQȵXHQFHFKDQJHLQDWWLWXGHVWUDWHJLHVSODQQLQJDQG resource allocations for up scaling of best CSA technologies and practices.

5.2.9 Sustainable Market Linkage Approach i. Nucleus and Out Growers Approach Formal arrangement between agriculture companies and farmers (contract farming), the private sector facilitates farmers’ access to credit, improved inputs, pooling of farmers’ produce, processing and developing market links. This approach is common in the country and used by Kilombero Plantation Limited (KPL) in Morogoro Region. 62 CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING

5.3 Challenges for Implementation and Up-Scaling There is abundant evidence indicating that the National Agricultural Research System has made available a wide range of improved agricultural technologies and practices that have high potential of alleviating poverty, enhancing food security and improving nutrition status of the majority (Matata et al., 2011 and Mpanda et al., 2014). Despite WKHH΍RUWVNQRZOHGJHRILPSURYHGDJULFXOWXUDOWHFKQRORJLHVLVKLQGHUHGE\ODFNRIȴQDQFLDOUHVRXUFHVSRRUPDUNHW access for farmers to adopt, and thus agricultural production is still undertaken using rudimentary technologies. Agricultural technologies, their development, transfer and adoption are fundamental in increasing productivity, rural incomes and growth, adaptation to climate change and subsequently in contributing to poverty reduction as well as food security. Low or non-adoption of recommended agricultural production practices is one of the major problems currently facing most regions of Tanzania. The modern agricultural production technologies (innovations) like improved varieties and IHUWLOL]HUKDYHQRWVLJQLȴFDQWO\EHHQDGRSWHGE\IDUPHUVZKRFRQWLQXHWRXVHWUDGLWLRQDOSUDFWLFHV0DLQUHDVRQV for low adoption include late or non-availability of inputs, high costs of inputs and low awareness on use of inputs. *RYHUQPHQWH΍RUWVWRDGGUHVVWKHVHFKDOOHQJHVLQFOXGHDPRQJRWKHUVLQSXWVXEVLGLHVXVHRIIDUPHUȴHOGVFKRROV (FFS), demonstration farms and participatory action research, as well as involvement of private sector. 3RRU DQG LQHɝFLHQW H[WHQVLRQ VHUYLFHV LV FDXVHG E\ VKRUWDJH RI H[WHQVLRQ VWD΍ DQG ZRUNLQJ IDFLOLWLHV OHDGLQJ to inadequate capacity of up & out-scaling technologies at village and ward levels. This challenge can leave the agriculture sector underdeveloped and the rural farmers in chronic poverty. Poor extension services led to low CSA technology transfer to the farmers. Extension services consist of advice, know-how and technology transfer as well as input provision directly to farmers. Most farmers in Tanzania are smallholder and medium size farmers who employ UXGLPHQWDU\WHFKQRORJLHVOHDGLQJWRORZSURGXFWLYLW\7KHIDUPHUVKDYHOLWWOHFDSDFLW\WRKLUHȴHOGRɝFHUVWRVROYH problems requiring technical assistance. Some government units and departments responsible for the promotion of CSA technologies and practices to IDUPHUVIDFHȴQDQFLDOUHVRXUFHFRQVWUDLQWV$ZRUNLQJSDSHUE\0XVKLRQ&OLPDWH&KDQJH%XGJHW6FUHHQLQJ IRU WKH 7DQ]DQLDȇV $JULFXOWXUH 6HFWRU LGHQWLȴHG WKDW JRYHUQPHQW VSHQGLQJ RQ FOLPDWH FKDQJH UHODWHG DFWLYLWLHV LV DWYHU\ORZVFDOHDQGSDFH+HQFHWKHUHLVDQHHGIRUDEHWWHUDQGVXVWDLQDEOHȴQDQFLDOVXSSRUWLQJPHFKDQLVPWR support implementation of the CSA guideline at all levels. The response of the Private sector and CBOs in Tanzania to provide extension delivery and create incentives for farmers to adopt new CSA methods is still low. This is due to many factors including low participation of private sector and CBOs in extension delivery and hence small numbers of farmers are receiving extension services at the village level. There are poor structures and infrastructure such as roads, irrigation facilities, processing facilities, market facilities, weak information, communication and networking among agriculture stakeholders in the country. For example, poor LQIUDVWUXFWXUHOLNHURDGVHVSHFLDOO\IHHGHUURDGVWKDWDUHPHDQWWRIDFLOLWDWHVHUYLFHVWRWKHIDUPHUVDUHLQVXɝFLHQW and hence this scenario contributes to low productivity and post-harvest losses. CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING 63 CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS 64 CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Capacity Building Needs This guideline is targeted at agricultural stakeholders at all levels from decision/policy makers, district (local government) designing and planning level, development partners, private sector down to the farmers. (QKDQFLQJ WKH FDSDFLW\ RI NH\ VWDNHKROGHUV DW GL΍HUHQW OHYHOV LQYROYHG LQ SODQQLQJ GLVVHPLQDWLQJ LPSOHPHQWLQJ monitoring and evaluating CSA is of paramount importance. Women, who play a key role in the agriculture sector, need to be provided with knowledge and training opportunities and be actively involved in the planning and implementation of agricultural development projects and programmes. x National Level  3URYLGH VKRUW DQG ORQJ WHUP WUDLQLQJ WR SURIHVVLRQDO VWD΍ RQ &6$ WR VWUHQJWKHQ WKHLU FDSDFLWLHV WR GHVLJQ policies, and to plan, monitor, and evaluate CSA and natural resource management programmes. x Local-Level (District, Ward, Village)  7UDLQLQJE\ȴHOGOHYHOH[WHQVLRQDJHQWVGHYHORSPHQWDJHQFLHV LQFOXGLQJ1*2V ZLOOEHSURYLGHGWRȴHOGOHYHO extension trainers on CSA to build capacity of farmer-extension agents, organize and conduct farmer learning opportunities (e.g. study tours, farmer cross-visits) etc. Extension agents will be equipped with skills to initiate and promote links between communities or farmers and public or private sector institutions. x Farm Level  2QIDUPWUDLQLQJYLOODJHZRUNVKRSVVHPLQDUVDQGIDUPYLVLWVZLOOEHH΍HFWLYHO\XVHGWRSURYLGHNQRZOHGJH FUHDWHDZDUHQHVVDQGVWUHQJWKHQFDSDFLW\RIȴHOGZRUNHUVDQGIDUPHUVWRSURPRWHDGRSWLRQRI&6$LQWKH country.

6.1.1 Awareness $ZDUHQHVV UDLVLQJ LV DQ LPSRUWDQW VWDJH IRU H΍HFWLYH GLVVHPLQDWLRQ RI NQRZOHGJH DQG WHFKQRORJLHV DQG WR EH VXFFHVVIXOLWQHHGVWRXVHDOODSSURSULDWHFRPPXQLFDWLRQFKDQQHOVVXFKDVUDGLRWHOHYLVLRQSULQWPHGLDOHDȵHWV EURFKXUHV RUDO FRPPXQLFDWLRQ DQG WUDGLWLRQDO FRPPXQLFDWLRQ $ZDUHQHVV UDLVLQJ WDUJHWV GL΍HUHQW VRFLR JURXSV such as government authorities, central and local administrative authorities, religious, traditional leaders, opinion leaders, NGOs, civil society, donors and media. Planning of awareness raising strategy should therefore take account WKHWDUJHWJURXSWKHPHVVDJHIRUHDFKWDUJHWJURXS SUHIHUDEO\VSHFLȴFWRWKHJURXS DQGWKHDSSURSULDWHFKDQQHOV for communicating those messages. /LNHZLVHWUDLQLQJVKRXOGDOVRWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWWKHVSHFLȴFUROHRIHDFKWDUJHWJURXS VWDNHKROGHUV 5HOHYDQWWUDLQLQJ manuals should be prepared for the target group, which will also serve as a reference during the implementation stage.

6.1.2 Training Training of key stakeholders in climate change and climate-smart agriculture is important in order to increase knowledge and understanding, which eventually contribute to change or shape their mind-sets in their undertakings. 7UDLQLQJVKRXOGWKHUHIRUHEHGRQHEDVHGRQWKHUROHVRIWKHVWDNHKROGHUVDWGL΍HUHQWOHYHOV

6.1.3 Integrate Climate Change Topics in the Syllabus (GXFDWLRQDO LQVWLWXWLRQV DFWXDOO\ SUHSDUH DQG VKDSH IXWXUH ZRUNLQJ IRUFH RI GL΍HUHQW SURIHVVLRQDOV LQFOXGLQJ WKH UXUDO DJUDULDQFRPPXQLW\0RVWRIWKHDJUDULDQFRPPXQLW\ XVHNQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVDFTXLUHG DWGL΍HUHQW VWDJHV of their education. Introduction of climate change topics in the syllabus would therefore be building capacity of not only future farmers but also future stakeholders of climate change (Policy maker, Researcher, Planner, Economist, Engineer, and Doctor etc.). LIMAS project in Lindi and Mtwara involved Primary schools within the project area. They introduced a topic of Conservation Agriculture in the syllabus under social skills (stadi za kazi), science and CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS 65 geography subjects; supported by practical skills in the schools’ demonstration plots and recorded a high success which is expected to be carried forward. The government should take up the agenda and oversee possibilities of mainstreaming it in the curriculum or syllabus.

6.1.4 Improve Capacity and Knowledge on M&E of CSA 0DQ\SURMHFWVDQGSURJUDPPHVDUHRIWHQIDFHGZLWKLQVXɝFLHQWHYLGHQFHEDVHGJRRGSUDFWLFHGHVSLWHWKHUHVRXUFHV DQGH΍RUWVFRPPLWWHGLQWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQSDUWO\GXHWRZHDNPRQLWRULQJDQGHYDOXDWLRQSURFHVVHV:KLOHPDQ\ stakeholders (NGOs, CBOs, Development partners) are actively involved in extension and technology dissemination as direct support to smallholder in development projects and programs, the evaluations of projects have often not included much thoroughly assessment of approaches and methods. Participatory monitoring and evaluation PHWKRGV 30 (  DUH QHHGHG WR IDFLOLWDWH OHVVRQOHDUQLQJ ORFDO RZQHUVKLS DQG D PRUH UHȵHFWLYH DQG UHVSRQVLYH RXWFRPH+HQFHFDSDFLW\EXLOGLQJLQSDUWLFLSDWRU\PRQLWRULQJDQGHYDOXDWLRQDWDOOVWDJHVLVLPSRUWDQWIRUH΍HFWLYH FDSWXULQJRIWKHOHVVRQVRQWKHHɝFDF\DQGRWKHUDWWULEXWHVRIWKHXSVFDOLQJSURFHVVHV

6.1.5 Enabling Access to Resource Provision, Improved Access (Information Packages) and Dissemination of Climate Information Services In Sub-Saharan Africa, inadequate capacity to collect, analyse and disseminate climate-related information, combined ZLWKSRRUIDUPHUNQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVLQXVLQJVXFKLQIRUPDWLRQDUHVLJQLȴFDQWFRQVWUDLQWVWRSURGXFWLYHIDUPLQJ7KLV KHQFHH[DFHUEDWHWKHYXOQHUDELOLW\RIVPDOOKROGHUIDUPHUVZKRDUHYXOQHUDEOHWRFOLPDWHȵXFWXDWLRQVDQGZHDWKHU H[WUHPHVDQGDUHH[SHFWHGWRVX΍HUPRUHIURPFOLPDWHFKDQJH8VLQJSDUWLFLSDWRU\PHWKRGVVFLHQWLVWVDUHQRZ working with farmers to understand climate impacts on farming systems and rural livelihoods and to identify locally appropriate climate-smart solutions. With institutional support and policies, advisories and climate information VHUYLFHVR΍HUJUHDWSRWHQWLDOWRHQDEOHIDUPHUVWRPDNHLQIRUPHGGHFLVLRQVEHWWHUPDQDJHULVNWDNHDGYDQWDJHRI favourable climate conditions and adapt to change. Farmers can adapt their practices to climate change, but they need good information about the conditions in store. Improving the link between climate information and agricultural practices, especially those of smallholder farmers in developing countries is key for adaptation. Climate information services include immediate and short-term weather forecasts and advisories and longer-term information about new seeds and technologies and market developments. 7KLVVHUYLFHLVHVSHFLDOO\XVHIXOLQKHOSLQJIDUPHUVWRPDQDJHULVNVDQGLQR΍VHWWLQJPXFKRIWKHXQFHUWDLQW\WKDW often constrains decision making and innovation. Since this is a relatively new area in extension service delivery, the government and developing agents should provide support in setting up appropriate systems including learning from other countries which have such services in operation. Gathering rainfall and other climatic data is vital if the accuracy of forecasting is to be improved. Gathering local data, such as on market prices, is important in developing valuable, relevant and timely information services that improve farmers’ decision-making in the context of an uncertain climate. Improved delivery of information is another key area for example the use of interactive community radio, loud speakers in markets, as well as mobile text messaging and email. Feedback from farmers on the quality and accessibility of information delivered, and on their willingness to pay for it, are important elements in enhancing the value and sustainability of climate information services.

6.1.6 Risk Management and Insurance Scheme in Agriculture Weather-related risks are the largest threats to agricultural productivity and food security in Tanzania. Extreme HYHQWVVXFKDVGURXJKWVDQGȵRRGVDUHDPRQJWKHKLJKHVWULVNVWRDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLYLW\DQGVKRFNVFDQKDYH VLJQLȴFDQWLPSDFWVDWDOOOHYHOVIURPWKHQDWLRQDOHFRQRP\WRLQGLYLGXDOKRXVHKROGVΖQWHUYHQWLRQVIRUWKHW\SHVRI risks typically faced by the agriculture are needed and are mainly of three types: x Risk Mitigation, or actions to prevent events from occurring, limit their occurrence, or reduce the severity RIWKHUHVXOWLQJORVVHV([DPSOHVLQFOXGHSHVWDQGGLVHDVHPDQDJHPHQWVWUDWHJLHVFURSGLYHUVLȴFDWLRQDQG extension advice, x 5LVNFRSLQJRUDFWLRQVWRKHOSWKHYLFWLPVRIDULVN\HYHQW DVKRFNVXFKDVDGURXJKWȵRRGRUSHVWHSLGHPLF  66 CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS cope with the losses it causes. Examples include government assistance to farmers, debt restructuring, and remittances through mechanisms such as social safety net programs, x Risk transfer, or actions that transfer risk to a willing third party, at a cost. Financial transfer mechanisms trigger compensation or reduce losses generated by a given risk, and they can include insurance, reinsurance, and ȴQDQFLDOKHGJLQJWRROV Insurance may be an important mechanism for farmers to break the cycle of low input, low output faming. A variety RILQVXUDQFHVFKHPHVLQ$IULFDSURPLVHH΍HFWLYHȴQDQFLDOVXSSRUWZKHQZHDWKHUFDODPLWLHVKDSSHQ%\SURWHFWLQJ farmers in the event of extreme weather, crop insurance also reduces the risks of debts incurred by farmers taking credit at the start of the season. A weather based insurance scheme (experimented in Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi and Mozambique) has taken a broader approach to risk and strengthening farmers’ food and income security.

6.2 Key Requirements for Implementation and Up-Scaling CSA In dealing with CSA adoption, as well as with agricultural technology adoption, there has been increasing recognition of the importance of focusing on the gender-heterogeneity behind the adoption choice itself. The integration of gender into CSA also means understanding how gender, and thus its adoption of CSA practices, will evolve together ZLWKFOLPDWHFKDQJHLQWKHIXWXUHȆ*HQGHUUHVSRQVLYHȇDFWLRQVDUHHVVHQWLDOHOHPHQWIRUWKHVXFFHVVIXOXSWDNHRI&6$ as the adoption of CSA practices is highly sensitive to gender. ΖPSURYHG3URGXFWLYLW\%XLOGLQJ5HVLOLHQFHDQG$VVRFLDWHG0LWLJDWLRQ&R%HQHȴWV CSA will help reduce vulnerability of the agriculture sector by increasing productivity, enhancing adaptation and resilience of the farming systems and communities; and reducing emissions intensity in the context of achieving food and nutrition security, sustainable development and poverty reduction. Many agricultural practices and technologies contribute to both adaptation and mitigation goals simultaneously. Practices that promote sustainable management RIIRUHVWVIRUWKHLUUROHLQFOLPDWHVWDELOL]DWLRQFDQVLPXOWDQHRXVO\SURYLGHPXOWLSOHEHQHȴWVIRUORFDOFRPPXQLWLHV )DUPHUVDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRDGRSWDQDJULFXOWXUDOSUDFWLFHLIWKH\FDQVHHLPPHGLDWHEHQHȴWVRIGRLQJVR

6.2.2 Value Chain Integration This approach is holistic in that it considers input supply, production, agricultural services, climate services, traceability, marketing and business support services as necessary building blocks. Under the approach, both public and private sectors are seen as critical actors in the value chain. Knowledge and capacity building are critical strategic priorities WROHYHUDJHLQQRYDWLRQVDQGLQFUHDVHHɝFLHQFLHV7KHDSSURDFKDOVRSURYLGHV HQDEOLQJIUDPHZRUNIRULQWHJUDWLQJ gender and the needs of the youth. Agricultural interventions that aim to improve farmers’ access to markets may not have climate adaptation as their primary aim. Nonetheless, getting farmers integrated into robust and fair markets can help them become more resilient to climate change.

6.2.3 Research for Development and Innovations The role of research should be re-oriented to support innovations that facilitate the transition to climate-smart agriculture by smallholder farmers. New and emerging agricultural research partnerships should identify technological advances that respond to the impacts of climate change and climate variability. A major thrust will be on the use of climate-smart agricultural practices and technologies, promoting improved land management and sustainable FURSOLYHVWRFNDQGȴVKHULHVLQWHQVLȴFDWLRQLQRUGHUWREROVWHUIDUPHUVȇDGDSWLYHFDSDFLW\WKURXJKSDUWLFLSDWRU\DFWLRQ research and support the national vision of achieving food security. CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS 67

6.2.4 Improving and Sustaining Agricultural Advisory Services Agro-advisory services that include climate applications for agriculture will help farmers to better make informed decisions in the face of risks and uncertainties. Climate applications include seasonal weather forecasts and; PRQLWRULQJ DQG HDUO\ ZDUQLQJ SURGXFWV IRU GURXJKW ȵRRGV DQG SHVWV DQG GLVHDVHV VXUYHLOODQFH 7KHVH SURGXFWV and services would increase the preparedness of the farmers, well in advance, to cope with risks associated with climate variability and change. Furthermore, robust agro-advisory services would catalyse private sector investment in priority areas such as weather-based index insurance and associated infrastructure.

6.2.5 Climate and Weather Forecasting The variability of the weather parameters including rainfall is attributed to variability nature of the climate system. Rainfall is the most variable weather parameter which causes uncertainties and risks in agricultural undertakings particularly rain-fed agriculture thus making smallholder farmers vulnerable to climate variability. The impacts of climate change have exacerbated the natural climate variability resulting to poor intra-seasonal temporal rainfall distribution, uncertainty in onset of seasonal rains and increase in frequency of extreme weather events (such as GURXJKWDQGȵRRGV DPRQJRWKHUV In order to help the farming community, adapt to climate change impacts capacity building in weather projections, IRUHFDVWLQJ DQG HDUO\ ZDUQLQJ V\VWHPV LV QHFHVVDU\ ΖQ DGGLWLRQ SURYLVLRQ RI ORFDWLRQ VSHFLȴF WDLORUPDGH HDVLO\ understood climate services to farmers is of paramount importance to facilitate decision making and planning of agricultural ventures. When implemented along with CSA, climate and weather forecast information will reduce the risk and uncertainties attributed to climate variability and change. Seasonal climate forecast information will inform farmers in advance on the onset of the season and the seasonal outlook. Information on onset of the seasonal rains provides an insight on when to start preparing land for planting whereas the seasonal outlook will provide information for planning the type RIFURSWRSODQWDQGIDUPPDQDJHPHQWSUDFWLFHVLQFDVHRIH[FHVVLYHRUGHȴFLWVRLOPRLVWXUH In addition to seasonal climate forecast, intermediate weather updates during the season such as monthly and decadal weather forecasts information will provide monitoring information on the seasonal progress and can aid on- farm planning in case of weather changes within the season. However, it is important that forecasts be downscaled to ORFDODUHDVDV&6$LVFDUULHGRXWDWVSHFLȴFDJURHFRORJLFDO]RQHVΖQDGGLWLRQWKHLQIRUPDWLRQVKRXOGEHWDLORUPDGH HDVLO\XQGHUVWRRGE\IDUPHUVWLPHO\GHOLYHUHGDQGEHGLVVHPLQDWHGWKURXJKD΍RUGDEOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQFKDQQHOVWR smallholder farmers. 7LPHO\GHOLYHU\RIUHOHYDQWDQGVLWHVSHFLȴFZHDWKHUDQGFOLPDWHLQIRUPDWLRQDGYLVRU\VHUYLFHVFDQLPSURYHIDUPHUVȇ decision-making and build their adaptive capacity. (΍HFWLYHΖQVWLWXWLRQDO&RRUGLQDWLRQ 7KLV LV FUXFLDO IRU DFKLHYHPHQW RI KRUL]RQWDO DQG YHUWLFDO LQWHJUDWLRQ UHTXLUHG IRU H΍HFWLYH GLVFKDUJH RI WKH &6$ Program. The horizontal integration achievement requires a framework that provides for high-level guidance while vertical integration is instrumental in determining the roles of various sector institutions and devolved governments, state actors and non-state actors in performing CSA mandates. The proposed coordination framework will improve Inter-Ministerial and Local Government coordination; enhance partnerships with the Private Sector and Civil Society Organizations; and strengthen coordination with Development Partners.

6.2.7 Integration among Practices There are many CSA practices which can be combined or implemented together to enable and ensure high and improved land and water productivity. Combining or integrating two or more CSA practices of course depends on the nature of the land, crop to be grown and production objectives of the farmer or community. 68 CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS

6.2.8 Financing CSA 0RVWȴQDQFLQJRI&6$LQLWLDWLYHVLVEDVHGRQGRQRUIXQGLQJΖPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH&6$WHFKQRORJLHVDQGSUDFWLFHV UHTXLUHVXVWDLQDEOHȴQDQFLDOPHFKDQLVP1DWLRQDOEXGJHWDU\VXSSRUWLVLPSRUWDQWDV&6$LVDSULRULW\DQGLPSRUWDQW in national and local economies. The Government needs to secure funds for climate change in the agriculture sector, VSHFLȴFDOO\WRDGGUHVVFOLPDWHUHVLOLHQFHΖQDGGLWLRQ/*$VZLOOQHHGWRLQFUHDVHWKHDPRXQWRIEXGJHWUHVRXUFHVDQG improve overall planning for CSA implementation. On the other hand, where possible, Payment for Environmental Services (PES) should contribute to CSA interventions. Mainstreaming of CSA into national and local level strategic investment is important so as to get funds for implementing CSA. Through ASDP2 the CSA technologies and practices can be implemented to adapt and mitigate climate change LPSDFWV2QWKHRWKHUKDQG'HYHORSPHQW3DUWQHUVQHHGWRJLYHWHFKQLFDODQGȴQDQFLDOVXSSRUWWRWKHDJULFXOWXUDO sector to prepare bankable project/program proposal so as to access the global climate funds such as Green Climate Fund.

6.3 Monitoring and Evaluation Plan The aim of the Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Plan (Table 3) is to provide a general picture of how the government will assess the CSA guidelines implementation and up-scaling together with changes as the results of CSA packages adoption. The M&E plan will therefore track progress across levels and scales of the CSA guidelines implementation but focusing mainly on: x Impact level: Changes in people’s livelihood and the environment (long term change) x (΍HFWOHYHO%HKDYLRUFKDQJHLQVWLWXWLRQDOFKDQJHDQGFKDQJHVLQGLVWULFWSODQQLQJV\VWHPV x Output level: Results of CSA interventions x Activity level: Completion of CSA interventions The monitoring and evaluation event (table 4) shows who will be responsible for delivering each objective. One important element of M&E that is often times forgotten is the budget to implement the M&E activities. Therefore, it is important that a budget must be set aside. The milestones in terms of when to expect completion of the M&E activity should also be included. The M&E of the CSA guidelines implementation should consider a participatory monitoring approach. Participatory monitoring recognizes and capitalizes on community, households and all stakeholders engaged in the adoption of the CSA packages. In other situations, external evaluators or assessors could be used. This is important in helping governments, donors and other stakeholders to use the information for validating the adopted CSA practices, referencing but also identifying areas of further support. External monitoring and evaluation can also increase transparency and accountability of implementing the CSA practices. Budget for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is important. Experience shows that when budgets are allocated for M&E, the intended objectives of increasing number of people engaging in initiatives increases. Thus, there are must be budget for monitoring implementation of the CSA practices at district level. The M&E budget should also consider documentation and dissemination of success stories to reach more audience within and outside the country. Table 3: Monitoring and Evaluation Plan Performance Indicators Collection Methods (Tools Objective Data Source Frequency Responsibility (Aggregate Indicators) and Processes) Improved capacity of 1. Systems for promotion as well as x Annual national plan and x Semi-structured interviews Annually x HEMU agricultural and environmental coordination of CSA packages in budget documents with government x Partner agencies of Districts Agricultural plans and policies at x District agricultural authorities Organizations promoting CSA packages district level agreed and in place development plans x Document reviews x Researchers to facilitate participatory 2. percent of district resources allocated (DADPs) and its x Review of minutes of and sustainable agricultural to promote CSA adoption by local respective budget meetings development farmers x Ward as well as Village reports CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS x DCC meeting minutes Increased adoption of climate- 1. percent of all district in Tanzania x District agriculture x Semi-structured interviews Semi-annually x HEMU smart agriculture packages by promote implementation of climate- department, with AEAs, farmers and x Partner farmers and farmers’ groups smart agricultural packages to their x Agricultural Extension partner organizations Organizations local farmers Agent (AEAs) Farmers x Field observation x Researchers 2. percent of farmers in district x Pilot community x Review of district reports practicing CSA packages to increase members land and water productivity under x Community co- current climate variability ordinating body Improved capacity of 1. Farmers in six pilot communities and x Farmers in pilot x Focus group discussions Semi-annually x HEMU CSOs, public and private others reporting having improved communities with farmers x Partner institutions to provide relevant access to services they need x Pilot community x Semi-structured interviews Organizations and high-quality services 2. Number of service providers reporting members with service providers x Researchers and inputs to farmers to use of new skills and knowledge, x CBOs enable implementation of based on community needs x Service Providers recommended CSA packages. 69 70 CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS Table 4: Monitoring and Evaluation Events What Purpose Measure What Responsibility Input From When CSA guideline Determine x Capacity built and x HEMU Team Financial November implementation extent to which organizational x Advisory Team resources 2017 evaluation CSA guidelines’ development of x External Resource purpose has Service Providers, Person been achieved, District, Partners x Researchers evaluate guideline x CSA guidelines’ x Local Resource implementation implementation Person process & strategy processes and x District authorities strategies Districts reviews Review progress x To be determined x HEMU Team Financial July-August towards achieving in with CBOs, x Researchers resources 2017 their set goals would include x Local Resource and objectives CBO adoption of Person to promote processes facilitated x District authorities CSA packages’ by project adoption CHAPTER 5: ROLES AND APPROACHES FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION AND UP-SCALING 71 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 72 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION Agricultural practices and technologies, their development, transfer and adoption are fundamental in increasing productivity, rural incomes and growth and subsequently contributing to poverty reduction as well as adapting to climate change. One of the major factors constraining development of agriculture in Tanzania is the failure of the farming community to adopt existing improved agricultural practices and technologies. There is abundant evidence showing that the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) has made available a wide range of improved agricultural technologies and practices that have a high potential of alleviating poverty, enhancing food security and improving nutrition status of the majority (Matata et al., 2011 and Mpanda et al., 2014). Despite availability of those improved agricultural technologies developed or made available to farmers by (NARS), production is still being undertaken using rudimentary technologies. Low or non-adoption of improved agricultural production practices and technologies is one of the major problems currently facing the farming community in most parts of Tanzania. Major reasons for low adoption include cost of production, poor access to markets, low involvement of private sector to enhance investment, and limited awareness. *RYHUQPHQWH΍RUWVWRDGGUHVVWKHVHFKDOOHQJHVLQFOXGHDPRQJRWKHUVLQSXWVXEVLGLHVXVHRIIDUPHUȴHOGVFKRROV (FFS), demonstration farms and participatory action research, as well as involvement of private sector. Moreover, WKHVHH΍RUWVDUHFULSSOHGE\WKHLPSDFWVRIFOLPDWHFKDQJHIDFLQJDJULFXOWXUDOVHFWRU There have been various initiatives to address these impacts including compliance to CAADP and Malabo Declaration as well as the 2011 Johannesburg Communiqué, which urges African countries to invest in facilitating adoption of CSA practices and approaches. The ACRP also admit that CSA practices and technologies can increase yield in the changing climate. In recognition of the CSA potential to contribute to a triple win for food security and climate change adaptation and mitigation, Tanzania is ready for implementing CSA practices and approaches. Existence of this CSA guideline is an important step toward achieving the global and national goals of sustainable DJULFXOWXUH SURGXFWLRQ LQ D FKDQJLQJ FOLPDWH 7KLV &6$ JXLGHOLQH ZLOO FRPSOLPHQW *RYHUQPHQW H΍RUWV DQG KHOS LQ bridging the gap between researchers, policymakers, farmers, private sectors, CSOs, and development partners by providing guidance during planning, decision making, budgeting and implementation by presenting a wide range of technologies and practices that are climate-smart with intention to provide an opportunity for scaling up the most promising ones in the country. CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 73 ANNEXES 74 ANNEXES

Annex 1. Task Team Members No. Name Title Organization Email Shakwaanande Head Environmental Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 1 aikairuwa@gmail.com Natai Management Unit Fisheries Principal Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 2. Mary Majule juanitamary14@gmail.com 2ɝFHU Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 3. Theresia Massoy 6HQLRU/LYHVWRFN2ɝFHU tmassoi@yahoo.com Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 4. Zaninabu Sheuya $JULFXOWXUH2ɝFHU zayshey@yahoo.com Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 5. Tulizo Malavanu $JULFXOWXUH2ɝFHU tullydmalavanu@gmail.com Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 6. Saimon Mbaga Agriculture Tutor saimonmbaga@yahoo.com Fisheries Principal Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 7 Firmat Banzi f_banzi@yahoo.co.uk 2ɝFHU Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 8 Rashid Likiligo IT Specialist vikuge@gmail.com Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 9 Mponda J Malozo (QYLURQPHQWDO2ɝFHU Mponda.malozo@kilimo.go.tz Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 10 Lucia Chacha 3ULQFLSDO/LYHVWRFN2ɝFHU gaticha2006@yahoo.com Fisheries 3UHVLGHQWȇV2ɝFH5HJLRQDO 11 Lucy Ssendi Assistant Director Administration, Local Government, Civil lssendi@yahoo.co.uk Service and Good Governance 12 Henry Mahoo Professor Sokoine University of Agriculture mahoohenry@yahoo.com Principal Environmental 9LFH3UHVLGHQW2ɝFH'LYLVLRQRI 13 Daniel Nkondola dnkondola@hotmail.com 2ɝFHU Environment 14 Mathew Ndaki Meteorologist Tanzania Meteorological Agency mathewndaki@yahoo.com 15 Joseph Mbogoni Soil Scientist Agriculture Research Institute -Mlingano jdjmbogoni@gmail.com 16 Dosteus Lopa Environmental Expert Independent Expert doslopa@gmail.com 17 Janie Rioux 1DWXUDO5HVRXUFHV2ɝFHU FAO-HQ, Rome janie.rioux@fao.org 18 Moorine Lwakatare 3URJUDPPH2ɝFHU FAO Tanzania Moorine.Lwakatare@fao.org 19 Mathew Mpanda European Union Tanzania m.mpanda@yahoo.com 20 Anthony Kimaro Country Representative ICRAF Tanzania a.kimaro@cgiar.org Ministry of Agriculture and Natural 21 Nassoro Mkarafuu 3ODQQLQJ2ɝFHU nmkarafuu@yahoo.co.uk Resources Zanzibar 22 Mwajabu Bura Environmental Engineer Ministry of Water and Irrigation hukibura@gmail.com Principal Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and 23 Merius Nzalawahe mwanzalawahe@hotmail.com RɝFHU Fisheries

Annex 2. Agro-Ecological Zones of Tanzania The FAO/Kilimo agro-ecological zones map of Tanzania (De Pauw, 1984) shows natural and physical regions which are VXɝFLHQWO\XQLIRUPLQFOLPDWHSK\VLRJUDSK\DQGVRLOSDWWHUQVWRIDFLOLWDWHJHQHUDOLVHGGHVFULSWLRQVDQGHYDOXDWLRQRI the agricultural potential. The database and map constitute a condensed inventory of the agricultural environment with statements on the physical potential or constraints for agricultural development. ANNEXES 75 Each AEZ has a unique combination of altitude, precipitation, landforms and soils. Most of the AEZs have one dominant temperature and precipitation regime respectively. In general, most AEZs have two or more dissimilar soil types. Dominant soils have been used to sub-divide the zones into smaller units (e.g. zone C into C1, C2, and C3) with homogenous temperature, precipitation and soil characteristics. This sub-division generated 64 AEZs of which 63 are DUDEOHZKLOHRQHLVURFNODQG )LJXUH 7KHSK\VLRJUDSK\FOLPDWHDQGVRLOVDUHEULHȵ\GHVFULEHGEHORZ i. Physiography Physiography or landform is described in terms of general drainage conditions (uplands or lowlands, water VKHGGLQJRUZDWHUUHFHLYLQJ UHOLHIDOWLWXGHDQGRFFXUUHQFHRIVLJQLȴFDQWODQGGHJUDGDWLRQRUVRLOHURVLRQ7KLV LQIRUPDWLRQLVXVHGIRUDEURDGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIVXLWDELOLW\IRUFURSVZLWKVSHFLȴFGUDLQDJHRUWHPSHUDWXUH requirements. ii. Climate  7KH$(=PDSVSHFLȴHVWHPSHUDWXUHUHJLPHDQGWKHJURZLQJSHULRG *3 7HPSHUDWXUHLVGHVFULEHGRQWKH basis of mean annual maximum temperature (Tmax), mean annual minimum temperature (Tmin) and the mean annual range of temperature (Trange). These determine the temperature regime that is used as a concept to GHVFULEHPRLVWXUHDYDLODELOLW\7HPSHUDWXUH]RQHVDUHGHȴQHGRQWKHEDVLVRIDOWLWXGHDQGXVHGWRHVWDEOLVK temperature limitations for particular crops. The GP is the period during an average year when temperature and moisture conditions are favourable for crop growth. It is estimated by means of a simple water balance model comparing rainfall, moisture storage of soils and potential evapo-transpiration. Key characteristics for the GP such as the beginning, end and duration are established and mapped in moisture zones. iii. Soils The AEZ map provides a brief description of the soils that occur in each zone in terms of the soil units established for the map Soils and Physiography. Some assessment of the natural fertility status and the moisture storing properties of the soils is given as well. This information is used to identify crops that can grow optimally with UHIHUHQFHWRWHPSHUDWXUHUHJLPHVDQGOHQJWKRIWKHGHSHQGDEOHJURZLQJSHULRGV)XUWKHUUHȴQHPHQWRIWKH set of suitable crops within an AEZ can be undertaken considering local topography, erosion hazards, drainage conditions, soil depth and texture, and fertility status. 76 ANNEXES

Annex 3. Agro-Climatic Zones of Tanzania An “Agro-climatic zone” is a land unit in terms of major climates, suitable for a certain range of crops and cultivars )$2 7KHDJURFOLPDWLFFODVVLȴFDWLRQLVQRWKLQJEXWDQH[WHQVLRQRIWKHFOLPDWHFODVVLȴFDWLRQNHHSLQJLQYLHZ WKHVXLWDELOLW\WRDJULFXOWXUH$JURFOLPDWLF]RQHVDUHZLGHO\GHȴQHGRQWKHEDVLVRIHLWKHUUDLQIDOOWHPSHUDWXUHRU altitude depending on which is considered as governing parameter. Whereas temperature conditions are generally IDYRXUDEOHIRUPRVWIRUPVRIDJULFXOWXUHLWLVPDLQO\UDLQIDOOZKLFKFRQWUROVWKHOLPLWVLQWKHȴHOGRIKXPDQDFWLYLWLHV and it is the decisive factor in economic development. Therefore, this climatic zonation of Tanzania is based on rainfall which is the most variable climatic parameter. ANNEXES 77 Agro-Climatic zones of Tanzania are based on the comparison between rainfall and the water requirements of the vegetation or crops using the amount of rainfall that can be expected to be reached with a probability of 80percent. The purpose of zoning is to delineate areas with similar sets of potentials and constraints for agriculture development.

Annex 4. Location and Characteristics of the Baseline Study Sites AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONE C Study Site 1: Bagamoyo District (Kiwangwa), Pwani Region This study site is situated in Bagamoyo District in Pwani Region and it falls under Agro ecological zone C1 (AEZ C1) that lies below 200m above mean sea level and having two dependable growing seasons: March-April and October- December. The mean annual temperature Tmax is 29 – 310C and the mean annual temperature Tmin is 19 – 230 C. The main farming system of this area is production of maize, cassava, paddy, pineapple, cashew nuts and coconut. Agricultural activity is largely subsistence and low value crops. Common cash crops in the study area are coconut, fruits, cashew and sesame while important food crops include maize, sorghum, paddy, cassava, and legumes. Pineapple is being cultivated by majority of farmers because it is the main income generating activities in the area. Livestock is another enterprise in Kiwangwa that includes cattle, goats, sheep, pigs and poultry but few numbers of farmers are engaged to it. Study Site 2: Bagamoyo District (Zinga), Pwani Region This study site is found in Bagamoyo District in Pwani Region and a large part of Zinga is found along the coast. The site falls under Agro ecological zone C2/C3 (AEZ C2/C3) that lies below 500m above sea level. Mean annual rainfall is 800-1000mm/year with one dependable growing period (DGP) per year with duration of 3 - 4½ months, and unreliable onset dates. The mean annual temperature Tmax is 29 – 310C and the mean annual temperature Tminis 19 – 230 &7KHSRSXODWLRQLQ=LQJDGHSHQGVRQDJULFXOWXUHDQGPRVWRIWKHKRXVHKROGQHDUWKHFRDVWGHSHQGVRQȴVKLQJ &RPPRQIRRGFURSVLQWKHVWXG\DUHDDUHPDL]HSDGG\VXQȵRZHUDQGFDVVDYDZKLOHFDVKHZFRFRQXWVHVDPH fruits, sorghum and cowpeas are common cash crops for the study site and few farmers keep poultry. Seaweed farming is another enterprise in the study area carried out along the coast of Indian Ocean in Zinga. Study Site 3: Temeke District (Chamazi), Dar es Salaam Region This area falls under Agro-ecological Zone C2 (AEZ C2) that lies at an altitude of less than 500m above mean sea level and having one dependable growing season with a duration of 3 - 4.5 months. The rainfall pattern is unreliable and the annual rainfall is 800 - 1000mm. The area is urban, in which 4percent of its population are involved in agriculture activities. The main food crops cultivated in the study site include paddy, cassava, sweet potatoes, vegetables and fruits. The major cash crop is cashew nuts, water melon, okra and other vegetables. Livestock is another enterprise that contributes 30-50percent of cattle milk in the municipality, and there is a high number of poultry, goats and pigs. Poultry keeping is emerging and growing very fast in relation to other activities. Study Site 11: Iringa District (Kising’a and Igingilanyi), Iringa Region 7KLVDUHDIDOOVXQGHUWKHDJURHFRORJLFDO]RQH$(=+ $(=+ ΖWLVPDLQO\ȵDWDQGXQGXODWLQJWRUROOLQJSODLQVDQG plateau at high altitude, 1,500-2,000 m above mean sea level. Major soils are deep, well drained, yellowish or reddish sandy clays to clays with moderate natural fertility. There is one DGP per year with duration of 5-6 months and reliable onset dates. Mean annual rainfall is 600-1,600 mm, mean annual maximum temperature (Tmax) is 22-250 C and mean annual minimum temperature (Tmin) is 10-150 C. Food crops grown in Kising’a village includes maize and beans (which are rain-fed) onions, tomatoes, varieties of vegetables and potatoes which are grown in valley bottoms (vinyungu WKURXJKRXWWKH\HDU&URSVJURZQLQΖJLQJLODQ\LYLOODJHLQFOXGHPDL]HVRUJKXPVXQȵRZHUWREDFFRULFH groundnuts, cassava and vegetables. Few farmers do keep livestock although there are also large scale commercial farms in the area that practice farm out-grower system in livestock enterprises. Study Site 15: Pangani District (Madanga and Jaila), Tanga Region This site is found in Agro-ecological zone C4/C1 (AEZ C4/C1) along the Indian Ocean coastal belt with altitude of less than 200 m above mean sea level. Rainfall is 1000 - 1200mm/year. The length of the growing period in this zone is 2 Dependable Growing Periods (DPG) per year. The main DPG is March-April while the secondary DGP is October- 78 ANNEXES November. The population in Pangani relies on agricultural production for both food and cash. The main livelihood sources are production of cashew, coconut, maize, cassava, pulses, fruits and vegetables. Maize, cassava and rice depend on masika (long rain) and vuli (short rain) wet seasons. Perennial crops such as coconuts and cashew nuts are used as cash crops. Cattle and small stock are owned by households but account for only a small portion of their DQQXDOLQFRPH+RXVHKROGVOLYLQJFORVHUWRWKHFRDVWOLQHHQJDJHLQȴVKLQJDQGDPLQRULW\RIWKHSRSXODWLRQFROOHFW VHDZHHGDQGSURFHVVȴVK Study Site 16: Arumeru District (Makiba), Arusha Region This site is found in a low-rainfall zone found in Agro-ecological Zone N5 (AEZ N5). The altitude in this zone is 1300 - 1700 m above mean sea level. Rainfall is 600 - 1200 mm/year. The length of the growing period in this zone is one DPG with duration decreasing from 4-6 months to 2½ months with unreliable onset rainfall dates. Livestock production DQGFURSFXOWLYDWLRQDUHLPSRUWDQWIRUORFDOKRXVHKROGV7KHPDLQFURSVDUHPDL]HFDVVDYDEHDQVFR΍HHEDQDQD ΖULVKSRWDWRHVVXQȵRZHUIUXLWVYHJHWDEOHDQGOLYHVWRFN$OOKRXVHKROGVUHO\RQWKHPDUNHWWRPHHWWKHEXONRIWKHLU food needs, and much of the cash for this comes from livestock sales, especially cattle. Production hazards exist but are not acute, and the mix of agro-pastoral production largely guarantees food and livelihood security. Study Site 17: Moshi Rural District (Kirua Vunjo West), Kilimanjaro Region The study site is found in Agro-ecological zone AEZ N4 (AEZ N4) in Kirua Vunjo West. The altitude in this zone is 900 - 3500 m above mean sea level. Rainfall is 500 - 1400 mm/year. The length of the growing period in this zone is one DPG with duration ranging from 3 - 5 months in the lowlands and 6 - 11 months in the highlands. The zone has unreliable rainfall onset dates. The zone has high population density but is highly productive and is food secure. Copious rainfall in the two seasons of Masika and VuliDQGDUHODWLYHO\WHPSHUDWHFOLPDWHHQDEOHVXEVWDQWLDOFR΍HH SURGXFWLRQ DV ZHOO DV D PL[ RI FURSV ZLWK PDL]H DQG EDQDQDV XSSHUPRVW IRU IRRG 2WKHU FURSV LQFOXGH FR΍HH beans, fruits, and vegetables while livestock enterprises also prevail. Dairy products from cattle and goats provide households with additional income and food. AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONE B Study Site 4: Lindi District (Mchinga), Lindi Region This area falls under Agro-ecological zone C2 (AEZ C2) that lies at an altitude of less than 500m above mean sea level and having one dependable growing season with a duration of 3 - 4.5 months. The main farming system of this DUHD LV SURGXFWLRQ RI SDGG\ PDL]H FDVVDYD FDVKHZQXWV VHVDPH YHJHWDEOHV VRUJKXP DQG ȴVKLQJ &DVKHZQXWV and sesame are considered as their main cash crops while maize, paddy, sorghum, cassava and vegetables are food crops. Study site 13: Mvomero District (Dakawa), Morogoro Region This is a low land zone (400 - 500m) found in Agro-ecological zone E9 (AEZ E9). The mean annual rainfall is between 800 - 1000 mm and has one dependable growing period with duration of 4.5 - 6.5 months with unreliable onset. Agriculture is the dominant activity and majority of households in this zone rely heavily on crop production to meet most of their annual food and cash needs. The main crops grown are cassava, rice, maize, and bananas. Other FURSVLQFOXGHEHDQVPLOOHWSHDVSRWDWRHVFR΍HHJURXQGQXWVFLWUXVIUXLWVPDQJRHVMDFNIUXLWVVXJDUFDQHFRFRQXW WRPDWRHVDQGHJJSODQW:LWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRIIHZSDGG\DQGVXJDUFDQHȴHOGVFXOWLYDWLRQLVFDUULHGRXWPDLQO\E\XVH of the hand hoe, using primarily family labour and hired labour when the situation demands. Tractors are available only to a few individuals. Livestock keeping is also practiced by few farmers. Study Site 19: Nzega District (Magengati), Tabora Region This area is found in Western part of the country in Tabora Region at Nzega District under Agro-ecological Zone P3 (AEZ P3). The district receives rainfall of between 650 mm and 1,200 mm annually, falling between the months of October or November and December and a dry period from January to February/March and a second lower peak RFFXUULQJVRRQDIWHUWKHGU\VSHOOLQ)HEUXDU\RU0DUFKDQGWKHUDLQVWKHQWDLOR΍LQ$SULO0D\/LYHOLKRRGVRXUFHV are crop production including tobacco, cotton, maize, rice, cassava, and sorghum. Livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats, and chicken are kept for milk, meat and egg production respectively. Much income is generated from KDUYHVWLQJIRUHVWSURGXFWV ZRRGDQGQRQ ZRRG LQFOXGLQJKRQH\WLPEHUEXLOGLQJSROHVFKDUFRDODQGZLOGOLIH ANNEXES 79 AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONE D Study Site 5: Newala District (Mcholi 1), Mtwara Region This is low land zone (200-500m) found under Agro-ecological zone E5 (AEZ E5). The mean annual rainfall is between 800-1000 mm and having one dependable growing period with duration of 5 - 6 months with unreliable onset. Major crops grown in the zone that contribute to community livelihoods include cashew, sesame, cassava, maize, pulses (pigeon peas, cowpeas) and rice. Cashew nuts are the main cash crop though pigeon peas and sesame are also cultivated. 6WXG\6LWH0XȴQGL'LVWULFW 0DȴQJD ΖULQJD5HJLRQ 7KLVDUHDLVIRXQGLQ/\DVDΖULQJD5HJLRQDQGIDOOVXQGHUWKH$JURHFRORJLFDO=RQH+ $(=+ ΖWLVPDLQO\ȵDWDQG undulating to rolling plains and plateau. The altitude is high ranging from 1,500-2,000 m above mean sea level. Major soils are deep, well drained, yellowish or reddish sandy clays to clays with moderate natural fertility. There is one DGP per year with duration of 5-6 months and reliable onset dates. Mean annual rainfall is 600-1,600 mm, mean annual maximum temperature Tmax is 22-250C and mean annual minimum temperature Tmin is 10-150 C. Main OLYHOLKRRG HQWHUSULVHV LQFOXGH PDL]H VRUJKXP VXQȵRZHU WHD EHDQV IUXLWV DQG YHJHWDEOHV DQG OLYHVWRFN )RRG crops such as maize and beans are rain-fed while onions, tomatoes, varieties of vegetables and potatoes are widely grown under irrigation in the valley bottoms (vinyungu) throughout the year. Other livelihood sources include sale of timber from plantations. All households in the zone rely on agricultural production as their main source of food and LQFRPH3RRUHUKRXVHKROGVVXSSOHPHQWWKHLUFURSLQFRPHVE\ZRUNLQJRQEHWWHUR΍KRXVHKROGȇVIDUPV%HWWHUR΍ KRXVHKROGVHDUQDGGLWLRQDOFDVKE\VHOOLQJOLYHVWRFNHVSHFLDOO\FDWWOH3RRUHUKRXVHKROGVFDQRQO\D΍RUGWRVHOODIHZ animals and often according to immediate need. Study Site 14: Korogwe District (Magoma), Tanga Region This site is found in Magoma Ward, Korogwe District and is located in Agro-ecological zone E2 (AEZ E2). The altitude in this zone is 500-1200 m above mean sea level. Rainfall in some areas is less than 500 mm/year, while in others it is 800 - 1,000 mm/year. The length of the growing season in this zone is one dependable growing period (DPG) with duration of 2 - 2½ months and unreliable onset date. The main food crops are maize, cassava, paddy, fruits and vegetables. Livestock keeping of poultry, sheep, goats and cattle are common. Heavy reliance on crop production for food and cash make households especially vulnerable to food stress if rains fail. AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONE A Study Site 12: Dodoma District (Kikombo), Dodoma Region The study site is found in Kikombo Ward (Dodoma Region) in agro-ecological zone P9 (AEZ P9) with altitude of 1100- 1300 above sea level. It is a dry zone which receives 600-1000 mm of rainfall per year, which is often enough to grow food and cash crops. The length of the growing period in this zone is one DPG with duration of 4-5 months DQGKDVUHOLDEOHRQVHWGDWHV+RXVHKROGVGHSHQGRQOLYHVWRFNDVWKHPDLQVRXUFHRILQFRPH%HWWHUR΍KRXVHKROGV earn most of their income from selling their cattle, shoats and poultry. Households may also earn portions of their DQQXDOLQFRPHIURPVHOOLQJFDVKFURSVOLNHVHVDPHJURXQGQXWVDQGVXQȵRZHU2WKHUFURSVJURZQDUHVRUJKXP bulrush millet and maize food and livelihood security depend on successful rains. Livestock owners rely on the rains to recharge pastures and water supplies, and all depend on the rain for successful crop yields. Beekeeping is also practiced in this area. Study Site 18: Misungwi District (Igokelo), Mwanza Region This study site is found around Lake Victoria area under the Agro-ecological Zone P8 (AEZ P8). Livelihoods in this area DUHEDVHGRQFRWWRQSDGG\PDL]HȴVKLQJDQGOLYHVWRFNNHHSLQJ0DL]HFURSLVJURZQIRUVDOHDQGIRUIRRG2WKHU VRXUFHVRILQFRPHLQFOXGHȴVKLQJDQGPLQLQJDFWLYLWLHVLQSDUWLFXODUJROGZKLFKLVSOHQWLIXOLQWKH]RQH(PSOR\PHQW on farms and in gold mines provides another source of income to many communities within and outside the zone. Most communities are made up of local farmers comprising 90 percent of the population. Study Site 21: Babati District (Gallapo), Manyara Region The study site is found in Gallapo Ward and is located in Agro-ecological zone AEZ E2 (AEZ E2). The altitude in this zone is 500 - 1200 m above mean sea level. Rainfall in some areas is less than 500mm/year, while in others it is 800 - 80 ANNEXES 1,000 mm/year. The length of the growing period in this zone is one Dependable Growing Period (DPG) with duration of 2 - 2½ months and unreliable onset date. Mixed crop-livestock, mostly maize-based systems are widely found in Babati District that are intercropped with varying species, such as common maize, beans, pigeon peas, sorghum DQGVXQȵRZHUDFFRUGLQJWRDOWLWXGHDQGUDLQIDOODYDLODELOLW\ΖQWKHORZODQGVSDGG\ULFHLVFXOWLYDWHGZKHUHLUULJDWLRQ is available. The area has bimodal rainfall ranging from 1,100-1,200 mm annually which allows cultivation of a wide UDQJHRIIRRGDQGFDVKFURSVLQWKH]RQH6XQȵRZHUPDL]HSLJHRQSHDDQGFR΍HH DVZHOODVOLYHVWRFN DUHVROGDV FDVKFURSVEXWZLWKZLGHGL΍HUHQFHVLQDPRXQWVDQGQXPEHUV AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONE E Study site 6: Namtumbo District (Msindo), Ruvuma Region. 7KLVDUHDIDOOVXQGHUDJURHFRORJLFDO]RQH$(=( $(=( DQGLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\ȵDWWRUROOLQJSODLQVORFDOO\KLOO\ at medium altitude (750-1300 m), including strongly dissected uplands and low hills transitional to the medium altitude plateau. Major soils are moderately deep to deep, well drained, dark red to red clays with moderate to strong structure and evidence of clay illuviation. Natural soil fertility is low to moderate. There is one medium to long DGP with reliable onset dates per year with duration of 5-7 months in most of the zone. Mean annual rainfall is 800-1,000 mm, mean annual maximum temperature Tmax is 27-300 C and mean annual minimum temperature Tmin is 15-180 C. This area receives adequate annual rainfall and has one long growing season, which begins in November and ends in May. The length of growing period is between 150 and 200 days per year. The major crops grown are maize, cassava, \DPVZHHWSRWDWRHVWREDFFRSDGG\FR΍HHDQGFDVKHZQXWV Study site 7: Mbozi District (Ihanda), Mbeya Region 7KLVDUHDIDOOVXQGHUDJURHFRORJLFDO]RQH$(=8 $(=8 DQGLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\FRPSOH[ȵDWWRJHQWO\XQGXODWLQJ plains, has an altitude of 800-1800m above mean sea level. Major soils are moderately deep to deep, well drained, reddish and yellowish sandy clay loams and sandy clays with low natural fertility. The area has one DGP per year with duration of 5-6½ months, in some parts 6-8½ months, and reliable onset dates. Mean annual rainfall is 800-1,200mm, mean annual Tmax is 22-250 C and mean annual Tmin is 10-150 C. Households in the area depends on crop production to meet the majority of their food and income needs. The main livelihood enterprises are maize, beans, paddy, cocoa, EDQDQDFR΍HHVXQȵRZHUOLYHVWRFNDQGȴVKIDUPLQJ7RPHHWLPPHGLDWHQHHGVSRRUHUKRXVHKROGVRIWHQVHOODIWHU harvest at low prices only to buy back food at higher prices when stocks run out. Aside from crop sales, the poor also sell poultry and/or engage in paid work inside or outside the zone. Wealthier households own more livestock and FDQD΍RUGWRVHOOVRPHFDWWOHDQGJRDWVWKURXJKRXWWKH\HDURUDFFRUGLQJWRQHHGV)ORRGLQJLVWKHRQO\LPSHGLPHQW WRFURSSURGXFWLRQDQGVHFXULW\LQWKH]RQHDQGPD\RFFXURQFHLQHYHU\ȴYH\HDUV7KHUHLVJRRGURDGQHWZRUN FRQQHFWLQJWKHUHJLRQZLWKPRGHUDWHIHHGHUURDGVWKDWGHWHUPLQHDFFHVVLELOLW\WRGL΍HUHQWSODFHV Study site 8: Sumbawanga District (Mollo), Rukwa region This site is found in Mollo under Agro-ecological Zone H5 (AEZ H5) and is mainly characterized by volcanic landforms ranging from undulating to rolling, medium to high altitude plains and plateau; to strongly dissected hills, mountains, plateaux and plains at medium altitude (1,200 - 2,400 m above mean sea level). Major soils are deep, well drained, dark grey brown loamy sands, sandy loams and loams rich in allophanic clays with high natural fertility. There is one DGP per year, increasing in duration from 6-9 months to 9-12 months, with overlapping growing periods. Mean annual rainfall is 1,000-2,000 mm, mean annual Tmax is 22-250 C and mean annual Tmin is 10-150 C. The area is also characterized by annual crop farming as an activity that provides most of their cash income followed by tree/forest UHVRXUFHV R΍IDUP LQFRPH OLYHVWRFN NHHSLQJKHUGLQJ SHUPDQHQW FURSV UHPLWWDQFHV DQG ȴVKLQJKXQWLQJ DQG JDWKHULQJ0DLQOLYHOLKRRGHQWHUSULVHVLQFOXGHPDL]HEHDQVFDVVDYDZKHDWVXQȵRZHUOLYHVWRFNDQGȴVKIDUPLQJ enterprises. Roads are relatively good; although some feeder roads are impassable during the rainy season. Water availability for plantations is relatively good because of the characteristics of the catchment in the upper parts of the zone. Small scale and traditional irrigation is common in the area. Study Site 9: Kigoma-Ujiji District (Kagera), Kigoma Region This area falls under the agro-ecological zone AEZ W2 (AEZ W2) and is found at Kagera and Kibirizi villages. The study site lies within altitude of 800 – 1000 metres above sea level with annual rainfall of 600 – 1000 mm. Major soil types LQWKLVDUHDDUHȴQHVDQG\GDUNUHGGLVKEURZQDQGORDPV7KHPDLQOLYHOLKRRGHQWHUSULVHVLQ.DJHUDYLOODJHDUH based on maize, oil palm, vegetables, paddy, sweet potatoes, beans and livestock keeping, while the main livelihood ANNEXES 81 DFWLYLWLHVLQ.LELUL]LYLOODJHDUHEDVHGRQȴVKLQJLQ/DNH7DQJDQ\LND7\SHVRIȴVKHVLQFOXGHDagaa, Lumbo, Migebuka, Sangara (Nile Perch), Nonzi and Gomba. Study Site 20: Buhigwe District (Mwayaya), Kigoma Region This area is found in Mwayaya village and falls under the AEZ W2. It lies within altitude range from 1500 - 1750 metres above the sea level. Major soils in this part are black, brown and alluvial. Annual rainfall is variable ranging from 1000 PPPP7KHPDLQOLYHOLKRRGVDUHEDVHGRQPDL]HFR΍HHEDQDQDWHDSDOPRLOEHDQVDQGVZHHWSRWDWRHV and livestock (cattle and goats). 82

Annex 5. Summary Results of Baseline Survey Adaptation Main Livelihood Main Main Main Main Main Main Main strategies AEZ ACZ technologies/ others zone crops technologies practices livestock technologies practices ȴVKLQJ (percent CC practices impact) C1 B, C Tree crops cassava Hand Weeding, They Shade, Free grazing / - QHWȴVKLQJ In 1 site Early planting, C4 ȴVKLQJ tools and mulching, have concentrates extensive. In KRRNȴVKLQJ beekeeping dry planting coastal improved intercropping, chicken; and 1 site zero-gr. & tree and early land seeds slash and burn want improved because of a planting preparation +cattle breeding biogas plant (85-100percent) P8 A, B Cotton- Maize Hand Ridging, Chicken natural extensive wild ȴVKQHWV  Local drought tolerant P3 paddy rice paddy tools and monoculture, and mating ȴVKLQJLQ light beekeeping crop varieties & cattle improved crop rotation, cattle reproduction lake mulch (Majority) seeds intercropping & local breeds & boma E7 A, E Maize Maize Draft animals’ Ridging, Chicken, Shade, Extensive, wild ȴVKQHW  - Early land W2 Tobacco (beans) ox-plough, monoculture, cattle concentrates semi- ȴVKLQJLQ boats preparation /DNHȴVKLQJ improved crop rotation, and &local breeds intensive lake (100percent) seeds intercropping goats & manure management for biogas W2H1 C, D, E &R΍HH Maize improved Intercropping, Chicken, Hand sprayer semi intensive tilapia ponds Beekeeping Drought tolerant H5U banana (beans, seeds (draft mulching, cattle to control especially in and tree crop varieties Trees VXQȵRZHU animals’ ox- weeding, crop and pests; dairy cattle planting & irrigation & Rice-Maize wheat) plough) rotation goats boma & production; early planting bimodal reproduction. intensive & (86-100percent) Natural extensive mating P9 A, C, D sorghum Sorghum, draft animals’ intercropping Chicken improved Extensive and Tilapia possibility of Tree Drought tolerant E2 livestock maize, ox-plough, of maize & p. goat and breeds intensive and integrated planting and crop varieties E5 Pastoral cashew, hand tools peas, mixed cattle FDWȴVK systems with beekeeping & irrigation & Maize groundnut, and tractor cropping, rice and 1 early planting cassava sesame, (weeding, biogas plant (90-97percent) cashew VXQȵRZHU ridging) sesame ANNEXES E9 B, D Sisal Sugarcane, draft animals’ row and space Chicken Boma, intensive (Also tilapia Ponds (in - Dry planting, E2 Sugarcane paddy, ox-plough, planting, and vaccines and for chicken progress) indigenous cattle maize hand tools monoculture cattle improved to collect knowledge & and tractor (goats) breeds manure) early land prep ANNEXES (97-100percent) N5 A, C, E Pastoral Maize Tractor, Intercropping, Goats, improved Intensive - - beekeeping Irrigation and N4 &R΍HH banana improved ridging, cattle breeds (&extensive) tree planting banana seeds monoculture, and dip tanks (60-93percent) agroforestry chicken &paddock 83 84 REFERENCES REFERENCES 85 • Adhikari, U., Nejadhashemi A.P. 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