Biodiversity Action Plan 2009

Biodiversity Ac�on Plan 2009 Ministry of Agriculture Royal Government of Bhutan Acknowledgments The Ministry of Agriculture extends its deep apprecia�on to all the organiza�ons, both within and outside government administra�on, and the individuals within those organiza�ons for contribu�ng informa�on for the prepara�on of this document. Special thanks go to all the members of the BAP 2009 Prepara�on Team for their endeavor in producing a comprehensive and very informa�ve document. We are also enormously grateful to the United Na�ons Development Programme for their financial support to the prepara�on of this par�cular document and for their long-standing and con�nuous assistance to Bhutan in pursuing environmentally sustainable development policies and programmes. Lastly, we sincerely thank all the people and organiza�ons who have allowed the use of their photographs in this document. Biodiversity Ac�on Plan 2009 Copyright © 2009 Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Ministry of Agriculture Royal Government of Bhutan Post Box 875, Thimphu Consul�ng assistance: Norbu Samyul Consul�ng for Environment and Development Design & Layout : Tara Gurung & Singay Dorji Courtesy cover photographs : N Norbu, Sonam W Wang, Tshering Lhamtshok, Sangay Dorji, Ngawang Gyaltshen, Rinchen Yangzom, Nakul Che�ri, Bruce Bun�ng and WWF Bhutan Programme. y g i “Throughout the centuries, the Bhutanese have treasured their natural environment and have looked upon it as the source of all life. This traditional reverence for nature has delivered us into the twentieth century with our environment still richly intact. We wish to continue living in harmony with nature and to pass on this rich heritage to our future generations.” His Majesty the King Jigme Singye Wangchuck © Nakul Chettri i Foreword Over the past decades, loss of biodiversity has become a major global concern. Various interna�onal reports suggest that species are disappearing at 50 to 100 �mes the natural rate, gene�c resources are diminishing, and ecosystems are being severely degraded worldwide largely due to unsustainable human ac�vi�es. Many countries, both near and far, are suffering from economic and environmental woes brought on to them by the destruc�on of their ecosystems, species and gene�c resources. Fortunately for us in Bhutan, we have entered the new millennium with much of our natural environment and biodiversity s�ll in pris�ne state. As a ma�er of fact, the country can be dubbed as a conserva�on centerpiece of the Eastern Himalayas, a region known to be one of the global biodiversity hotspots. Despite being a small country, it is home to 5,603 species of vascular plants, 678 species of birds and nearly 200 species of mammals. In terms of domes�c biodiversity, there are more than 80 species of agricultural crops and 15 species of livestock. Some of these have adapted in the country’s rugged mountain and harsh clima�c condi�ons and, therefore, bear dis�nc�ve features. Ever since the advent of modern development in the country, with the incep�on of five year development plans in the beginning of the 1960s, the Royal Government of Bhutan has ensured that all aspects of development take place within the premise of environmental sustainability. Our late entrance into modern development gave us the opportunity to avoid many of the pi�alls of rampant development. At the same �me, low popula�on size and rugged topography have helped in modera�ng our use of the natural environment and biological resources. Most significantly, we were blessed with the enlightened leadership of our monarchs. The noble concept of Gross Na�onal Happiness – propounded by His Majesty the Fourth King Jigme Singye Wangchuck – has been our guiding development philosophy since the 1970s. The Gross Na�onal Happiness philosophy stresses that development cannot be pursued on the premise of economic growth alone but has to take place in combina�on with the emo�onal and environmental well-being of the people. ii Recognizing the enormous importance of biodiversity to humankind and to its own goal of environmentally sustainable development, Bhutan became a party to the Conven�on on Biological Diversity – a mul�lateral environmental treaty under the aegis of the United Na�ons to address the concerns of loss of biodiversity through interna�onal coopera�on and collec�ve ac�ons – in 1995, three years a�er the Conven�on was conceived at the Earth Summit. Subsequently, Bhutan has taken several ini�a�ves that have augmented its efforts to conserve its rich biodiversity. These include the opera�onaliza�on of a network of protected areas, establishment of biological corridors linking the protected areas, crea�on of conserva�on areas outside the protected areas system, targeted programs to protect globally threatened keystone species such as the �ger, snow leopard, white-bellied heron, and black-necked crane, the establishment of the Na�onal Biodiversity Centre including facili�es such as the Royal Bhutan Gene Bank and Royal Botanic Garden, and strengthening of programmes to conserve indigenous varie�es of plant and animal gene�c resources. It gives me immense gra�fica�on to note that we have already prepared and implemented two Biodiversity Ac�on Plans – the first produced in 1998 and the other in 2002. I am also pleased to note that this Biodiversity Ac�on Plan, which is the third, builds on the past Biodiversity Ac�on Plans and places greater emphasis on sustainable use of biodiversity to reduce poverty and enhance economic growth. According to the Poverty Analysis Report 2007 produced by the Na�onal Sta�s�cs Bureau, 23.2 percent of our popula�on live below the poverty line. It will be unjust and injudicious on our part if we do not use our biological resources, of course within sustainable limits, to help the poor and bring them out of the poverty cycle. There are many possibili�es of sustainable use of biological resources to reduce poverty and enhance economic growth. I see great poten�al in ac�vi�es that feature in this document such as integrated conserva�on and development programme, sustainable nature tourism, community forest management, and community-based management of non-wood forest products to contribute enormously to the objec�ves of poverty reduc�on and economic growth. Human-wildlife conflicts, especially incursions on field crops by wildlife such as wild pig and elephant, have persisted for long and are indeed a cause of great concern to us. These not only impoverish local communi�es and impinge on food security but also create resentment among the people for anything to do with conserva�on. I trust that the various ac�ons outlined in this document to reduce human-wildlife conflicts will be successful for both economic and environmental reasons but more especially for the emo�onal well-being of our farmers, who make up 69 percent of the country’s popula�on. Even though we do not yet know the full iden�ty and value of our biological diversity, we do know that our unspoiled ecosystems are reservoirs of invaluable gene�c materials. The poten�al for bioprospec�ng is, therefore, considerable. It fits in with the government policy of integra�ng conserva�on and economic development as it represents economic opportuni�es that are not resource use intensive and at the same �me helps a�ach more precise economic values to biodiversity and enhances the ra�onale for their conserva�on. I am happy to note that this Ac�on Plan has outlined a comprehensive set of ac�ons to develop bioprospec�ng mechanisms. As we endeavor for socio-economic development in a way that is environmentally responsible, we must also realize that environmental conserva�on is becoming increasingly challenging as a result of a growing popula�on and changing values and ways of life. Let us not take our biological wealth for granted but use it with considerable foresight for the benefit of both present and future genera�ons. I must commend the Na�onal Biodiversity Centre and all the people from various agencies who have collaborated in the development of Bhutan-Biodiversity Ac�on Plan 2009 and request all the people, within and outside the Ministry of Agriculture, to whole-heartedly support its implementa�on. Tashi Delek! Lyonpo (Dr) Pema Gyamtsho Minister of Agriculture iii Table of Contents Foreword ............................................................................................... i-iii Table of Contents .................................................................................. iv-vi Acronyms ............................................................................................... viii-ix Glossary of Bhutanese Terms ................................................................ x Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 1 1.1 The Importance of Biodiversity Conserva�on ....................... 1 1.2 Biodiversity Conserva�on and Gross Na�onal Happiness ..... 2 1.3 Environmental Conserva�on – A Cons�tu�onal Mandate .... 4 1.4 United Na�ons Conven�on on Biological Diversity ............... 4 1.5 An Overview of Past Biodiversity Ac�on Plans ...................... 5 1.6 BAP III Development Process ................................................. 7 Chapter 2: CURRENT STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY IN BHUTAN ............... 9 2.1 Biogeography ......................................................................... 9 2.2 Ecosystem Diversity ............................................................... 10 2.2.1 Forest Ecosystems .................................................................. 10 2.2.2 Aqua�c Ecosystems .............................................................. 11 2.2.3 Agricultural Ecosystems ........................................................ 15 2.3 Wild Species Diversity ........................................................... 16 2.3.1 Wild Flora ............................................................................. 16 2.3.2 Wild Fauna ............................................................................ 18 2.4 Domes�c Biodiversity ........................................................... 24 2.4.1 Agricultural Crops ................................................................. 24 2.4.2 Livestock ................................................................................ 26 Chapter 3: BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION EFFORTS .......................... 29 3.1 Conserva�on of Wild Biodiversity ......................................... 29 3.1.1 In situ Conserva�on ............................................................... 29 3.1.2 Ex situ Conserva�on .............................................................. 43 3.2 Conserva�on of Domes�c Biodiversity .................................. 44 3.2.1 Crop Diversity Conserva�on .................................................. 44 3.2.2 Livestock Diversity Conserva�on ........................................... 46 3.2.3 Sustainable Land Management to Protect Agricultural Ecosystems ............................................................................ 47 iv TA B LE O F CO N T EN T S 3.3 Conserva�on Policy and Legisla�on Development ................ 50 3.3.1 Na�onal Forest Policy ............................................................ 50 3.3.2 RNR Sector Policy .................................................................. 51 3.3.3 Na�onal Environment Strategy ............................................. 51 3.3.4 Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 1995 ............................ 52 3.3.5 Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules .................................. 52 3.3.6 Environmental Assessment Act 2000 .................................... 53 3.3.7 Regula�ons for the Environmental Clearance of Projects and Strategic Environmental Assessment ............................. 53 3.3.8 Livestock Act of Bhutan 2001 ................................................ 54 3.3.9 Biodiversity Act of Bhutan 2003 ............................................ 55 3.3.10 Na�onal Biosafety Framework .............................................. 55 3.3.11 Na�onal Environmental Protec�on Act 2007 ........................ 55 3.3.12 Biosecurity Policy .................................................................. 56 3.3.13 Other Relevant Laws and Regula�ons ................................... 56 3.4 Ins�tu�onal Arrangement ..................................................... 58 3.4.1 Central Government Agencies ............................................... 59 3.4.2 Dzongkhag and Local Community Ins�tu�ons ...................... 64 3.4.3 Independent/ Non-Governmental Organiza�ons .................. 65 3.4.4 Corpora�ons .......................................................................... 66 3.5 Interna�onal Coopera�on for Biodiversity Conserva�on ...... 66 Chapter 4: CURRENT TRENDS AFFECTING BIODIVERSITY ................... 69 4.1 Direct Causes ......................................................................... 69 4.1.1 Forest Harves�ng ................................................................... 69 4.1.2 Livestock Grazing ................................................................... 71 4.1.3 Forest Fires ............................................................................ 72 4.1.4 Human-Wildlife Conflicts ....................................................... 74 4.1.5 Wildlife Poaching ................................................................... 75 4.1.6 Land Use Change and Conversion ......................................... 76 4.1.7 Urbaniza�on .......................................................................... 77 4.1.8 Mining and Quarrying ........................................................... 79 4.1.9 Infrastructure Development .................................................. 79 4.1.10 Invasive Species ..................................................................... 81 4.1.11 Hydropower Development .................................................... 81 4.1.12 Industrial Development ......................................................... 82 4.2 Indirect Causes ...................................................................... 83 4.2.1 Popula�on ............................................................................. 83 4.2.2 Poverty .................................................................................. 84 v 4.2.3 Consump�on Trends and Market Forces ............................... 86 4.2.4 Climate Change ...................................................................... 87 Chapter 5: ACTION PLAN .................................................................. 89 5.1 General Premise .................................................................... 89 5.2 Goal and Objec�ves ............................................................... 89 5.3 Strategies and Ac�ons ........................................................... 90 5.3.1 Strategies and Ac�ons to Achieve Objec�ve 1 ...................... 90 5.3.2 Strategies and Ac�ons to Achieve Objec�ve 2 ...................... 96 5.3.3 Strategies and Ac�ons to Achieve Objec�ve 3 ...................... 100 5.3.4 Strategies and Ac�ons to Achieve Objec�ve 4 ...................... 103 5.3.5 Strategies and Ac�ons to Achieve Objec�ve 5 ...................... 104 References ....................................................................................... 109 Annex 1: BAP 2009 Prepara�on Team ................................................... 114 Annex 2: Addi�onal People Who Reviewed/Contributed Informa�on 115 Annex 3: Brief Descrip�ons of Protected Areas .................................... 116 Annex 4: Matrix Correla�ng Objec�ves and Strategies to Trends Affec�ng Biodiversity ............................................................................. 121 List of Figures Figure 1: Land Cover Map of Bhutan ..................................................... 9 Figure 2: Map showing Protected Areas and Connec�ng Biological Corridors in Bhutan ............................................................................... 30 Figure 3: Countries with Highest Propor�on of Protected Areas .......... 30 Figure 4: Community Forests in Bhutan (1997-2008) ............................ 37 Figure 5: Ca�le and Yak Popula�on 1990-2007 ..................................... 72 Figure 6: Forest Fire Occurrence, 1999/00-2007/08 ............................. 74 Figure 7: Forest Land Conversion to Other Uses 2001-2005 ................. 77 Figure 8: Distribu�on of Urban Popula�on ........................................... 78 Figure 9: Industrial Licenses Issued 2002-2006 ..................................... 82 Figure 10: Popula�on Doubling Timeline at Various Growth Rates ....... 83 Figure 11: Poverty Incidences by Dzongkhags ....................................... 85 Figure 12: Share of Na�onal Consump�on by Poverty/ Wealth Popula�on Quin�les, 2007 .................................................................... 86 vi List of Tables Table 1: River Systems of Bhutan ........................................................... 12 Table 2: Major Agro-ecological Zones of Bhutan ................................... 15 Table 3: Globally Threatened Mammal Species found in Bhutan .......... 19 Table 4: Compara�ve Wild Species Diversity of Selected Countries from Various Regions ............................................................ 23 Table 5: Major Food Crops of Bhutan .................................................... 25 Table 6: Popula�on Overview of Various Livestock Breeds in Bhutan ... 27 Table 7: Opera�onal Status of Protected Areas in Bhutan .................... 31 Table 8: Biological Corridors and their Areas ......................................... 33 Table 9: Conserva�on Areas in Bhutan .................................................. 34 Table 10: Forest Resources Management Poten�al .............................. 35 Table 11: Reforesta�on in Bhutan ......................................................... 38 Table 12: Territorial Forest Divisions and their Coverage of Dzongkhags ........................................................................................... 60 Table 13: Interna�onal Biodiversity and Related Trea�es Ra�fied/ Acceded to by Bhutan .......................................................................... 67 Table 14: Mineral Produc�on in Bhutan, 2002 - 2006 ........................... 79 Table 15: Popula�on and Popula�on Densi�es of Most and Least Populated Dzongkhags ................................................................. 84 vii viii Acronyms BAFRA Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority BAP I Biodiversity Ac�on Plan for Bhutan 1998 BAP II Biodiversity Ac�on Plan for Bhutan 2002 BAP III Bhutan Biodiversity Ac�on Plan 2009 BTF Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conserva�on B2C2 Bhutan Biological Conserva�on Complex BUCAP Biodiversity Use and Conserva�on in Asia Programme CBD United Na�ons Conven�on on Biological Diversity CBNRM Community-based Natural Resource Management CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies CITES Conven�on on Interna�onal Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CNR College of Natural Resources, formerly Natural Resources Training Ins�tute CoRRB Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (Ministry of Agriculture) DANIDA Danish Interna�onal Development Assistance DDM Department of Disaster Management (Ministry of Home & Cultural Affairs) DEC Dzongkhag Environmental Commi�ee DGM Department of Geology and Mines (Ministry of Economic Affairs) DoA Department of Agriculture DoE Department of Energy DoF Department of Forests DoL Department of Livestock DRA Drug Regulatory Authority (Ministry of Health) DYT Dzongkhag Yargye Tshogdu EA Environmental Assessment EC Environmental Clearance FAO Food and Agriculture Organiza�on of the United Na�ons FFS Farmers’ Field School FMU Forest Management Unit FPUD Forest Protec�on and U�liza�on Division (Department of Forests) FRDD Forest Resources Development Division (Department of Forests) FRPA Forest Resources Poten�al Assessment GBIS Gene Bank Informa�on System GMO Gene�cally Modified Organism ix GNH Gross Na�onal Happiness GYT Gewog Yargye Tshogchung ICDP Integrated Conserva�on and Development Programme ICIMOD Interna�onal Centre for Integrated Mountain Development ITMS Ins�tute of Tradi�onal Medicine Services (Ministry of Health) IUCN World Conserva�on Union, formerly known as the Interna�onal Union for Conserva�on of Nature and Natural Resources MoA Ministry of Agriculture MoEA Ministry of Economic Affairs NBC Na�onal Biodiversity Centre NBF Na�onal Biosafety Framework NCD Nature Conserva�on Division (Department of Forests) NEC Na�onal Environment Commission NECS Na�onal Environment Commission Secretariat NLC Na�onal Land Commission NLMC Na�onal Land Management Campaign NP Na�onal Park NRDCL Natural Resources Development Corpora�on Limited NWFP Non-wood Forest Product PGR Plant Gene�c Resources PHCB Popula�on and Housing Census of Bhutan PVS Par�cipatory Varietal Selec�on RBR Royal Botanic Garden RBRPD Royal Botanical and Recrea�onal Parks Division (Department of Forests) RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan RNR Renewable Natural Resources RNR-RC Renewable Natural Resources Research Centre RSPN Royal Society for the Protec�on of Nature SFD Social Forestry Division (Department of Forests) SLIMS Snow Leopard Informa�on Management System UNCCD United Na�ons Conven�on to Combat Deser�fica�on UNCED United Na�ons Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Na�ons Development Programme UNFCCC United Na�ons Framework Conven�on on Climate Change WS Wildlife Sanctuary WWF World Wildlife Fund in the United States and Canada, and World Wide Fund for Nature elsewhere x Glossary of Bhutanese Terms Chathrim Act, statute Chhuzhing Wetland cul�va�on Dzong Fortress-like structure which serves as a center for public administra�on and religious affairs Dungkhag Sub-district Dungpa Sub-district Administrator Dzongdag District Administrator Dzongkhag District Dzongkhag Yargye Tshogdu District Development Commi�ee Gaydrung Gewog Clerk Gewog Smallest public administra�on unit made up of a block of villages Gewog Yargye Tshogchung Block Development Commi�ee Gup Head of a gewog, elected by the local community Gyalpoi Zimpon Royal Chamberlain Kamzhing Dryland cul�va�on Mangmi Member of the GYT, who also serves as a deputy to the Gup Sokshing Government reserved forest land leased out for leaf li�er produc�on and collec�on for use in farm yard manure Thromde Tshogdu Municipal Commi�ee Thrimzhung Chenmo Mother Act Tsamdro Government reserved forest land leased out for grazing and improved pasture management Tshachu Hot spring Tshogpa Village representa�ve in the GYT 14 © Rebecca Pradhan 1 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION The Importance of Biodiversity Conservation1.1 Biological diversity, or biodiversity in short, refers to “the varia�on of life at all levels of biological organiza�on.” The United Na�ons Conven�on on Biological Diversity (CBD) has defined biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including inter alia terrestrial, marine and other aqua�c ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.” It is commonly measured in terms of the totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region. The essen�al goods and services for sustenance and welfare of the planet as well as humankind depend on the integrity and ecodynamics of biodiversity. The Earth’s wide range of biological resources feed, clothe and shelter humanity. They provide us with medicines, spiritual nourishment and recrea�on. Ecologically, they play a crucial part in regula�ng the chemistry of our atmosphere, the hydrological cycle and climate, and in maintaining soil fer�lity and land produc�vity. Biodiversity also helps dispersal and breakdown of wastes, pollina�on of several crops, and absorp�on of pollutants. In sum, the conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity is extremely cri�cal to meet the ecological, social, economic, health, spiritual and recrea�onal needs of humankind1. In Bhutan, the importance of biodiversity is accentuated by the country’s unique social, cultural, economic and physiographic condi�ons. Reverence for nature and all living things is fundamental to Buddhism, which plays a predominant role in the lives and culture of the Bhutanese people. Local communi�es revere nature such as wild animals, forests, ridges, mountains, and lakes as these are considered cri�cal for spiritual well-being. Animals such as the �ger, elephant, takin, deer, crane and raven hold iconic significance in Buddhist religion and mythology. Economically, the country is heavily nature-dependent. Agricultural produc�on, hydropower development and tourism, which are the economic mainstays of the country, can only be sustained if the natural resources are managed and used with prudence. Rural communi�es, which make up 69 percent2 of the country’s popula�on, basically subsist on an integrated farming system of crop produc�on, livestock rearing and use of a wide array of forest-based goods and services. From the ecological standpoint, the country’s inherently fragile geologic condi�ons, rugged mountain terrain and high precipita�on levels necessitate conserva�on and sustainable use of natural resources to mi�gate natural disasters such as landslides and flash floods. In today’s world of greenhouse gas emissions, global warming and climate change, the forests have an immensely important role in carbon sequestra�on and allevia�ng the impacts of climate change. As a result of extensive tracts of forests, the country stands out as one of the very few countries in the world which is a net sequester of carbon, and natural disasters 1 Conserva�on literatures generally describe the term “conserva�on” as encompassing protec�on, management and sustainable use of natural resources. However, in this report the terms “conserva�on” and “sustainable use” are being used consecu�vely as there is the general tendency to associate the term “conserva�on” more with preserva�on and protec�on and less with sustainable use of natural resources. 2 RGoB, 2005. 2 have been rela�vely less recurrent and widespread compared to many other places in the Himalayan region and elsewhere in the world. The country carries enormous regional and global conserva�on significance. Well preserved watersheds in the country benefit not only the Bhutanese but also the many downstream communi�es in neighboring India and Bangladesh who subsist on agriculture, fisheries and other water resource-based economic ac�vi�es. Furthermore, the country is a conserva�on bas�on of the Eastern Himalaya, a region recognized as one of the global biodiversity hotspots3. The country’s vast and con�guous tracts of sub-tropical and temperate forests, the alpine scrub, meadows and scree in the northern mountains, and the many rivers, lakes and marshlands harbor several species of wild fauna and flora which are known to be globally threatened. Species such as the Bengal �ger Panthera �gris �gris, red panda Ailurus fulgens, Bhutan takin Budorcas taxicolor whitei, golden langur Trachypithecus geei, and black-necked crane Grus nigricollis, which are threatened elsewhere in the world, are found in substan�al numbers in Bhutan. Decades of self-isola�on, sparse popula�on, strong conserva�on leadership by the monarchs of the country, nature-reverent tradi�onal beliefs of the Bhutanese communi�es, rugged topography, and belated moderniza�on have all helped Bhutan enter into the new millennium with much of its biodiversity in a robust state. As a consequence, the country presents a unique opportunity for proac�ve conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity rather than post-damage restora�on which many countries around the world are currently struggling with. However, at the same �me, the socio-economic development needs of the country are becoming increasingly ambi�ous as a result of a growing and modernizing popula�on. Furthermore, the country has transited to democracy a�er a century of monarchy. In the new poli�cal scenario, there is the risk of short-term economic development needs of the public taking precedence over the long-term benefits of biodiversity conserva�on. Given the changing social, economic and poli�cal scenario, proac�ve and concerted ac�ons for conserva�on and sustainable use of our biodiversity have today become more crucial and challenging than ever before. Biodiversity Conservation and Gross National Happiness1.2 Environmental conserva�on has always occupied a pivotal place in the country’s development policies and strategies. Concern for natural environment is embedded in Bhutanese tradi�onal beliefs, socio-cultural outlook and development philosophy. The overarching Bhutanese development philosophy of “Gross Na�onal Happiness” (GNH), first propounded by our Fourth King Jigme Singye Wangchuck in the 1970s, underscores that development cannot be pursued on the premise of economic growth alone but has to take place in combina�on with the emo�onal and spiritual well-being of the people. It basically stems from the Buddhist no�on that the ul�mate purpose of life is inner happiness. 3 The concept of biodiversity hotspot was first authored by Dr. Norman Myers. A biodiversity hotspot is a terrestrial region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened with destruc�on. Specifically, a hotspot contains at least 1,500 endemic vascular plants found nowhere else, and at least 70 percent of the hotspot habitat will have already been lost (Mi�ermeier et al, 2004). 3 The Bhutanese decision-makers have characterized environmental sustainability as one of the four pillars of the GNH development philosophy (see Box). Bhutan 2020, the country’s vision document to maximize GNH emphasizes that “development must be pursued within the limits of environmental sustainability and carried out without impairing the biological produc�vity and diversity of the natural environment.” Bhutan’s GNH development philosophy has inspired the concep�on of the Gross Interna�onal Happiness Project, a global ini�a�ve coordinated from the Netherlands, focusing on dialogue and research to develop indicators and programmes for true value, sustainable development and well being for na�ons and organiza�ons. The project has held three interna�onal conferences and produced numerous publica�ons on GNH, involving ins�tu�ons and individual development thinkers from around the world, to opera�onalize GNH in globally-adaptable measurable terms. At the na�onal level, the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) is developing a whole set of indicators that will help assess our progress in the pursuit of GNH. The standard of living, health of the popula�on, educa�on, ecosystem vitality and diversity, cultural vitality and diversity, �me use and balance, good governance, community vitality, and emo�onal well being are the nine provisional GNH indicators iden�fied by the CBS. Gross National Happiness (GNH) is a development philosophy which defines quality of life in more holistic and psychological terms than Gross National Product. The term serves as a unifying philosophy for development planning and management. While conventional development models stress economic growth as the ultimate objective, the concept of GNH is based on the premise that true development of human society takes place when material, spiritual and emotional well-being occur side by side to complement and reinforce each other. In the sphere of Bhutan’s public policy, the GNH philosophy is to operate on the following four main pillars: Equitable socio-economic development,• ensuring equity between individuals and communities as well as regions to promote social harmony, stability and unity and to contribute to the development of a just and compassionate society. Conservation of the environment,• ensuring development pursuits are within the limits of environmental sustainability and are carried out without impairing the biological productivity and diversity of the natural environment. Preservation and promotion of culture• , instilling appreciation of the cultural heritage and preserving spiritual and emotional values that contribute to happiness and cushion the people from the negative impacts of modernization. Promotion of good governance,• developing the country’s institutions, human resources and systems of governance and enlarging opportunities for people at all levels to fully participate and effectively make development choices that are true to the circumstances and needs of their families, communities and the nation as a whole. To take forward the philosophy of GNH, Bhutan has designed its vision document Bhutan 2020, providing development goals, objectives and priorities with a twenty-year perspective and outlining key principles to guide the development process. ppTThThThThThThThee e FFFFFoFoFoururur PPPPP P Pililililililillllllalalarsrsrs o o offffff f GGGGGrGrGrosososss s NNNNNaNaNa ititititititiononon llllalalal HHHHH H Hapapapapp iipipipipipinenenessssssThThThThThThTheee FFFFFoFoFoururur PPPPPPPililililililillllllalalarsrsrs ooofffffff GGGGGrGrGrososossss NNNNNaNaNa ititititititiononon llllalalal HHHHHHH papapapp iipipipipipinenenessssss 4 Environmental Conservation – A Constitutional Mandate1.3 Bhutan is one of the very few countries in the world to feature environmental conserva�on explicitly in its Cons�tu�on. Consistent with its longstanding pursuit of environmentally sustainable development and recogni�on of environmental conserva�on as one of the pillars of the GNH development philosophy, Ar�cle 5 of the Cons�tu�on of the Kingdom of Bhutan provides for environmental conserva�on. It states that: Every Bhutanese is a trustee of the Kingdom’s natural resources and environment for � the benefit of the present and future genera�ons and it is the fundamental duty of every ci�zen to contribute to the protec�on of the natural environment, conserva�on of the rich biodiversity of Bhutan and preven�on of all forms of ecological degrada�on including noise, visual and physical pollu�on through the adop�on and support of environment friendly prac�ces and policies; The Royal Government shall: (a) protect, conserve and improve the pris�ne � environment and safeguard the biodiversity of the country; (b) prevent pollu�on and ecological degrada�on; (c) secure ecologically balanced sustainable development while promo�ng jus�fiable economic and social development; and (d) ensure a safe and healthy environment; The Government shall ensure that, in order to conserve the country’s natural resources � and to prevent degrada�on of the ecosystem, a minimum of sixty percent of Bhutan’s total land shall be maintained under forest cover for all �me; Parliament may enact environmental legisla�on to ensure sustainable use of natural � resources and maintain intergenera�onal equity, and reaffirm the sovereign rights of the State over its own biological resources; and Parliament may, by law, declare any part of the country to be a Na�onal Park, Wildlife � Reserve, Nature Reserve, Protected Forest, Biosphere Reserve, Cri�cal Watershed and such other categories meri�ng protec�on. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity1.4 The United Na�ons Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit, at Rio de Janeiro in 1992 brought together governments of 179 countries from around the world to discuss the wide range of environmental concerns and to come to an understanding of “development” that would support socio-economic development and prevent the con�nued deteriora�on of the environment. It also laid the founda�on for global partnerships between the developing and developed na�ons, based on mutual needs and common interests that would ensure environmentally sustainable development. 5 The Summit resulted in Agenda 21, the Rio Declara�on on Environment and Development, and the Statement of Forest Principles. Also emana�ng from the Summit were two legally binding Conven�ons, namely the United Na�ons Conven�on on Biological Diversity (CBD) and United Na�ons Framework Conven�on on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Bhutan was commi�ed to the CBD right from the advent of the conven�on. Along with 154 other countries, Bhutan signed the CBD at the Earth Summit. Recognizing the growing need to address biodiversity conserva�on concerns through global coopera�on and ac�ons and the relevance of the conven�on to the country, Bhutan ra�fied the CBD in August 1995. As of June 2008, 191 countries had become party to the CBD. The CBD for the first �me in interna�onal law recognized that the conserva�on of biodiversity is “a common concern of humankind” and is an integral part of the development process. It links tradi�onal conserva�on efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources carefully. While past conserva�on efforts were aimed at protec�ng par�cular species and habitats, the conven�on recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes must be used for the benefit of humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity. The conven�on establishes three main goals: the conserva�on of biodiversity; the sustainable use of its components; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of gene�c resources. A key obliga�on under the CBD is the development of na�onal strategies, plans or programmes for the conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity, and integra�on of, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies. This calls for three sequen�al processes: country studies (biodiversity assessment); na�onal strategies (developing goals and opera�onal objec�ves); and ac�on plans (iden�fying ac�ons and implementa�on measures). Subsequently, Bhutan in September 2002 acceded to the Cartageña Protocol on Biosafety, which has been conceived as a component of the CBD to protect biodiversity from the poten�al risks posed by living modified organisms resul�ng from modern biotechnology. The objec�ve of the Biosafety Protocol is to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protec�on in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of ‘living modified organisms resul�ng from modern biotechnology’ that may have adverse effects on the conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity, taking also into account risks to human health, and specifically focusing on trans-boundary movements. An Overview of Past Biodiversity Action Plans1.5 One of the foremost obliga�ons for countries that have become party to the CBD is the repara�on of the Na�onal Biodiversity Ac�on Plan, which primarily outlines the status of biodiversity and describes the ac�ons that the country needs to take for conserva�on and sustainable use of its biological resources. 6 Bhutan first prepared its Biodiversity Ac�on Plan in 1997 under the coordina�on of the Nature Conserva�on Sec�on4. A core mul�-disciplinary team of six officials from what was then known as the Crop and Livestock Services Division5, Research, Extension and Irriga�on Division6, and Forestry Services Division7 prepared the document under the guidance of an interna�onal biodiversity expert. The core team was assisted in terms of informa�onal and advisory support by a larger task force of 11 representa�ves from various government agencies, private sector, non-governmental organiza�ons and the United Na�ons Development Programme (UNDP). The first Biodiversity Ac�on Plan for Bhutan (BAP I) was released in 1998 and was prepared over a period of six months primarily involving broad-based consulta�ons through a series of workshops and in-depth analyses of the results of the consulta�ons. BAP I was organized into five chapters with the first two chapters providing an assessment of the country’s biodiversity resources and the subsequent chapters focusing on direct conserva�on ac�ons, essen�al suppor�ng measures, and addi�onal strategic recommenda�ons to enhance benefits from biodiversity conserva�on. Prepara�on of the second Biodiversity Ac�on Plan for Bhutan (BAP II) commenced in November 2001. A format similar to the prepara�on of BAP I was followed for prepara�on of BAP II under the coordina�on of the Nature Conserva�on Division. A core mul� disciplinary team of six officials from the Department of Forestry Services, Department of Agriculture and Livestock Support Services, and Na�onal Biodiversity Center prepared the document. As was in the case of BAP I, an interna�onal biodiversity expert guided the prepara�on of the document. The core group received informa�onal and advisory support from a larger group of 18 focal persons represen�ng various government agencies, private sector, non-governmental organiza�ons and the UNDP. Essen�ally, BAP II focused on three key elements: one, incorpora�on of all key developments in the field of biodiversity conserva�on since BAP I; two, assessment of biodiversity conserva�on efforts in terms of direct conserva�on ac�ons, ins�tu�onal development, policy and legisla�on, biodiversity informa�on, public educa�on and awareness, and interna�onal coopera�on; and, three, upda�ng the ac�on plan to more meaningfully address evolving conserva�on circumstances and needs. Right from the concep�on of BAP I, it was recognized that Biodiversity Ac�on Plans would be “living documents” that will need to evolve to be relevant to changing circumstances and needs related to biodiversity conserva�on. Bhutan is a developing na�on and indeed development changes have been rapid especially since the country produced BAP I. Over the past decade, several new policies and laws have been enacted, quality of data has improved, new ins�tu�ons and programmes have come into being, new development 4 Currently known as Nature Conserva�on Division under the Department of Forests. 5 The Division was subsequently renamed as the Department of Agriculture and Livestock Support Services, and recently recons�tuted into two Departments, namely the Department of Agriculture and Department of Livestock. 6 The Division has been disbanded. The extension and irriga�on func�ons have been directly brought under the De partment of Agriculture and the Council of Renewable Natural Resources Research of Bhutan (CoRRB) has been created to address research needs pertaining to crop agriculture, livestock development and forestry. 7 The Division was subsequently renamed as the Department of Forestry Services and recently as the Department of Forests. 7 trends have emerged, while the very system of governance has rapidly evolved. The prepara�on of BAP II and now the prepara�on of BAP III is a strong indicator that Biodiversity Ac�on Plans are an ongoing process with each successive edi�on building upon the previous one whilst reflec�ng changes in conserva�on circumstances and needs in the context of the country’s overall development scenario. BAP III Development Process1.6 As recommended in BAP II, the prepara�on of Bhutan-Biodiversity Ac�on Plan 2009 (BAP III) has been coordinated by the Na�onal Biodiversity Centre (NBC). A Bhutanese consultant, with na�onal and interna�onal conserva�on experience, prepared the BAP III in consulta�on with various stakeholders. The NBC formed a technical group composed of representa�ves from key conserva�on and related agencies to provide informa�on and foresight to the BAP III consultant, review the prepara�on of BAP III and ensure that BAP III adequately and accurately reflects the circumstances and needs of the various stakeholders involved in biodiversity conserva�on. The consulta�on process basically involved a series of workshops as described below: BAP III Framework Formula�on Workshop to discuss the outline, conceptual features � and process framework for prepara�on of BAP III; BAP III Ac�on Planning Workshop to review the informa�on on the current status of � biodiversity and analysis of the current trends affec�ng biodiversity in Bhutan, and to discuss and develop ac�ons for the conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity; BAP III Review Workshop to enlist broad-based views and consensus on BAP III before � its finaliza�on. The aforesaid workshops were interspersed with individual mee�ngs with relevant people in various organiza�ons to elicit addi�onal informa�on and clarifica�ons. All people who were involved/ consulted in the prepara�on of BAP III are listed in Annexes 1 and 2. 8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 © Nakul Chettri , Dago Tshering, Singye Wangmo, Tshetila and Tshering Choki 9 Chapter 2 CURRENT STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY IN BHUTAN 2.1 Biogeography With an area of 38,394 km2, Bhutan is situated in the Eastern Himalaya, flanked by the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China to its north and northwest, and by the Indian states of Sikkim, West Bengal and Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh to its southwest, south, and east8. The country is almost en�rely mountainous with nearly 95 percent of the country being above 600 meters (m)9. The terrain is rugged and steep, with al�tudes declining from above 7,500 m to under 200 m within a short north-south distance of 170 kilometers (km). The country can be divided into three broad physiographic zones. The southern belt is made up of the Himalayan foothills adjacent to a narrow belt of flatland (Duars) along the Indian border with al�tude ranging from under 200 m to about 2,000 m. The inner Himalayas consist of the main river valleys and steep mountains with al�tude ranging from about 2,000 m to 4,000 m. The great Himalayas in the north along the Tibetan border encompass snow-capped peaks and alpine meadows above 4,000 m. Lying between the cold and dry Tibetan plateau in the north and the hot and humid Indian plains in the south, Bhutan straddles two major biogeographic realms. These are the Indo Malayan region consis�ng of the lowland rain forests of South and Southeast Asia and the Palearc�c region consis�ng of conifer forests and alpine meadows of northern Asia and Europe. Figure 1: Land Cover Map of Bhutan 8 The area of the country is cited from Bhutan at a Glance 2006 brochure produced by the Na�onal Sta�s�cs Bureau, Royal Government of Bhutan. 9 Atlas of Bhutan 1997, MoA. 10 2.2 Ecosystem Diversity 2.2.1 Forest Ecosystems Forests10 are the most dominant land cover, making up 72.5 percent of the country’s territory. Mixed conifers and broadleaf forests are the most dominant forest types and virtually all forests are natural with planta�on forests accoun�ng for a mere 0.2 percent of the country’s area11. As a result of great al�tudinal range, with corresponding varia�on in clima�c condi�ons ranging from hot and humid sub-tropical condi�ons in the southern foothills to cold and dry tundric condi�ons in the northern mountains, the country supports a wide range of forest ecosystems and vegeta�on zones. Broadly speaking, the country can be divided into three dis�nct ecofloris�c zones. The alpine zone comprises areas above 4,000 m with no tree cover but scrub vegeta�on and meadows. The temperate zone, lying between 2,000 m and 4,000 m, contains temperate conifer and broadleaf forests. The subtropical zone, which lies between 150 m and 2,000 m, contains tropical and subtropical vegeta�on. Several forest types occur within the spectrum of the above three broad ecofloris�c zones. These vegeta�on types are briefly described below: 10 Forests are defined as “areas where tree crowns cover over 10 percent of the ground, and cover areas greater than 0.5 hectares” according to the Global Forest Resources Assessment Report 2000 Main Report by the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organiza�on. 11 Total forest cover includes scrub forest which cons�tutes 8.1 percent of the total land cover. So, effec�vely, true forest cover is 64.4 percent. All land cover figures cited in this document are derived from the Atlas of Bhutan: Land Cover and Area Sta�s�cs produced by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1997. No land cover figures have been officially released since the publica�on of the aforesaid document. Temperate broadleaf forest in Gasa dzongkhag, Jigme Dorji National Park. Forests account for 72.5% of Bhutan‛s land cover, making the country with one of the highest forest cover in Asia. © Sonam Phuntsho 11 Alpine Meadows and Scrub: Above the tree line, the vegeta�on basically consists of alpine grasses, and an assortment of herbs, shrubs and flowering plants. In many of the meadows various medicinal plants can be found, such as Chinese caterpillar fungus Cordyceps sinensis, Puteyshing Picrorhiza kurooa, and Tsika Fri�llaria delavaye. Fir Forest: This forest type occurs at very high al�tudes, between 2,700 m and 3,800m. Hemlock and birch may also be present. Towards the �mber line, fir stands become stunted and juniper and rhododendron scrubs become more prominent. Mixed Conifer Forest: Prevalent between 2,000 m and 2,700 m, this forest type is dominated by spruce, hemlock and larch, or a mixture of these species. Hemlock tends to be found on we�er slopes than spruce and is generally covered with lichens and mosses. Blue Pine Forest: Most common in the western and central valleys of the country, between 1,800 m and 3,000 m. It is some�me found mixed with oak and rhododendron. Chir Pine Forest: A xerophy�c forest type occurring in deep dry valleys under subtropical condi�ons, between 900 m and 1,800 m. Broadleaf mixed with Conifer Forest: In some parts of the country, the succession between broadleaf and conifer forests is gradual and, as a result, there are extensive areas of a mixture of these two forest types. These mixed forests are generally oak mixed with blue pine or higher al�tude broadleaf species mixed with spruce or hemlock, and generally occur between 2,400 m and 3,000 m. Upland Hardwood Forest: Occurring in the temperate hillsides between 2,000 m and 2,900 m, this forest type is predominantly evergreen oak forest in the drier areas and cool broadleaf forest in we�er areas. Lowland Hardwood Forest: This forest type occurs in the subtropical hills, between 1,000 m and 2,000 m, and is rich in a mix of subtropical and temperate genera. Tropical Lowland Forest: This forest type occupies the foothills below 700 m. The forests are mul�storied and vary from almost deciduous on exposed dry slopes to almost evergreen on the moist valleys. 2.2.2 Aquatic Ecosystems Rivers The country is endowed with tremendous inland water resources as a result of an extensive network of rivers, rivulets and streams arising from high level of precipita�on, presence of huge number of glaciers and glacial lakes, and rela�vely well-preserved forests. The country’s river system can be divided into four major river basins, namely Amo Chhu (Torsa), Wang Chhu, Puna Tsang Chhu (Sunkosh), and Drangme Chhu (Manas)12. Drangme Chhu, which is the largest river basin, drains more than one-third of the country. 12 The names within the parenthesis are the ones used in southern parts of the country and the adjoining states of India. 12 In addi�on, there are several small river basins occupying largely the southern part of the country. These include Samtse Area mul�-river, Gelegphu Area mul�-river, Samdrup Jongkhar Area mul�-river, and Shingkhar-Lauri mul�-river. Table 1: River Systems of Bhutan River Basin Major Tributaries Basin Area (km2) Amo Chhu (Torsa) - 2,400 Wang Chhu Thim Chhu, Pa Chhu, Haa Chhu 4,689 Puna Tsang Chhu (Sunkosh) Mo Chhu, Pho Chhu, Dang Chhu, Daga Chhu 10,355 Drangme Chhu (Manas) Mangde Chhu, Chume Chhu, Chamkhar Chhu, Kuri Chhu, Kholong Chhu, Gongri Chhu 16,599 Samtse Area multi-river - 962 Gelegphu Area multi-river - 1,956 Samdrup Jongkhar multi-river - 2,279 Shingkhar-Lauri multi-river - 779 Source: Water Resources Management Plan, Department of Energy, 2003 Lakes Glacial lake at Lunana area, Jigme Dorji National Park. There are 2,674 glacial lakes in Bhutan, feeding into the many rivers and rivulets that make the country‛s watersheds. © Sonam Phuntsho 13 There is a large number of small and medium-sized lakes spread across the country. At the present, except for glacial lakes, there is no adequate assessment of the area and loca�on of various lakes in the country. As for glacial lakes, the Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Bhutan produced in 2001 by the Department of Geology and Mines reports a total of 2,674 lakes in the country13. However, most of the glacial lakes are extremely small. The largest of all the lakes is the Raphstreng Tsho at an al�tude of 4,360 m in the eastern part of Lunana14. Marshlands In addi�on to rivers and lakes, marshlands in the form of depressions and water-logged areas, are envisaged to be a major part of the aqua�c ecosystems in the country although no proper survey of marshlands have been carried out so far. Marshlands are generally known to be rich in biota and good habitat for resident as well as migratory birds, rep�les, amphibians and fishes. The best known marshland in the country is the Phobjikha valley, where the globally threatened black-necked cranes Grus nigrocollis roost in large numbers during winter15. The valley is also highly valued for its outstanding scenery and cultural ethnicity. Hot Springs Hot springs, known as Tshachu in Dzongkha, are very popular in Bhutan. People in Bhutan mainly use hot spring for therapy of various ailments, especially those affec�ng bone and skin. So far, ten hot springs have been officially reported in the country but the number could be more. These are gNyes tshachu and Yonten Kuenjong tshachu in Lhuentshe dzongkhag, Dur tshachu in Bumthang dzongkhag, Gaylegphug tshachu in Sarpang dzongkhag, Dungmang tshachu in Zhemgang dzongkhag, Koma tshachu and Chu Phug tshachu in Punakha dzongkhag, and Gasa tshachu, Laya tshachu and Wachi tshachu in Gasa dzongkhag16. Hot springs are associated with microbial biodiversity, which lie at the base of food chain and consequently supports hundreds of higher species, but globally at the present there is very limited scien�fic understanding of microbial biodiversity in hot springs. 13 The Inventory was produced with support from the Interna�onal Center for Integrated Mountain Development and the United Na�ons Environment Programme. 14 The lake measured 1.94 km long, 1.13 km wide, and 107 m deep (WAPCOS, 1997). 15 Annual crane counts by the Royal Society for the Protec�on of Nature since 1986/87 winter season show that on average around 225 black-necked cranes have been spending their winter in Phobjikha over the last 21 years. Since the winter of 2005/06, the annual number of cranes roos�ng in Phobjikha valley have exceeded 300 (www. rspnbhutan.org). 16 Wangchuk P and Dorji Y (2007). 14 Paddy fields in Western Bhutan. Rural communities which make up 69% of the country‛s population depend primarily on agriculture for their livelihood. © Rinchen Yangzom 15 2.2.3 Agricultural Ecosystems The country is known to have six major agro-ecological zones corresponding with al�tudinal range and clima�c condi�ons. Table 2: Major Agro-ecological Zones of Bhutan Agro-ecological Zone Altitude (meter) Temperature (degree Celsius) Rainfall (mm per year) Monthly (maximum) Monthly (mean) Annual (mean) Alpine 3,600-4,600 12.0 -0.9 5.5 <650 Cool Temperate 2,600-3,600 22.3 0.1 9.9 650-850 Warm Temperate 1,800-2,600 26.3 0.1 12.5 650-850 Dry Subtropical 1,200-1,800 28.7 3.0 17.2 850-1,200 Humid Subtropical 600-1,200 33 4.6 19.5 1,200-2,500 Wet Subtropical 150-600 34.6 11.6 23.6 2,500-5,500 Source: RNR Research Strategy and Plan Document, MoA, 1992 Alpine zone: This zone, which lies between 3,600 – 4,600 m, is characterized by alpine meadows and is basically too high to grow any food crops. The meadows are used as summer pastures for yaks by the nomadic yak-herding communi�es. Cool Temperate Zone: This zone covers cul�vated areas between 2,600 – 3,600 m. Rainfall is low, so dryland farming is common. Livestock farming is a predominant feature and, in par�cular, a small but dis�nct popula�on of pastoralists maintain herds of yak and sheep in a nomadic manner. Horses, mules and dogs are the other livestock found in this zone. Key crops that are grown include wheat, potato, buckwheat, mustard and barley. Warm Temperate Zone: This zone occurs between 1,800 – 2,500 m where rainfall is s�ll low but temperature is moderately warm, except during winter when frost occurs. Migratory ca�le herding is common and the herders have family links with the agricultural communi�es in the lower al�tudes. People in this zone also keep pigs, poultry, dogs, cats, horses and small ruminants. In the wetland agricultural areas, rice is most commonly grown followed by wheat, potato, and several kinds of vegetables. Dry Subtropical Zone: Occurring between 1,200 – 1,800 m, this zone is warm with moderate rainfall averaging 850 – 1,200 mm in a year. Rice and maize are the major crops grown in this zone, in addi�on to wheat and mustard. Humid Subtropical Zone: This zone lies between 600 – 1,200 m with rela�vely higher rainfall and temperature. Ca�le rearing is common but is not done in a migratory fashion as in the temperate zones. The main cropping pa�ern in the wetland agricultural areas is rice followed by wheat and mustard. Citrus (mandarin types, locally called “oranges”) are grown as cash crops. In the dryland agricultural areas, maize is the main crop followed by mustard, millet and buckwheat. 16 Wet Subtropical Zone: This zone has excellent areas for crop cul�va�on. Fodder is scarce, so the ca�le are tethered in the cropping areas prior to prepara�on. As in the humid subtropical zone, ca�le rearing is normally sedentary in this zone. Rice is the main crop grown in summer while maize or wheat are grown in winter depending on irriga�on. Rainfall is very high, ranging between 2,500 – 5,500 mm in a year. Irriga�on sources are mostly rain-fed and dry up in the winter when rainfall becomes very low. As a result, large scale winter cropping normally does not take place. In the dryland agricultural areas, maize is the main crop. Other crops include cowpea, mustard, niger, millet and sorghum. 2.3 Wild Species Diversity 2.3.1 Wild Flora Vascular Plants The country’s diverse ecosystems harbor a spectacular assortment of wild flora. The Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, which published the Flora of Bhutan, has recorded 5,603 species of angiosperms and gymnosperms. These include 369 species of orchids and 46 species of rhododendrons17. Of the recorded plant species, 105 are said to be endemic to Bhutan, found nowhere else in the world18. These include species such as Rhododendron bhutanense, R. kesangiae, Meconopsis superba, Pedicularis inconspicua, Bhutanthera himalaica, and Vanda chlorosantha. The wild flora includes several plant species of enormous commercial and scien�fic values. The Ins�tute of Tradi�onal Medicine Services (ITMS) uses more than 200 species for the formula�on of various tradi�onal medicines. The Himalayan yew Taxus baccata (subspecies wallichiana) is known to have cancer-curing proper�es. Other examples include: Podophyllum hexandrum, Aconitum orochryseum, Delphinium glaciale, Pleurospermum amabile, Gen�ana urnula, Corydalis crispa, Parnassia ovata, and Polygonatum ver�cilliatum for their valuable alkaloids and various medicinal proper�es; Allium spp, Fri�llaria spp, and Lilium spp as wild gene pools for future crop research; and Rheum nobile, Pterocephalus hookeri, Aster spp, Senecio spp, Saussurea spp, Rhododendron spp, Geranium spp, 17 Some plant taxonomists reckon that there will be more than 7,000 species of vascular plant in the country. NJ Pearce and PJ Cribb, who authored The Orchids of Bhutan published by the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh and the Royal Government of Bhutan in 2002, have es�mated that an addi�onal 200 or more species of orchids alone are likely to be discovered in the country in future. 18 These include 14 orchid species and 91 other plant species. The 14 endemic orchid species have been named in The Orchids of Bhutan by Pearce and Cribb while the informa�on on other endemic plant species is based on personal communica�on with Tandin Wangdi, curator of the Na�onal Herbarium at the Na�onal Biodiversity Center, Serbithang. Paphiopedilum fairrieanum, Royal Botanical Garden, Serbithang. Bhutan‛s biodiversity includes 369 recorded species of orchids © Dechen Lham 17 Meconopsis spp, Epilobium spp, Anemone spp, Poten�lla pedicularis, and Talauma hodgsoni as poten�al hor�cultural crops for ornamental purpose. The Flora of Bhutan, which consists of three volumes of three parts each, provides a comprehensive descrip�on of the country’s flora. The species described belong to eight families of Gymnosperms, 180 families of Dycotyledons, and 66 families of Monocotyledons. The Bhutanese flora is considered to be of immense scien�fic value not only due to the high level of diversity but also because of the rela�vely good state of preserva�on compared to other Himalayan regions. In addi�on, the Na�onal Biodiversity Centre has recorded 410 species of pteridophytes (ferns and fern allies) through ongoing inventories in various regions of the country19. Insect-fungi Bhutan, given its wide-ranging geo-clima�c condi�ons, is also expected to be very rich in insect-fungi although records are currently very limited. Chinese caterpillar fungus Cordyceps sinensis, found in the alpine meadows of the country, is highly valued for its medicinal proper�es as an aphrodisiac and cure of lung and kidney ailments. A kilogram of this insect-fungi species known as Yartsa Guenbub in Bhutanese, can fetch more than US$ 2,400 within the domes�c market itself. Although listed as a totally protected species in the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 1995, collec�on and trade of Yartsa Guenbub have been legalized since 2006 to provide local communi�es with addi�onal income-earning opportuni�es. The collec�on and trade of the species are regulated by the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). Field studies have been ini�ated in 2007 to study the occurrence and ecology of insect-fungi in the country, star�ng with the subtropical region of the country. About 50 species of insect-fungi have been recorded in Gedu forest area alone by a survey team comprising Bhutanese foresters, a phytochemist from the ITMS, and an interna�onal insect-fungi scien�st. The preliminary record includes a highly possible new species of insect-fungi, which has been provisionally named Cordyceps bhutanensis20. Mushrooms The Na�onal Mushroom Centre has recorded more than 90 species of forest mushrooms in the country. Several species such as Cantherellus cibarius (Sissi shamu in Dzongkha, Clavaria botry�s (Bjichu kangro in Dzongkha) and Auricularia auricula (Jilli namchu in Dzongkha) are popular in Bhutanese cuisine. Tricholoma matsutake (Sangay shamu in Dzongkha) is much sought in European and Japanese culinary markets. 19 The figure may change once the Na�onal Biodiversity Centre has completed field verifica�on and literature research of the recorded species of pteridophytes. 20 Kuensel, 3rd December, 2007. 18 There are 27 globally threatened species of mammals in the country including the capped langur, Trachypithecus pileatus ( pictured above). © Kinzang Namgay 2.3.2 Wild Fauna Mammals Close to 200 species of mammals are known to occur in the country21. This is extraordinary for a country which is one of the smallest in Asia. Although there are rela�vely few endemic mammal species, the high species richness combined with the availability of well-preserved habitats across various al�tudinal and clima�c zones together make for what is probably the only example of an intact faunal assemblage in the Eastern Himalaya. This ecological integrity provides precondi�ons in Bhutan for a prime sanctuary for numerous Palearc�c and Indo-Malayan mammal species. These species include a number of globally threatened mammals such as the Bengal �ger Panthera �gris �gris, snow leopard Uncia uncia, clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa, red panda Ailurus fulgens, Bhutan takin Budorcas taxicolor whitei, golden langur Trachypithecus geei, capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus, Asian elephant Elephas maximus, and Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster leucogaster. Altogether, there are 27 globally threatened species of mammals in the country (Table 3). 21 Wangchuk T et al, 2004. 19 Table 3: Globally Threatened Mammal Species found in Bhutan Species Threat Category Pygmy Hog Sus salvanius Golden Langur Trachypithecus geei Capped Langur Trachypithecus pileatus Dhole/ Wild Dog Cuon alpinus Red Panda Ailurus fulgens Bengal Tiger Panthera tigris tigris Snow Leopard Uncia uncia Asian Elephant Elephas maximus One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis Asiatic Water Buffalo Bubalus bubalis Hispid Hare Caprolagus hispidus Ganges River Dolphin Platanista gangetica Assamese Macaque Macaca assamensis Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus laniger Himalayan Musk Deer Moschus chrysogaster Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus Marbled Cat Pardofelis marmorata Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa Asiatic Golden Cat Catopuma temmincki Swamp Deer Cervus duvauceli Gaur Bos gaurus Serow Capricornis sumatraensis Takin Budorcas taxicolor Mouse-eared Bat Myotis sicarius Sikkim Rat Rattus sikkimensis Critically Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Source: Red List of Threatened Species, IUCN, 2008 High species richness, availability of unspoiled natural habitats in large parts and rela�vely small demographic pressure have made the country a haven for wildlife. Many species that are striving for survival elsewhere exist in healthy numbers in Bhutan. For instance, country-wide �ger status surveys between 1996 – 1998 revealed a conserva�ve es�mate of 115 to 150 �gers, including 67 to 81 breeding adults, occurring in con�guous distribu�on spread over an area of 10,714 km2 (22). This means that the country has a poten�ally viable popula�on of �gers that can serve as a vital gene pool for future �ger conserva�on efforts. 22 McDougal C and Tshering K, 1998 20 The golden langur is another example of a species which is on the verge of ex�nc�on elsewhere in its range but occurs abundantly in Bhutan23. Golden langur habitat and popula�on surveys conducted in the mid-1990s had revealed available habitat of over 3,400 km2 and a popula�on of more than 4,000 golden langurs across the country24. Several mammal species are habitat specialists and consequently have restricted range. For instance, blue sheep use alpine meadows for grazing and venture into alpine scree in the ridge tops above the meadows. During winter, blue sheep migrate down into the alpine scrub habitat. Takin follow the blue sheep migratory pa�ern but remain in one habitat category below by migra�ng into alpine scrub in summer and down to sub-alpine and cool temperate broadleaf forests in the winter. The distribu�on of snow leopard is restricted to the higher eleva�ons such as alpine scree and meadows. Musk deer, usually found in moist sub-alpine forests, overlap with the red panda, which inhabit old growth mixed conifer and temperate forests with heavy moss cover on trees and bamboo undergrowth. Intriguingly in Bhutan, �ger, which is generally associated with sub-tropical and tropical habitats, has been found at eleva�ons up to 4,000 m. Avifauna Bhutan has an outstanding birdlife: 678 species have been recorded and many more are likely to be found in the future25. On a global scale, the country is recognized as forming a part of several globally important bird regions. It is a part of the Sino-Himalayan mountain forests, Indo-Burmese forests, Indo-Gange�c grasslands, South Asian arid habitats, and Tibetan plateau wetlands – all categorized as globally important bird regions by BirdLife Interna�onal. There are 14 globally threatened bird species and ten restricted range bird species in the country. Of the 14 that are globally threatened, one species i.e. white-bellied heron Ardea insignis is considered cri�cally endangered according to the Red List of Threatened Species maintained by the World Conserva�on Union (IUCN)26. The others are categorized as vulnerable and they include black-necked crane Grus nigricollis, rufous-necked hornbill Aceros nipalensis, chestnut-breasted partridge Arborophila mandellii, Pallas’s fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus, beau�ful nuthatch Si�a Formosa, wood snipe Gallinago nemoricola, Blyth’s tragopan Tragopan blythii, greater spo�ed eagle Aquila clanga, 23 Outside Bhutan, the golden langur is reportedly found in small numbers in a few pockets of forests in the neighboring Indian state of Assam. 24 Wangchuk T, 1996. 25 Inskipp C et al (1999) recorded 616 species. Subsequent field surveys by the staff of the Department of Forests and the Royal Society for the Protec�on of the Nature have recorded addi�onal species, expanding the list of recorded bird species to 678 as of November, 2008. The latest records are that of Hodgson’s Frogmouth Batrachostomus hodgsoni reported by Chris G Bradshaw and Peter Lobo from their trip to Bhutan in Spring 2008, and that of Brandt’s Mountain Finch Leucos�cte brand�i and the Tibetan Blackbird Turdus maximus reported by WWF Bhutan in November 2008. 26 White-bellied heron has been uplisted from “endangered” to “cri�cally endangered” status in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2007 because new informa�on indicates that it has an extremely small and rapidly declining popula�on. Current es�mate suggests there may be fewer than 250 individuals of this species in the world. 21 Imperial eagle Aquila heliaca, Baer’s pochard Aythya baeri, Hodgson’s bushcat Saxicola insignis, dark-rumped swi� Apus acu�cauda, and grey-crowned prinia Prinia cinereocapilla. The ten restricted range bird species are Blyth’s tragopan Tragopan blythii, chestnut breasted partridge Arborophila mandellii, dark-rumped swi� Apus acu�cauda, ward’s trogon Harpactes wardi, rufous-throated wren babbler Spelaeornis caudatus, hoary throated barwing Ac�nodura nipalensis, brown-throated fulve�a Alcippe ludlowi, white naped yuhina Yuhina bakeri, yellow-vented warbler Phylloscopus cantator, and broad billed warbler Tickellia hodgsoni. Herpetofauna In terms of herpetofauna, there has been very li�le survey and documenta�on done although the country is considered to be rich in rep�les and amphibians par�cularly in the tropical/ sub-tropical areas. Preliminary wildlife surveys in the early 1990s recorded 15 rep�les and three amphibians in Royal Manas Na�onal Park27. Subsequently, in 1999, 23 species of rep�les and amphibians were recorded in the same park during a week long herpetological survey training for the park staff of Royal Manas Na�onal Park28. The recorded list includes globally threatened species such as the Gharial Gavialis gange�cus, Indian Python Python molurus molurus and Yellow Monitor Lizard Varanus flavescens. 27 MacKinnon J, 1991 and 1994. 28 WWF, 1999 Rufous-necked hornbill, Aceros nipalensis. There are 14 globally threatened bird species and 10 restricted range bird species in Bhutan © N Norbu 22 Invertebrates Documenta�on of invertebrates is currently very limited. Some documenta�on of the bu�erflies of Bhutan has been carried out only in the recent years. The country is reportedly expected to have 800 to 900 species of bu�erfly29. Of these, 140 species have been catalogued with photographs in the Bu�erflies of Bhutan booklet published by the Royal Society for the Protec�on of Nature in 200730. These include some rare species such as the Blue Dake Euthalia durga and Blue Forester Lethe scandal. Interna�onally protected species such as the Bhutan Glory Bhutani�s lidderalii and Kaiser-i-Hind Teinopalpus imperialis are also known to occur in the country although they have not yet been photographically catalogued since they are rarely seen. At the present, four indigenous species of bees are known to be found in the country. These species are Apis cerena, Apis dorsata, Apis laboriosa, and Apis florae. However, the beekeeping industry in the country is currently promo�ng an introduced European species Apis melifera. Observa�ons made by beekeeping veterans in the country suggest changes taking place in the popula�on dynamics of the wild bees. Informa�on on their distribu�on, trends and characteris�cs are limited. Their contribu�on to agricultural produc�vity through pollina�on is also not widely recognized in the country. Apis laboriosa, which is considered a rare species, is s�ll less understood and not many references are available. Fish fauna The fish fauna of the country has not yet been properly assessed. Exis�ng records list 50 freshwater fish species, including eight introduced species31. The main indigenous fish species include Himalayan trout Barilius spp and mahseer Tor tor, which is listed as a totally protected species in the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 1995. Amongst introduced species, brown trout Salmo tru�a tru�a is the most common. 29 van der Poel P and Wangchuk T, 2007. 30 The booklet catalogues bu�erflies sighted in habitats ranging from 800 to 3,000 m. 31 www.fishbase.org 23 Table 4: Compara�ve Wild Species Diversity of Selected Countries from Various Regions Countries (Region) Area (km2) Birds Mammals Vascular Plants Australia (Oceania) 7,741,220 851 376 15,638 Armenia (Central Asia) 29,800 302 78 3,553 Bangladesh (South Asia) 144,000 604 131 5,000 Benin (West Africa) 113,000 485 159 2,500 Bhutan (South Asia) 38,394 678 198 5,603 Brazil (South America) 8,512,000 1,712 578 56,215 China (East Asia) 9,597,054 1,221 502 32,200 Colombia (South America) 1,139,000 1,821 467 51,220 Costa Rica (Central America) 51,100 838 232 12,119 India (South Asia) 3,287,263 1,180 422 18,664 Indonesia (Southeast Asia) 1,750,669 1,604 667 29,735 Japan (East Asia) 378,000 592 171 5,565 Kenya (East Africa) 580,367 1,103 407 6,506 Kuwait (West Asia) 17,818 358 23 234 Nepal (South Asia) 147,181 864 203 6,973 Netherlands (West Europe) 37,000 444 95 1,221 Pakistan (South Asia) 796,000 625 195 4,950 Papua New Guinea (Oceania) 462,840 720 260 11,544 Peru (South America) 1,285,000 1,781 441 17,144 Russia (Europe/Asia) 17,075,000 645 296 11,400 Slovakia (East Europe) 49,012 332 87 3,124 South Africa (Southern Africa) 1,221,000 829 320 23,420 Switzerland (Central Europe) 41,284 382 93 3,030 Sri Lanka (South Asia) 65,610 381 123 3,314 Thailand (Southeast Asia) 513,115 971 300 11,625 United Kingdom (West Europe) 242,900 557 103 1,623 United States (North America) 9,363,520 888 468 19,473 Uzbekistan (Central Asia) 447,400 343 91 4,800 Venezuela (South America) 912,050 1,392 353 21,073 Yemen (West Asia) 528,000 385 74 1,650 Sources : 1. Number of species for Bhutan are derived from na�onal sources (Birds of Bhutan book by Inskipp et al, 1999, Field Guide to the Mammals of Bhutan by Wangchuk et al, 2004, and Flora of Bhutan) 2. Number of species for other countries are from the environmental informa�on portal maintained by the World Resources Ins�tute (earthtrends.wri.org) 3. Country area figures are from Oxford Atlas, 2002. 24 2.4 Domestic Biodiversity 2.4.1 Agricultural Crops Bhutan’s diversity of agricultural crop species is quite impressive. About 80 species of agricultural crops are expected to occur in the country. The main crops include: cereals such as rice, maize, barley, millet, wheat, and buckwheat (pseudo cereal); fruits such as apple, orange, and pear; vegetables such as potato, bean, and cabbage; and spices such as chili, cardamom, garlic, and ginger. The crop species diversity can be further broken down into numerous landraces that occur as a consequence of adapta�on to micro environments created by al�tudinal and clima�c varia�ons. For instance, there are some 350 landraces of rice, 47 of maize, 24 of wheat, and 30 of barley. © Tshering Choki Phobjikha valley, Wangduephodrang. Rural landscapes in the temperate region typically comprise agricultural fields against the backdrop of pastures and forests. 25 Table 5: Major Food Crops of Bhutan Crop Harvested Area in acre (2006) Production MT (2006) Paddy 67,566 74,380 Maize 75,413 71,062 Wheat 17,515 9,586 Barley 7,494 4,003 Foxtail millet 4,420 1,801 Finger millet 16,558 6,984 Sweet buckwheat 12,325 4,902 Bitter buckwheat 9,088 4,451 Mustard 13,123 3,706 Rajma bean 2,908 1,279 Soy bean 3,196 1,419 Bean 4,501 4,632 Potato 17,628 68,048 Chili 5,971 11,606 Radish 4,016 10,218 Turnip 2,111 12,914 Cabbage 2,026 4,298 Green leaves 2,803 4,385 Ginger 4,425 7,571 Cardamom 9,991 3,477 Source: Agriculture Sta�s�cs 2006, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture Several of the crop varie�es represent adapta�ons to some of the highest agricultural lands in the world, with cul�va�on in the alpine agro-ecological zone extending up to 4,600 m. For example, while wheat is not an indigenous crop, varie�es grown around Laya are adapted to higher al�tudes and colder clima�c condi�ons than wheat varie�es in other parts of the world. Similarly, maize and barley have undergone a natural process of breeding and selec�on to evolve into high-eleva�on varie�es. A few other crop species have been domes�cated; for example, buckwheat is indigenous and at least one puta�ve wild rela�ve, Fagopyrum debotrys, is found in the wild in Bhutan. Foxtail millet is another indigenous crop species with a wild rela�ve, Setaria viridis. Two wild rela�ves of oats, Avena fatua and A. sa�va, are found in the country. There are also numerous wild rela�ves of hor�cultural crops such as apple, pear and citrus in the temperate and subtropical forests of the country. 26 Bhutanese rice is unique in that it represents an intermediate type between the two major groups of Oryza sa�va, “indica” and “japonica” (“javanica” is a less significant third group)32. There are an es�mated 350 varie�es of rice in the country, many adapted to micro-environments, and thus crea�ng a very valuable and unique gene pool. At least two wild rela�ves of rice, O. minuta and O. rufipogon, are known to be found in the country. In addi�on, four wild rela�ves of len�l, Vigna radiate var sub-lobata, V. vexillata, V. pilosa, and V. trilobata, and three wild rela�ves of pigeon pea, Cajanus grandiflorus, C. mollis, C. elangatus, are known to occur in the country. 2.4.2 Livestock Livestock diversity in Bhutan basically consists of bovines, caprines, ovines, equines, avians, swines, canines and felines. Among ca�le, Nublang is a Bos indicus breed believed to have originated in Sombe gewog of Haa. Its key characteris�cs are disease resistance, strength and high bu�erfat content in milk. Mithun Bos frontalis is a descendant of Gaur, which originated in Northeast India but has been bred in Bhutan since at least the 17th century. Mithun (male) are o�en crossbred with Thrabam (female of Nublang) to reproduce Jatsa and Jatsham, which are produc�vely superior compared to either of the parent breeds. Then there is Goleng, a Bos taurus ca�le species probably origina�ng in Tibet, which is commonly used for cross-breeding with yak. 32 Che�ri GB, 1992 © Sonam Phuntsho A L un ap l ad y m ilk in g ya k, L un an a. Y ak h er di ng i s a m aj or e co no m ic ac ti vi ty i n th e su b al pi ne r eg io n 27 The yaks in Bhutan are similar to those which occur commonly elsewhere in the Himalayas and Tibetan plateau. There appears to be dis�nct gene�c differences between yaks in eastern and western Bhutan, with higher level of gene�c diversity in the east. Yak and ca�le hybridiza�on is commonly prac�ced in central and eastern Bhutan, producing several sub-breeds such as Zo and Zom. Horse breeds found in the country are also considered to be unique. These breeds are known as Yuta, Boeta, Mera-Saktenpa, and Jata. Ass breeds are imported from Tibet or India for crossbreeding with horses to produce mules. Bhutanese sheep have been gene�cally inves�gated and classified into three types, namely Jakar, Sipsu and Sakten types. In par�cular the Jakar type is unique to central Bhutan. It is highly threatened as farmers are giving up sheep husbandry prac�ces because they are no more economically viable. Table 6 : Popula�on Overview of Various Livestock Breeds in Bhutan Breed/ Type Population Status (2007) Nublang cattle 208,783 Mithun cattle (pure) 1,643 Mithun cattle (cross) 48,755 Jersey cattle (pure) 1,140 Jersey cattle (cross) 53,716 Brown Swiss cattle (pure) 79 Brown Swiss cattle (cross) 5,192 Yak 51,500 Buffalo 1,551 Horse (local breed) 19,617 Horse (improved breed) 1,309 Mule 5,183 Donkey 153 Sheep 12,202 Goat 28,300 Pig (local breed) 17,742 Pig (improved breed) 7,814 Chicken (local breed) 147,738 Chicken (improved breed) 41,408 Dog 31,729 Cat 30,192 Source: Livestock Popula�on Sta�s�cs 2007, Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture 28 © Sonam Phuntsho 29 Chapter 3 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION EFFORTS 3.1 Conservation of Wild Biodiversity 3.1.1 In situ Conservation Establishment and Management of Protected Areas Bhutan has set aside a sizeable por�on of the country as protected areas. With the inaugura�on of the Wangchuck Centennial Park33 in December 2008, the country’s protected areas system is now made up of five na�onal parks, four wildlife sanctuaries, and a strict nature reserve, covering altogether an area of 16,398 km2 or 42.7 percent of the country’s total area (see Figure 2 and Table 7)34. This puts Bhutan well at the top of the list of countries in the world with the highest propor�on of area under protected status35 (Figure 3). 33 Wangchuck Centennial Park is dedicated to the Bhutanese monarchs for hundred years of peace, prosperity and happiness. The protected area is now the largest in the country with an area of 4,914 km2. 34 Some official figures include biological corridors in the calcula�on of the total area under protected areas system. This report has le� out biological corridors in the calcula�on of the total area under protected areas system as they do not fall under IUCN classifica�on, which is interna�onally used to define protected areas. 35 The ranking excludes very small countries that have a total area of less than 5,000 km2. Nor does it account for those few remaining countries or regions, like Suriname and Alaska, where the system of protected areas may take in a smaller overall percentage of land area than indicated for those countries listed in Figure 2, but, in actual effect, harbors enormous con�guous pris�ne territory. In the case of Suriname, more than 90 percent of the country remains as scarcely-populated, intact tropical rain forest, with low threat of deforesta�on. © Sangay Dorji Rh eu m n ob ile , Ji gm e D or ji N at io na l Pa rk . Bh ut an ‛s na tu ra l e co sy st em s ar e ri ch i n m ed ic in al p la nt s wi th m or e th an 3 00 r ec or de d pl an t sp ec ie s of m ed ic in al v al ue . 30 Figure 2: Map showing Protected Areas and Connec�ng Biological Corridors in Bhutan Figure 3: Countries with Highest Propor�on of Protected Areas 18.3 18.4 21.8 23.9 24 28 28.6 28.7 29.3 42.7 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Tajikistan Israel Denmark Brunei Darussalam New Zealand Austria Belize Switzerland Germany Bhutan % Area under protected areas Source : WRI (2007) excep�ng the figure for Bhutan Note : For interna�onal comparability, the protected areas taken into account for the ranking fall in IUCN category I to V 31 The protected areas system in Bhutan is one of the most comprehensive in the world not only in terms of area coverage but also in terms of the balance and con�guity in distribu�on across the country. The system encompasses a con�nuum of representa�onal samples of all major ecosystems found in the country ranging from the tropical/ sub tropical grasslands and forests in the southern foothills through temperate forests in the central mountains and valleys to alpine meadows and scree in the northern mountains (see Annex 3 for brief descrip�ons of the protected areas). In 2006, the area of Thrumshingla Na�onal Park was increased from 768 km2 to 905 km2 and that of Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary from 1,400 km2 to 1,521 km2 to bring addi�onal areas of poten�al �ger and snow leopard habitats under the protected areas system. Of the ten protected areas, six are opera�onal at present with conserva�on management plans, personnel and basic conserva�on management infrastructure in place (see Table 7). These six protected areas collec�vely cover an area of 9,234 km2, cons�tu�ng 56.3 percent of the total area under protected areas. The remaining protected areas are expected to become opera�onal in the Tenth Five Year Plan period (2008-2013)36. Table 7: Opera�onal Status of Protected Areas in Bhutan Protected Area Area km2 Operational Status Torsa Strict Nature Reserve 610 Not yet operational Jigme Dorji National Park 4,316 Operational since 1997. Conservation management plan being revised. Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park 1,730 Operational since 2002. Conservation management plan being revised. Royal Manas National Park 1,057 Operational since 1994. Prior to 1994, patrolling and some limited research activities were being implemented as well as basic park infrastructure existed in Manas. Thrumshingla National Park 905 Operational since 2002. Conservation management plan being revised. Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary 1,521 Operational since 2001. Conservation management plan being revised. Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary 269 Not operational but patrolling and preliminary surveys ongoing under the management of Sarpang Forest Division Sakten Wildlife Sanctuary 741 Operational with its first conservation management plan in place in 2006. Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary 335 Not yet operational Wangchuck Centennial Park 4,914 Declared a protected area in December 2008 All PAs (total) 16,398 Source: Nature Conserva�on Division, DoF, 2009 36 Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary has some basic infrastructure and staff for regular patrolling and wildlife protec�on. It is presently managed by Sarpang Forest Division. 32 The conserva�on management plans of the opera�onal protected areas essen�ally include conserva�on research and monitoring, patrolling and law-enforcement, public awareness and educa�on, integrated conserva�on and development programmes, and nature tourism. In Bhutan, irrespec�ve of the conserva�on category (strict nature reserve, na�onal park, wildlife sanctuary) the protected areas are not managed as a homogeneous territory but, rather, as a mosaic of conserva�on zones permi�ng varying levels of human interven�on and use. For instance, the core zone is fully protected, allowing only for regulated research and scien�fic monitoring. On the other hand, the mul�ple-use zone is an area which might well support local communi�es, their agricultural needs and prac�ces, including grazing and forest use. However, natural resource use and livelihoods in such areas must not compromise the conserva�on objec�ves for which the protected area was established. This is in contrast to many other countries which follow exclusionary policies for protected area management, involving reloca�on of local communi�es to areas outside the protected areas37. Establishment and Management of Biological Corridors Declared in 1999, the eight biological corridors, collec�vely encompassing an area of 2,686 km2, connect all the ten protected areas. The primary purpose of the biological corridors is to maintain gene-flow through uninterrupted wildlife movements and succession of habitats (see Table 8). The width of the corridors ranges from 500 m to 3 km. The corridors were iden�fied based on field assessment of the following criteria: abundance of target wildlife; slope of terrain; occurrence of forest fires; condi�on of canopy and undergrowth; level of human disturbance; and width of narrowest constric�on. Conserva�on management interven�ons have been piloted since 2003 in the biological corridors adjacent to Thrumshingla Na�onal Park in order to draw lessons from and establish the basis for defining the conserva�on management status of and administra�ve framework for the biological corridors in general. Consequently, the Nature Conserva�on Division (NCD), under the Department of Forests (DoF), has promulgated Biological Corridor Rules 2007 as an addendum to the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules 2006. The Rules describe the conserva�on management status of biological corridors as lower than that of a protected area but higher than that of government reserved forests. The field-level implementa�on of the Biological Corridor Rules 2007 and management of the biological corridors are mandated to the territorial forest divisions with the NCD providing coordina�on and backstopping. Socio-economic and biodiversity surveys are ongoing and a strategic plan has been prepared for the biological corridor connec�ng Torsa Strict Nature Reserve and Jigme Dorji Na�onal Park. These ini�a�ves have been undertaken as a part of the tri-border Kanchenjunga Conserva�on Programme involving Bhutan, India and Nepal38. 37 Globally speaking, reloca�on of local communi�es is par�cularly prevalent in protected areas belonging to the category of a strict nature (category I), na�onal park (category II) or wildlife sanctuary (category IV). 38 The programme is supported by the Interna�onal Center for Integrated Mountain Development. 33 Table 8: Biological Corridors and their Areas Biological Corridor Area km2 North Corridor 934 Thrumshingla NP – Jigme Dorji NP 149 Jigme Dorji NP – Jigme Singye Wangchuck NP 275 Thrumshingla NP – Bumdeling WS 79 Thrumshingla NP – Jigme Singye Wangchuck NP – Royal Manas NP 501 Khaling WS – Sakten WS 160 Jigme Singye Wangchuck NP – Royal Manas NP – Phipsoo WS 376 Royal Manas NP – Khaling WS 212 Total 2,686 Source: Nature Conserva�on Division, DoF, 2009 Establishment and Management of Conserva�on Areas Outside the Protected Areas System There are several natural areas which have special conserva�on value but are not a part of the protected areas system. BAP II named a number of areas outside the protected areas system that are of great conserva�on value and require special regula�ons and management interven�ons to ensure protec�on from poten�ally intrusive ac�vi�es. In addi�on to the conserva�on areas that feature in BAP II, the MoA has named a number of forest areas for lease to RSPN for conserva�on management39. These areas, as featured in BAP II and in the MOA no�fica�on of August 2003, are all shown in Table 9. Amongst the conserva�on areas listed in Table 9, Phobjikha and Dochula have conserva�on management programmes underway. Phobjikha valley is primarily known as a winter habitat of the globally threatened black-necked crane Grus nigricollis. Since 2003, the MoA has leased Phobjikha conserva�on area to the Royal Society for the Protec�on of Nature (RSPN) for conserva�on management40. RSPN is ac�ve in the conserva�on area in the fields of research on black-necked cranes and their habitat, public educa�on and awareness, community empowerment for conserva�on, and integrated conserva�on and development programmes, including community-based ecotourism. An area of 162 km2, which includes the gewogs of Phobji, Gangte and Bjena in Wangduephodrang dzongkhag, has been delineated as Phobjikha conserva�on area. A conserva�on management plan for the conserva�on area is in place with approval from the MoA, and conserva�on zones 39 The approval of the lease was no�fied vide Ministry of Agriculture’s le�er MoA/59/363 dated 4th August, 2003. However, the lease of Chelila, Dochula, Kamechu, and Goenshari was later retracted by MoA vide le�er M(1)MoA/ MISCE/2003/504 dated 12th October, 2004, in view of overlap with conserva�on programmes mandated to DoF. 40 RSPN is a non-governmental organiza�on founded in 1987 with the objec�ve to promote nature conserva�on in the country. It has been working in Phobjikha since its incep�on. The official lease accorded by MoA in 2003 gives RSPN the legi�macy to plan and implement conserva�on programmes in a full-fledged manner. 34 have been iden�fied and are being physically delineated jointly by RSPN and the DoF using a consulta�ve process involving local stakeholders. Regulatory framework for the conserva�on zones has been developed and is being refined and described in detail by RSPN in consulta�on with DoF and using available results of ongoing studies on interac�ons between human land use and crane habitat in Phobjikha. The Dochula conserva�on area is a part of the recently-declared “Royal Botanical Park.” An area of 47 km2 around Dochula has been delineated for protec�on and for development into a locale for ecotourism and nature educa�on. Within this area, MoA is developing a visitor informa�on center, a rhododendron garden, a network of eco-trek trails, and several vista points and camping sites to promote ecotourism and nature educa�on. The Royal Botanical Park falls within the biological corridor connec�ng Jigme Singye Wangchuck Na�onal Park and Jigme Dorji Na�onal Park, and forms a crucial part of a long, con�guous hill range that joins Tibet to the north and India to the south. Despite its small size, the park has a very good assortment of wild fauna and flora. Wild fauna that occur in the area include Bengal �ger Panthera �gris �gris, red panda Ailurus fulgens, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, sambar deer Cervus unicolor, leopard Panthera pardus, leopard cat Felis bengalensis, Himalayan black bear Ursus thibetanus, monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus, and Satyr tragopan Tragopan stayra. Occasional sigh�ngs of Bhutan takin Budorcas taxicolor have also been recorded in the area. While on one hand accessibility and proximity to the towns of Thimphu, Punakha and Wangduephodrang make the area vulnerable to environmental degrada�on, on the other these very same factors lend the area great poten�al to develop into an outstanding locale for ecotourism and nature educa�on to ins�ll apprecia�on for nature among the urban Bhutanese as well as foreign tourists. Table 9: Conserva�on Areas in Bhutan Conservation Area Dzongkhag Remarks Dochula Thimphu Identified in BAP II Pelela Wangduephodrang Identified in BAP II Yutongla Trongsa Identified in BAP II Dhur tshachu Bumthang Identified in BAP II Phobjikha Wangduephodrang Identified in BAP II Doga Paro Identified in BAP II Ada Wangduephodrang Listed in MoA Notification Chelila Haa and Paro Listed in MoA Notification Goenshari Punakha Listed in MoA Notification Kamechhu Wangduephodrang Listed in MoA Notification Kangpara Trashigang Listed in MoA Notification Tri-junction area Chhukha, Haa and Samtse Listed in MoA Notification 35 Bhutan Biological Conserva�on Complex The NCD has consolidated the protected areas and biological corridors into a macro-level natural landscape called the “Bhutan Biological Conserva�on Complex”, or B2C2 in short. The B2C2 landscape approach has been adopted as a conceptual strategy for holis�c and integrated management of protected areas and biological corridors as opposed to the conven�onal piecemeal approach, a�endant with the risk of imbalanced management of the protected areas and biological corridors. The approach, however, does not deride the importance of individual protected area management. Individual protected areas are seen as the main “building blocks” of the overall conserva�on landscape rather than as independent conserva�on units. It is also meant to help address cri�cal biodiversity conserva�on gaps and needs, avoid duplica�on, develop common ground and synergies for conserva�on ac�ons, and direct limited resources on priori�es. Forest Management Planning and Implementa�on In order to cater to the demand of �mber for domes�c and commercial use without degrading forest resources and diminishing future forest produc�vity, the Department of Forests (DoF) has been planning and implemen�ng forest harves�ng opera�ons based on the principles of sustainability for the past 30 years. All forest areas iden�fied for harves�ng have to first be inventoried to determine growing stock, assess demand-supply situa�on and iden�fy ecological protec�on needs. Based on the inventory, management plans are prepared for harves�ng of these areas. Forest areas with management plans are called “Forest Management Units” (FMUs)41. Each FMU is in principle required to operate within the limits of annual allowable cut and without weakening the ecological produc�vity of the forest area. According to the Forest Resources Poten�al Assessment carried out by the Forest Resources Development Division (FRDD) from 2002 to 2004, 54.4 percent of the country’s forest is unsuitable for �mber use due to technical, ecological and economic reasons and another 28.8 percent cannot be used by virtue of being inside protected areas. This leaves only 16.8 percent of the country’s forests for management to produce �mber (see Table 10). Table 10: Forest Resources Management Poten�al Potential Use Forest area (hectare) Percentage of total forest area Strictly protected areas 846,054 28.8 Unsuitable for timber use 1,590,573 54.4 Manageable for timber production Commercially manageable area for timber production Suitable for local timber use 492,458 240,463 251,995 16.8 8.2 8.6 Source: Forest Resources Poten�al Assessment 2004, FRDD 41 The dura�on of the management plan of a FMU is 10 years. 36 There are a total of 18 FMUs in opera�on. These FMUs cover altogether 204,312 hectares of forest area. Another three FMUs, with a total forest area of 34,321 hectares, are at various stages of inventory and management plan prepara�on. The opera�onal and planned FMUs collec�vely cover a total forest area of 238,633 hectares. This figure translates to roughly eight percent of the total forest area and 48 percent of the total forest area manageable for �mber produc�on. The FRDD prepares the management plans for FMUs, the Natural Resources Development Corpora�on Limited (NRDCL) carries out the logging opera�ons in the FMUs, and the territorial forest divisions oversee and monitor the ac�vi�es in the FMUs to ensure compliance with the management plan. Community Forest Management Community forestry programme was introduced in the country in the 1980s. The primary objec�ve was to improve local forest condi�ons through community management whilst enhancing socio-economic benefits to the local communi�es in terms of increased access to �mber, fuelwood, fodder and non-wood forest products. It took several years to ini�ate the community forestry programme on the ground due to lack of appropriate legal framework, trained personnel and extension guidelines. These gaps were subsequently addressed with the promulga�on of social forestry rules and regula�ons as a part of the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules 2000, and development of guidelines for planning, establishment and management of community forests in 2003. Un�l 2001 there was only one community forest unit, which was established with the community of Dozam village in Drametsi gewog, Mongar, in 1997. Since 2001, a total of 117 community forest units collec�vely covering 15,489 ha of forest land have been established across the country. 2008 was in par�cular a landmark year for the community forest management programme. In that year, 66 community forest units covering 10,396 ha of forest land were established (see Figure 4). Joensham Lamdoksa Community forest, Khaling, Trashigang. A total of 117 community forest units collectively covering more than 15,000 hectares of forest land have been established in the country since 2001. © K J Temphel 37 Figure 4: Community Forests in Bhutan (1997-2008) 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 1997 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Number of Units Area under CF (ha) No. of units Area in hectares Source: Social Forestry Division, DoF, 2009 Non-Wood Forest Products Management The rural Bhutanese use a wide range of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) for food, fiber, shelter, medicine, household implements, handicra�s and several other purposes. The Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 1995, supported by the revised Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules 2006, provide legal basis for the use and management of forest resources, including NWFPs, by local communi�es. Since 2006, the DoF has taken up NWFP management as a planned programme. As a first step of this ini�a�ve, DoF has prepared a set of guidelines for resource assessment and management for a selected number of NWFP species, which include Chirata Swer�a chirayata, Illicium griffithii, lemon grass Cymbopogon spp, Pipla Piper pedicellatum, Yula Neomicrocalamus andropogonifolius, and Borinda grossa (an endemic bamboo species). Using these guidelines and based on the framework of community forest management, the DoF is focusing on working with local communi�es to develop and implement community-based plans for sustainable management of NWFPs. Area in hectares 38 Reforesta�on As a na�onal programme, reforesta�on42 of degraded and barren forest lands was the earliest conserva�on ini�a�ve in Bhutan. As early as 1947, the first forest planta�on was established, five years prior to the DoF coming into being43. Since then, reforesta�on has been carried out on more than 21,500 ha (see Table 11)44. Reforesta�on has been a regular feature in all the Five Year Plans and has been carried out at the rate of about 2,400 ha per Five Year Plan. Table 11: Reforesta�on in Bhutan Period Plantation Area (hectare) Before 1st Five Year Plan 822 1st Five Year Plan (1961-66) 932 2nd Five Year Plan (1967-72) 1,278 3rd Five Year Plan (1972-77) 3,525 4th Five Year Plan (1977-82) 1,743 5th Five Year Plan (1982-87) 2,199 6th Five Year Plan (1987-92) 4,498 7th Five Year Plan (1992-97) 2,525 8th Five Year Plan (1997-2002) 1,916 9th Five Year Plan (2002-07) 2,078 Total 21,516 Source: Social Forestry Division, DoF, 2007 42 The term reforesta�on also refers to afforesta�on, the process of restora�on of forests in barren lands (which may have been forested at some point in the past). 43 The DoF was established in 1952, with its head office then located in Samtse. 44 The figures exclude community forest planta�ons as they are already included in area figures for community forests. The harvesting of Cordyceps sinensis has become a very beneficial alternative form of livelihood for the people living in the alpine/subalpine region. Display of Cordyceps sinensis at an auction site, Dodena, Thimphu. Cordyceps sinensis ( Yartsha guenbub), Lhingshi. © R C-Yusipang © ICS 39 Forest planta�ons are carried out usually along the following ins�tu�onal models45: Planta�ons carried out by territorial forest planta�ons in suitable areas of Government � Reserved Forests that cannot be viably re-afforested through other ins�tu�onal models; Planta�ons carried out by NRDCL in areas within FMUs that have been harvested � according to the forest management plan46; Planta�ons carried out by industries in forest areas that have been leased to them with � the objec�ve of extrac�on of raw materials; Community forest planta�ons by local communi�es, established in accordance to the � requirements of Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules 2000; Landscape development planta�ons carried out around � dzongs, monasteries, schools, townships, ins�tu�onal premises, and along roads. The objec�ves may vary but are principally of non-economic nature and usually pertain to beau�fica�on, public recrea�on, wind protec�on, and soil stabiliza�on. An�-Poaching Programme Protec�on of wild biodiversity from poaching is carried out by the territorial forest divisions in forest areas outside the protected areas and by the protected area management authori�es in the various protected areas. In addi�on, there is an An�-Poaching Unit within the NCD. This unit func�ons as a nodal coordina�ng and monitoring base for an� poaching ac�vi�es throughout the country. It also conducts addi�onal on-site patrolling in high-risk areas, and at those �mes of the year most likely to have poaching ac�vity. In addi�on, the an�-poaching programme includes implementa�on of the requirements of the Conven�on on Interna�onal Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Keystone/ Flagship Wildlife Species Conserva�on Tiger Conserva�on While it has been the policy of the Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB) to take a holis�c approach to conserva�on focusing on ecosystems rather than on individual species, there has been some species-specific conserva�on work rela�ng to species such as the Bengal �ger Panthera �gris �gris and snow leopard Uncia uncia in view of the significance they bear as keystone/ flagship species of the ecosystems in which they survive47. A na�onal 45 The models are defined in the Na�onal Re-afforesta�on Strategy of Bhutan, 1996. 46 In some places, NRDCL is even involved in reforesta�on of degraded or barren areas outside FMUs. 47 A keystone species is a species that has a dispropor�onate effect on its environment rela�ve to its abundance. Such species affect many other organisms in an ecosystem and help to determine the types and numbers of various others species in a community. A flagship species is a species chosen to represent an environmental cause, such as an ecosystem in need of conserva�on. The concept of a flagship species holds that by giving publicity to a few key species, the support given to those species will successfully leverage conserva�on of en�re ecosystems and all species contained therein. 40 programme for �ger conserva�on was ini�ated in 1996 with the objec�ve to determine the status of �ger popula�on and distribu�on, assess the condi�ons of �ger habitats, integrate �ger conserva�on needs in the overall nature conserva�on and protected area management strategy, and promote public awareness and educa�on to enlist public apprecia�on and support for �ger conserva�on. In response to the longstanding concern of livestock depreda�on by �gers and other wild cats and the likely ramifica�on of retribu�on killing of these species by farmers, the MoA established a �ger conserva�on fund to compensate farmers whose livestock are killed by �gers and leopards. The NCD has prepared “Tiger Ac�on Plan for the Kingdom of Bhutan, 2006-2015” to con�nue and enhance �ger conserva�on work in the country. This Ac�on Plan, which has been prepared with the assistance of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Bhutan Programme, spells out the following ac�vi�es: Species conserva�on� by means of development of database on �ger and ungulate prey popula�on status and trends, and preven�on of killing of �ger and prey species and illegal trade of �ger parts and products; Royal Bengal Tiger, Panthera tigris tigris, Chendebji, Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park. Tigers in Bhutan can be found at very high altitude up to 2800m because of contiguous forest habitats and healthy prey base. 41 Tiger habitat conserva�on� through assessment and monitoring of �ger habitats and land-use conflict management using mul�-sectoral consulta�ve approaches and policy interven�ons; Human-wildlife conflict management� through detailed studies of livestock depreda�on by �gers and introduc�on of preven�ve and mi�gatory measures as well as incen�ves to reduce retaliatory killing of �gers; Development of enabling factors� for �ger conserva�on especially in terms of increased public awareness, regional coopera�on, and human resources development. Snow Leopard Conserva�on The advent of snow leopard conserva�on in Bhutan took place in 1997, when NCD in collabora�on with WWF Bhutan Programme and the Interna�onal Snow Leopard Trust conducted the first Bhutan Snow Leopard Informa�on Management System (SLIMS) training and field survey in Thimphu and Jigme Dorji NP. In 2000, the second SLIMS training and field survey was conducted also in Thimphu and Jigme Dorji NP. Currently, NCD is carrying out surveys to assess the current status of snow leopard popula�on and distribu�on, including habitat condi�ons and status of prey species, through out the country. The results of the surveys will be primarily used to formulate a na�onal ac�on plan for snow leopard conserva�on. White-bellied Heron Conserva�on The RSPN, apart from research and monitoring of black-necked crane Grus nigricollis as a part of their conserva�on management programme in Phobjikha valley, has ini�ated field studies on white-bellied heron Ardea insignis since 2005. The heron, recorded only in Nepal, India, Bangladesh, North Myanmar, and now in Bhutan is reportedly among the 50 rarest bird species according to BirdLife Interna�onal. Less than 200 individuals of this heron are es�mated to occur in the en�re world; far rarer than earlier es�mated. Consequently, the species has been uplisted to “cri�cally endangered” status in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2007. The field studies by RSPN have so far recorded 32 white-bellied herons in nes�ng sites at Rurichhu, Zawa, Kisonachhu and Hararongchhu in Wangduephodrang dzongkhag and Ber�chhu in Zhemgang dzongkhag, and in feeding areas along Phochhu in Punakha dzongkhag48. Recognizing the conserva�on importance of the white-bellied heron and the vulnerability of its habitats to ac�vi�es such as quarrying of river beds, the RGoB has decided to prepare a proposal for submission to the Na�onal Assembly for ra�fica�on to incorporate the species in the totally protected species list of Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 199549. 48 The field study informa�on are available in detail in RSPN’s White-bellied Heron Project Report, January to June, 2007. 49 Le�er No. COM/04/07/887 dated 1st March, 2007, of the Cabinet Secretariat of the Royal Government of Bhutan to the Ministry of Agriculture and the Na�onal Environment Commission. 42 High Value Medicinal and Aroma�c Plant Species Conserva�on This programme focuses on conserva�on of medicinal and aroma�c plant resources through sustainable u�liza�on, streamlining of supply chain with quality medicinal plants’ raw materials, and enhancement of livelihood/economic opportuni�es for the rural poor. It seeks to combine conserva�on and economic development aspects of medicinal and aroma�c plant species. The programme, financially supported by the European Union, is a collabora�ve ini�a�ve between the Renewable Natural Resources Research Centres (RNR-RCs) at Yusipang and Mongar (MoA) and ITMS (Ministry of Health). The medicinal and aroma�c plant species conserva�on program at Yusipang focuses on mid- and high al�tude species and the one at Mongar focuses on low-al�tude species. White-bellied heron, Ardea insignis, declared a critically endangered bird species in the IUCN Red List is found along Puna Tsang Chhu in west central Bhutan. Population survey and habitat research is ongoing for the protection of the species and its natural habitat. © Yeshey Dorji 43 3.1.2 Ex situ Conservation Since the establishment of the Na�onal Biodiversity Centre (NBC), ex situ conserva�on has been gradually evolving into a noteworthy na�onal programme. The ex situ conserva�on programme for wild biodiversity under NBC currently consists of the Royal Botanical Garden and the Na�onal Herbarium, both located at Serbithang. With funding from the Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conserva�on (BTF), the Royal Botanical Garden (RBG) was established in 1999, commemora�ng the Silver Jubilee Corona�on Anniversary of the Fourth King His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck. The Garden is designed to explore and exhibit the wide diversity of plants, with focus on species of economic significance such as those useful for food, fibre, cosme�c and industry, including those species that are endangered. It includes thema�c gardens, a sub tropical house, an orchidarium, an informa�on centre, and recrea�onal facili�es such as a children’s park. In the long term, it will also focus on the ecology and evolu�onary biology of plants. At the present, the RBG has a collec�on of 154 species of orchids, 25 species of rhododendrons, four species of oaks, eight species of conifers, 120 species of broadleaf plants, and 15 species of succulents and creepers. The Na�onal Herbarium at NBC houses some 12,000 plant specimens, the oldest of which dates back to 1914. Most of the specimens were earlier preserved at a temporary storage facility which was subsequently converted into a herbarium at the Forest Research Division in Taba in the late 1980s. With the construc�on of the Na�onal Herbarium building at the NBC, the plant specimens were shi�ed from the herbarium at Taba to the new facility and subsequently several more specimens were added to the collec�on. In addi�on, the Na�onal Herbarium holds a library of both indigenous and global botanical literature. Apart from the above ac�vi�es managed by NBC, there is a Gharial Conserva�on Programme50 at Phuentsholing and a Takin Preserve at Mo�thang, Thimphu. The Gharial Conserva�on Programme is managed by the DoF and breeds two species of crocodile – gharial Gavialis gange�cus, which is a cri�cally endangered species, and mugger Crocodylus palustris. The Takin Preserve, which was earlier managed by the Tourism Council of Bhutan, has been taken over for management by the NCD since August 2008. It serves as a recrea�onal facility and public exhibi�on of Bhutan’s na�onal animal, the takin. In addi�on, as a part of the collabora�ve programme on medicinal and aroma�c plant species between RNR-RCs Yusipang and Wengkhar (MoA) and ITMS (Ministry of Health), herb gardens have been established at Lingshi (4,000 m) and at Lingmithang (600 m). A germplasm collec�on of 53 species has been established and a total of 13 species have been successfully propagated and subsequently distributed to farmers or planted in trial plots. 50 This programme was previously called Crocodile Breeding Centre but was renamed as Gharial Conserva�on Programme to have greater focus on the conserva�on of gharial in view of its status as a cri�cally endangered species. 44 3.2 Conservation of Domestic Biodiversity 3.2.1 Crop Diversity Conservation Ex situ Conserva�on of Crop Gene�c Resources The Na�onal Gene Bank for Plant Gene�c Resources (NGB-PGR) was established in early 2004 with the key objec�ve to conserve crop varie�es, especially the tradi�onal varie�es, lest they became ex�nct in their natural environments. The NGB-PGR, which was established with funding support from the Royal Government of Netherlands under the framework of Sustainable Development Agreement, is managed by NBC. Since the establishment of NGB-PGR, one of its priori�es among other things has been explora�on of tradi�onal crop diversity and collec�on of germplasm of tradi�onal crop varie�es. Germplasm collec�ons from across the country are being carried out every winter by the NBC staff in close collabora�on with dzongkhag and gewog agricultural staff and RNR-RCs. As of 2008, a total of 109 gewogs had been covered and approximately 1,500 samples of tradi�onal varie�es/cul�vars of various crops have been collected. The collected samples are cleaned, quality evaluated, processed, and informa�on documented in database called Gene Bank Informa�on System (GBIS). The GBIS holds taxonomic informa�on, accession numbers, storage system, passport data, number of packets under each system, amount of seeds available, germina�on percentage at entry as well as at established intervals, characteriza�on and evalua�on data, and other necessary informa�on. Two types of collec�ons ‘Ac�ve’ and ‘Base’ are being maintained at NGB-PGR. The ‘Ac�ve Collec�ons’ are used for distribu�on to the users, researchers, breeders, etc. The ‘Base Collec�ons’ are maintained for security and will be used only for monitoring of viability of stored seeds or for regenera�on or to replenish the ac�ve collec�ons. About 1,000 accessions belonging to paddy, maize, millet, wheat, buckwheat, amaranthus, legumes and oil-seeds are currently conserved in the NGB-PGR. Seeds conserved at the NGB-PGR, NBC. The gene bank houses over 1000 accessions of traditional crop species/varieties collected from 109 gewogs. 45 Samples that are conserved in the gene bank are being characterized through morphological/ phenotypic evalua�on. Molecular characteriza�on of the collected samples has been planned to be carried out in the 10 FYP. The NGB-PGR is a pivotal part of NBC’s Conserva�on Programmes and links with on farm plant gene�c resources conserva�on ini�a�ves of NBC and the Regional Renewable Natural Resources Research Centers (RNR-RCs) in a mutually-reinforcing manner. In situ Conserva�on of Crop Gene�c Resources On-farm conserva�on of crop gene�c resources was ini�ated as a na�onal programme in 2001 by the NBC in collabora�on with regional RNR-RCs and Dzongkhag Agriculture Sectors through assistance from the Biodiversity Use and Conserva�on in Asia Programme (BUCAP). In addi�on to Bhutan, BUCAP is currently ac�ve in four other countries, namely Lao People’s Democra�c Republic, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. At the regional level, BUCAP is coordinated and technically supported by South East Asia Regional Ini�a�ves for Community Empowerment (SEARICE) based in the Philippines and funded by Development Fund, Norway; SwedBio, Sweden and Hivos, the Netherlands. In the ini�al period, the Programme in Bhutan focused on on-farm conserva�on of maize and rice gene�c resources using Farmers’ Field School (FFS) approach. Currently the on-farm conserva�on programme is being carried out at 13 sites in eight dzongkhags (Trashigang, Mongar, Trongsa, Wangdue, Thimphu, Tsirang, Sarpang and Chukha). The ac�vi�es are aimed at suppor�ng farming communi�es conserve tradi�onal crops and crop varie�es through yield enhancement, income genera�on, proper seed selec�on and storage, and capacity development through training, exposure trips (including visits to other BUCAP partner countries). Farming communi�es select crop varie�es using Par�cipatory Varietal Selec�on (PVS) methodology and organize biodiversity fairs and seed exchange programmes to facilitate farmer-to-farmer awareness of on-farm conserva�on ac�vi�es and benefits. The programme also supports income genera�on ac�vi�es among farmers through diversifica�on and development of local agricultural produce. Bi od iv er si ty F ai r 20 09 , Ts ir an g. I n si tu co ns er va ti on o f ag ro b io di ve rs it y is pr om ot ed th ro ug h pu bl ic a wa re ne ss a nd p ar ti ci pa to ry ac ti vi ti es s uc h as b io di ve rs it y fa ir s. 46 3.2.2 Livestock Diversity Conservation Livestock, par�cularly ca�le, yak, horse and sheep, has tradi�onally been an integral part of the agricultural produc�on system and the economy of Bhutan. Tradi�onal farming systems allowed livestock to be managed in harmony with the environment. With the increase in human popula�on and emerging economic needs, indigenous livestock breeds have come under threat as a result of crossbreeding with exo�c breeds to increase produc�vity. In response to this threat and as a party to the CBD, RGoB accords high priority to the conserva�on and u�liza�on of domes�c animal gene�c resources for sustainable livestock development. The Department of Livestock (DoL), Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB), College of Natural Resources (CNR), and NBC are involved in both ex situ and in situ conserva�on of domes�c livestock biodiversity in Bhutan. Ex situ conserva�on The DoL has established a number of livestock breeding farms to maintain and improve na�ve breeds. These farms include the Na�onal Nublang Breeding Farm at Tashiyangphu, Regional Mithun Breeding Farms at Arong and Wangdigang, Na�onal Horse Breeding Farm and Na�onal Sheep Breeding Centre at Bumthang. In collabora�on with the CoRRB, these farms focus on the gene�c selec�on and improvement of na�ve breeds. These farms also serve as “nucleus herds” for supplying quality germplasm to the in situ conserva�on areas. In addi�on, the Na�onal Livestock Breeding Programme has cryo-preserved several hundred doses of semen of Nublang and Mithun. The NBC has also taken up preliminary ac�vi�es to preserve gene�c materials of na�ve breeds of sheep, poultry and pig. 327 semen doses of Jakar sheep, 326 semen doses of seven different types of poultry, and 114 semen doses of Jitu-pha pig have been conserved at the Na�onal Gene Bank for Animal Gene�c Resources (NGB-AnGR). In situ conserva�on Nublang is gene�cally dis�nct from any other ca�le breeds in the Himalayas. The breed is adapted to survive and perform op�mally under harsh terrain and clima�c condi�ons. Its original habitat is in Sombekha in Haa dzongkhag. The Na�onal Livestock Breeding Programme, RNR-RC Jakar and NBC have ini�ated in situ conserva�on programme in Sombekha. An important component of the Programme is the forma�on of “Nublang Livestock germplasm conserved at the National Animal Gene Bank, NBC. Currently the gene bank has germplasm collections of Nublang, Jakar sheep and local poultry. 47 Breeders Society” involving the local ca�le herders. Bull mothers have been iden�fied, ear-tagged and quality Nublang breeding bulls have been distributed from the breeding farms. Village herd recording has been introduced to facilitate selec�on and herd improvement. Bhutanese local horse, Yuta, is a sturdy breed with compact body, small hooves and strong limbs. They perform well in the treacherous and rugged mountain terrain of the country. To conserve and improve the Yuta breed, Yuta Breeders Groups have been formed in poten�al areas of the country, such as Tandigang, Bumthang and Bumdeling. Due to decreasing economic returns from sheep farming, farmers are gradually giving up sheep husbandry in Bhutan. This has par�cularly affected the rearing of Jakar sheep, which is na�ve to central Bhutan. In response, MoA has ini�ated par�cipatory Jakar sheep breeding programme at Phobjikha in central Bhutan. The programme focuses on encouraging Jakar sheep owners to con�nue rearing sheep. This is being done by means of provision of good breeding rams, free health care, wool processing technologies, value addi�on and marke�ng of sheep products. 3.2.3 Sustainable Land Management to Protect Agricultural Ecosystems Na�onal Land Management Campaign The Na�onal Land Management Campaign (NLMC) was launched in July 2005 by the former Agriculture Minister Lyonpo Sangay Ngedup in response to the need to proac�vely deal with land degrada�on problems which had become increasingly visible and profound in terms of impacts on the local people and their livelihoods, especially in many parts of eastern Bhutan. What triggered the NLMC was the heavy monsoon of 2004, which caused several floods and land slides in eastern Bhutan, resul�ng in the loss of human lives and livestock, destruc�on of homes, degrada�on of farm lands, and damage to rural socio economic infrastructure. During the visit to the affected areas, the former Agriculture Minister observed that one of the key factors leading to land degrada�on and natural disasters was the lack of proper land management prac�ces. The NLMC is not a one-off ac�vity but a con�nuous programme of the MoA to ins�ll in people the awareness and understanding of various land management techniques based on site-specific land degrada�on problems. It focuses on field demonstra�ons of sustainable land management prac�ces and techniques using a broad-based par�cipatory approach bringing together local communi�es, dzongkhag staff as well as professionals from various disciplines in the rural sector. Local pig, Sombekha, Haa. In situ conservation of traditional breeds of livestock is promoted through education and participatory approaches. 48 The DoA is responsible for overall coordina�on and organiza�on of the Campaign. To facilitate inter-agency coordina�on in planning and implementa�on, an organizing commi�ee with representa�on from various departments and agencies has been formed. In addi�on, a technical team led by the Na�onal Soil Services Centre has been formed to provide core technical advisory services and backstopping to the Campaign. The NLMC took off in 2005, star�ng with eight sites in Trashigang dzongkhag. The technical team selected the eight sites a�er having conducted an intensive field survey covering 42 loca�ons in 13 gewogs in Trashigang. The selec�on was based on a set of criteria such as impact of land degrada�on, demonstra�on value and geographic distribu�on. Since its incep�on, the Campaign has spread over to selected gewogs in Mongar, Trongsa, Tsirang, Dagana, and Pemagatshel dzongkhags. Landslide, Tshogonpa, Trashigang. The Ministry of Agriculture supports local communities to take up land rehabilitation through targeted national land management campaigns. © NSSC 49 Sustainable Land Management Programme Sustainable land management is a key programme of the MoA. This programme is being implemented through two projects. With a grant from the GEF through its Opera�onal Programme 15 and co-financing from DANIDA, the Sustainable Land Management Project has been conceived with the development objec�ve to strengthen ins�tu�onal and community capacity in terms of human resource, policies, incen�ves, technologies and knowledge for an�cipa�ng and managing land degrada�on in the country. The SLMP, as the project is known in short, is made up of the following four complementary, mutually-reinforcing components: Pilot projects� to demonstrate effec�ve applica�on of land degrada�on preven�on approaches. For the first three years, the pilot sites are Nangkor in Zhemgang dzongkhag, Phuentsholing in Chhukha dzongkhag and Radhi in Trashigang dzongkhag; Mainstreaming of prac�ces for protec�on against land degrada�on� . This component will support the scaling up of the pilots to addi�onal sites based on the lessons learned from first component. In addi�on, it will facilitate coordinated and par�cipatory planning at the dzongkhag level which integrates the cross-sectoral impacts of development (e.g. infrastructure, roads, irriga�on, power, agriculture and industrial development). Under this component, the project will support on-the-ground investments, technical assistance, community cross-site visits, training, research and awareness programmes, new analy�cal tools, GIS and databases. Policy support and guidance for mainstreaming land degrada�on preven�on prac�ces� . This component will bring lessons from the first and second components to inform na�onal legisla�on and policy pertaining to watershed management, upland agriculture and livestock produc�on, forestry, urban planning and infrastructure. It will provide technical assistance to develop guidelines for mainstreaming SLM principles into RGoB’s Five Year Plans, and gewog and dzongkhag five-year and annual plans. Na�onal level support for coordina�on of implementa�on of land degrada�on � preven�on prac�ces. This component would further support RGoB’s support to strengthen and build capacity within the Ministry of Agriculture to systema�cally and effec�vely coordinate a programme of ac�vi�es in order to help an�cipate and manage land degrada�on in the country. The second project is the medium-sized project on sustainable land management funded by GEF through the UNDP. The three-year project is expected to result in: (i) formula�on of a Na�onal Ac�on Program (NAP) to combat land degrada�on; (ii) capacity development for sustainable land management; and (iii) mainstreaming of sustainable land management in na�onal development policy and planning framework. 50 The formula�on of the NAP has been ini�ated using extensive stakeholder consulta�ons and valida�on of priori�es and needs using a mul�-disciplinary approach and linking knowledge, percep�ons and insights at central, dzongkhag and gewog levels. Capacity development for sustainable land management will be pursued through human resources capacity assessment and development, strengthening of ins�tu�onal capacity for assessment, documenta�on and dissemina�on of sustainable land management prac�ces, development of project proposals including those iden�fied through NAP, and establishment of linkages with UNCCD-related organiza�ons such as the Global Mechanism. The mainstreaming of sustainable land management in the na�onal development policy and planning framework will be pursued through incorpora�on of sustainable land management strategies in the Five-Year Plan process, prepara�on of policy and legal reform recommenda�ons related to sustainable land management, and incorpora�on of sustainable land management in other environmental policies. 3.3 Conservation Policy and Legislation Development Environmental conserva�on is not a modern concept to the Bhutanese. It has always been at the center of na�onal development thinking and policy-making. Tradi�onal values based on the Buddhist philosophy of reverence for all living things have molded a lifestyle and development approach that takes environmental conserva�on as a fundamental requirement. Over the years, a strong set of conserva�on policies and laws has evolved to ensure protec�on, management and sustainable use of biodiversity resources. Bhutanese conserva�on policies and laws are essen�ally geared towards contribu�ng to the overarching na�onal development objec�ve of GNH, which embraces environmental sustainability as one of its four pillars. The Cons�tu�on of the Kingdom of Bhutan, which enshrines environmental conserva�on as a cons�tu�onal mandate, and Bhutan 2020, the country’s vision document to maximize GNH, serve as over-riding policy instruments. Complemen�ng these two documents, several policies and laws exist related to biodiversity conserva�on and these are described herein. 3.3.1 National Forest Policy The Na�onal Forest Policy is the earliest policy document related to biodiversity conserva�on in Bhutan. The Policy was first formulated in 1974 and subsequently revised in 1979 and 1991. It serves as the main guiding policy framework for development of forestry programmes, plans, supplementary policies, laws and regula�ons. The Policy aims to ensure conserva�on of the environment, and only therea�er aim at deriving economic benefits from the forest as ra�onally managed resource. Economic benefits from forest resources are considered secondary and are to be derived only within sustainable limits. It s�pulates that at least 60 percent of the country will be maintained under forest cover for all �mes to come. It hinges on the following four guiding principles: Protec�on of the land, its forests, soil, water resources and biological diversity against � degrada�on, such as loss of soil fer�lity, soil erosion, landslides, floods and other 51 ecological devasta�on and the improvement of all degraded forest land areas, through proper management systems and prac�ces; Contribu�on to the produc�on of food, water, energy and other commodi�es by � effec�vely coordina�ng the interac�on between forestry and farming systems; Mee�ng the long-term needs of Bhutanese people for wood and other forest products � by placing all produc�on forest resources under sustainable management; Contribu�on to the growth of na�onal and local economies, including explora�on � of export opportuni�es, through fully developed forest based industries, and to contribute to balanced human resources development through training and crea�on of employment opportuni�es. 3.3.2 RNR Sector Policy The Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) sector policy lays emphasis on a�aining greater na�onal food security, conserving and managing natural resources, enhancing rural income, and genera�ng farm-based employment opportuni�es. It outlines the following objec�ves: To pursue a people-centered development path that would lead to the realiza�on of � their aspira�ons for a be�er life through ac�ve public par�cipa�on in the development process; To pursue economic development that has prospects for long-term sustainability based � on the country’s resource situa�on, compara�ve advantages, and community based self-help ins�tu�ons; To pursue a balanced and equitable development of the country’s renewable natural � resources and distribu�on of benefits accruing from them across society and regions; To adopt development strategies that are environment friendly and ensure the integrity � of the country’s fragile ecosystem; and To be sensi�ve and responsive to the rich cultural heritage of the country and ensure � its preserva�on. 3.3.3 National Environment Strategy The Na�onal Environment Strategy �tled “The Middle Path” – first published in 1998 – was derived through an inter-sectoral and consulta�ve process. The Strategy, which can be equated to a Na�onal Sustainable Development Strategy in essence, enshrines the concept of sustainable development and iden�fies three main avenues for such development: hydropower development based on integrated watershed management; agricultural development based on sustainable prac�ces; and industrial development based on effec�ve pollu�on control measures and environmental legisla�on. It also examines a number of areas of special importance for environmentally and culturally responsive economic development. These include tourism, roads, financing mechanisms for sustainable development, public health, urbaniza�on, gender and natural resource 52 management, environmental impact assessments, and popula�on management. Finally, it goes on to outline five key cross-sectoral needs that the country must effec�vely address to integrate environmental considera�ons into economic development planning and policy-making. These needs pertain to informa�on systems and research, ins�tu�onal development and popular par�cipa�on, policies and legisla�on, training and educa�on, and monitoring, evalua�on and enforcement. 3.3.4 Forest and Nature Conservation Act 1995 The first modern legisla�on to be enacted in the country was the Bhutan Forest Act 1969. This is a clear indica�on of the importance RGoB a�ached to the country’s forest resources and the need to safeguard them right from the beginning of modern development in the country. Prior to the enactment of the Bhutan Forest Act 1969, the Thrimzhung Chenmo or the “Mother Act”, which covered certain legal provisions protec�ng forests and wildlife, provided the legal means to protect the natural environment. In 1995, the Na�onal Assembly ra�fied the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 1995 repealing Bhutan Forest Act 1969. The 1995 Act was enacted to accommodate evolving conserva�on needs and to allow for community management of forest resources. The objec�ve of the 1995 Act is to “provide for the protec�on and sustainable use of forests, wildlife and related natural resources of Bhutan for the benefit of present and future genera�ons”. It covers forest management, prohibi�ons and concessions in government reserved forests, forestry leases, social and community forestry, transport and trade of forestry produce, protected areas, wildlife conserva�on, soil and water conserva�on, and forest fire preven�on. 3.3.5 Forest and Nature Conservation Rules To support the implementa�on of the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 1995 and in accordance with the powers and du�es conferred under that Act, the MoA promulgated the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules 2000. The Rules establishes regula�ons for forest management, private and community forestry, establishment and management of protected areas, wildlife protec�on, and preven�on of forest fires, land clearance, and other ac�vi�es poten�ally impac�ng soil, water and wildlife resources, among other things. The Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules 2000 have been revised, updated and expanded, leading to the promulga�on of Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules 2006. The revised Rules incorporate two addi�onal chapters specifying provisions pertaining to supply of �mber and forest produce in rural areas. Legal provisions pertaining to industrial and ins�tu�onal forests have also been added and the list of totally protected species has been expanded to include white-bellied heron Ardea insignis, a species listed as cri�cally endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 200751. 51 A proposal to ra�fy the inclusion of white-bellied heron is to be put forward by MoA in the next session of the Na�onal Assembly. 53 3.3.6 Environmental Assessment Act 2000 The Environmental Assessment Act 2000 is overarching in that it relates to environment in a holis�c manner and applies to a wide range of ac�vi�es across a number of sectors. The Act establishes procedures for the assessment of poten�al effects of strategic plans, policies, programs, and projects on the environment, and for the determina�on of policies and measures to reduce poten�al adverse effects and to promote environmental benefits. The Act requires the RGoB to ensure that environmental concerns are fully taken into account when formula�ng, renewing, modifying and implemen�ng any policy, plan or program as per regula�ons that may be adopted within the appropriate provision of the Act. It makes environmental clearance mandatory for any project or ac�vity that may have adverse impact on the environment52. 3.3.7 Regulations for the Environmental Clearance of Projects and Strategic Environmental Assessment To implement the Environmental Assessment Act 2000, regula�ons were promulgated in 2002 for the environmental clearance of projects and for strategic environmental assessment. The Regula�on for the Environmental Clearance of Projects 2002 defines responsibili�es and procedures for the implementa�on of the Environmental Assessment Act 2000 concerning the issuance and enforcement of EC for individual projects and to: Provide meaningful opportuni�es for public review of poten�al environmental impacts � of projects; ensure that all projects are implemented in line with the sustainable development � policy of the RGoB; ensure that all foreseeable impacts on the environment, including cumula�ve effects � are fully considered prior to any irrevocable commitments of resources or funds; ensure that all feasible alterna�ves are fully considered; ensure that all feasible means � to avoid or mi�gate damage to the environment are implemented; encourage the use of renewable resources, clean technologies and methods; ensure � that concerned people benefit from projects in terms of social facili�es; help strengthen local ins�tu�ons in environmental decision making; and � help create a uniform, comprehensive data base on the environmental and cultural � condi�ons and assets in the country. 52 Ar�cle 6.11 of the EAA defines Environmental Clearance as the decision, issued in wri�ng by the NECS or the relevant Competent Authority, to let a project proceed, which includes terms (and condi�ons) to ensure that the project is managed in an environmentally sound and sustainable way. 54 To support the implementa�on of the EA Act and Regula�on, sectoral EC applica�on guidelines have been prepared for highways and roads, forestry, hydropower, industrial projects, mines, power transmission and distribu�on lines, urban development, and tourism projects. In addi�on, environmental codes of prac�ce have been formulated for storm water drainage system, installa�on of underground and overhead u�li�es, tourism ac�vi�es, and roads, and environmental discharge standards have been set to control pollu�on. The Regula�on for Strategic Environmental Assessment 2002 was promulgated with the specific purpose to: ensure that environmental concerns are fully taken into account by all government � agencies when formula�ng, renewing, modifying or implemen�ng any policy, plan or programme, including FYPs; ensure that the cumula�ve and large scale environmental effects are taken into � considera�on while formula�ng, renewing, modifying or implemen�ng any policy, plan or programme; complement project-specific environmental reviews as per RECOP and to encourage � early iden�fica�on of environmental objec�ves and impacts of all government proposals at appropriate planning levels; promote the design of environmentally sustainable proposals that encourage the use � of renewable resources and clean technologies and prac�ces; and promote and encourage the development of comprehensive natural resource and land � use plans at the local, dzongkhag and na�onal levels. It outlines the du�es of government agencies formula�ng, renewing, modifying, or implemen�ng any policy, plan, or programme, the principles of strategic environmental assessment, and essen�al contents of the environmental statement. 3.3.8 Livestock Act of Bhutan 2001 The purpose of this Act is to regulate livestock breeding, health and produc�on with the aim to enhance livestock produc�vity and prevent diseases so as to improve rural income and livelihood. Specifically, the main objec�ves are to: Ensure that only quality and appropriate breeds of livestock, poultry and fish are � introduced; ensure the units used for semen and embryo produc�on and storage are free from � diseases; ensure that the introduc�on and spread of diseases, par�cularly the no�fiable and � zoono�c diseases are prevented; ensure that the prescribed procedures and standards for export and import of animals, � animal products, gene�c materials, feed, drugs, animal welfare, and disposal of dead carcasses are met; 55 ensure that the safety standards are followed throughout the process of processing � meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products for consump�on; enable priva�za�on of produc�on, import and export, process, and sale of animals, � animal products, feed, drugs, and other inputs necessary for enhancing livestock products. 3.3.9 Biodiversity Act of Bhutan 2003 The Biodiversity Act of Bhutan 2003 was enacted to regulate access to gene�c resources in the country in realiza�on of the value of biological resources in the development of products, substances and compounds that have medicinal, industrial and agricultural and related applica�ons. This Act asserts the sovereignty of the country over its gene�c resources and the need to promote conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity resources as well as equitable sharing of benefits arising from sustainable use, and the need to protect local people’s knowledge and interests related to biodiversity. It lays down the condi�ons for the grant of access, benefit sharing, and protec�on, and describes various rights, offences and penal�es. Formula�on of rules and regula�ons for implementa�on of the Act is presently underway. 3.3.10 National Biosafety Framework The Na�onal Biosafety Framework (NBF) was produced in 2006 in response to the need for a framework focusing on the safe transfer, handling and use of modern biotechnology products. It derives legal basis from exis�ng policies, laws, regula�ons and administra�ve measures. The purpose is to safeguard the health of the ci�zens and protect the biodiversity and natural environment of the country from the adverse impacts of modern biotechnology and at the same �me acquire benefits from the safe use of modern biotechnology and its products as one of the means to achieve food security, improve human health, and promote industrial development. The framework outlines the guiding principles, ins�tu�onal mandates, monitoring, inspec�on and enforcement mechanisms, and public educa�on and par�cipa�on measures for biosafety. Biosafety Rules and Regula�ons 2006 feature as an annexure of the NBF. The rules and regula�ons s�pulate necessary procedures and requirements for the assessment, management and control of poten�al risks associated with gene�cally modified organisms (GMOs) and GMO products, and ac�vi�es associated with them, in order to enable the country to benefit from modern biotechnology and at the same �me to protect the biodiversity and people of Bhutan from their poten�al adverse effects. 3.3.11 National Environmental Protection Act 2007 The Na�onal Environmental Protec�on Act 2007 has been enacted as an umbrella legisla�on. The Act specifies the powers, func�ons and opera�onal framework of the Na�onal Environmental Commission. The salient features of the Act include: 56 Maintenance of environmental quality especially by way of development and � enforcement of environmental standards and best environmental management prac�ces to address pollu�on and environmental hazards; Review and monitoring of policies, plans and programmes for protec�on of forests, � biodiversity and ecosystem integrity in order to ensure that a minimum of 60 percent of the country’s total land remains under forest cover; Right to environmental informa�on and ci�zen par�cipa�on in environmental � management; Provision for establishment of an Environmental Tribunal as a quasi-judicial authority � with the power to hear, inves�gate and pass decisions on environmental disputes. 3.3.12 Biosecurity Policy The objec�ves of the Biosecurity Policy 2008 have been stated as: food safety for Bhutanese people; protec�on of human health from zoono�c and pest-borne diseases; sustainable use of natural resources; protec�on of agricultural produc�on systems from pests and diseases; preserva�on of biodiversity and natural environment; and facilita�on of safe and sustainable trade and tourism. It provides for the crea�on of a Na�onal Biosecurity Commission to oversee the country’s biosecurity system and describes the na�onal and interna�onal legisla�ve contexts within which the biosecurity system is to be implemented. 3.3.13 Other Relevant Laws and Regulations Plant Quaran�ne Act 1993 The provisions of the Plant Quaran�ne Act 1993 relate to: (a) preven�on of the introduc�on of pests not already present or widespread in the country; (b) control of pests already in the country by restric�ng their spread and endeavouring to eradicate; (c) facili�es for services for import and export of plants and plant products; and (d) coopera�on in the preven�on or movement of pests in interna�onal trade and traffic. Mines and Mineral Management Act 1995 The Act recognizes the preserva�on, protec�on and se�ng of environmental standards and conserva�on of natural resources consistent with the provision of the Act and other environmental legisla�on as a cri�cal feature of mining prac�ces. It requires that restora�on of areas that are mined is carried out in a proper manner with the objec�ve of crea�ng a suitable and acceptable environment as approved by the Na�onal Environment Commission. Prior to gran�ng a mining lease, a final mine feasibility study based on an assessment of technical, financial, environmental and social parameters, is required. Among other things, the feasibility study needs to contain a Mine Plan, Environment Management Plan and Restora�on Plan. 57 Mines and Mineral Management Regula�ons 2002 In exercise of the powers conferred by Ar�cle 50 of the Mines and Mineral Management Act 1995, the Ministry of Trade and Industry promulgated the Mines and Mineral Management Regula�ons 2002. The Regula�ons s�pulate the requirement of environmental clearance (Ar�cles 32-34), condi�ons for environmental restora�on bond (Ar�cles 56 61), maintenance of records on mining opera�on including environmental protec�on measures (Ar�cle 86 clause 86.8), compliance with all emission limits and ambient air quality standards adopted by the Na�onal Environment Commission (Ar�cle 154 and 155), water, dust and noise pollu�on management needs (Ar�cles 159-170), monitoring of environmental quality in and around the mine lease area and repor�ng of the area’s environmental state (Ar�cles 182-184). Seeds Act of Bhutan 2000 The Seeds Act of Bhutan 2000 was enacted with the purpose of regula�ng the import and export of agriculture seeds, preven�ng introduc�on of unwanted plants and diseases and promo�ng seed industry with the aim to enhance rural income and livelihood. In accordance with the Act, a Na�onal Seed Board has been established to advise the MoA on all ma�ers related to development of na�onal seed programme and to administer the Act. Specifically, the Act provides for regula�on of quality of seeds, sale of seeds, cer�fica�on of seeds, laboratory tes�ng of seeds, and inspec�on of seeds. DYT and GYT Chathrims 2002 The Dzongkhag Yargye Tshogdu (DYT) and Gewog Yargye Tshogchung (GYT) Chathrims were enacted with the main aim to support the decentraliza�on policy and empower DYTs and GYTs with the authority and responsibility to decide, plan and implement development programmes and ac�vi�es, including those concerning biodiversity conserva�on, at the local community level. The DYT Chathrim 2002 gives the DYT the following powers and func�ons for biodiversity conserva�on: Make recommenda�ons on ac�vi�es with major environmental impacts such as � construc�on of roads, extrac�on and conserva�on of forests, mining and quarrying (Ar�cle 8, Sec�on 13); adopt and enforce regula�ons for designa�on and protec�on of areas of special scenic � beauty or biodiversity as dzongkhag parks and sanctuaries ( Ar�cle 9, Sec�on 2); adopt and enforce regula�ons for establishment of quarries and mines in accordance � with Mines and Mineral Management Act 1995; give direc�on and approval on forest management plan including extrac�on, � conserva�on and forest road construc�on in accordance with the FNCA (Ar�cle 10, Sec�on 8); 58 give direc�on and approval on protec�on of forests, � tsamdro and all types of government and community lands from illegal house and similar construc�on and other encroachments (Ar�cle 10, Sec�on 19) The GYT Chathrim 2002 gives the GYT the power and func�on to adopt and enforce regula�ons at the gewog level to protect and harvest edible forest products in the local area in accordance with the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 1995 (Ar�cle 8, Sec�on 8), to conserve and protect water resources, lakes, springs, streams, and rivers (Ar�cle 9, Sec�on 7), and to protect communal lands, community forests, including sokshing and tsamdro, medicinal herbs against encroachments on land and forests (Ar�cle 9, Sec�on 8). Land Act of Bhutan 2007 The Land Act of Bhutan 2007 came into force on 1st January, 2008, superseding the Land Act 197953. The new legisla�on provides for the establishment of a Na�onal Land Commission as an independent authority and highest decision-making body in ma�ers related to the implementa�on of the provisions of the Land Act of Bhutan 2007 through policy and regulatory work, inter-agency coordina�on, cadastral survey and land registra�on, and management of na�onal land records among other things. It spells out rights, responsibili�es and legal condi�ons for the management, regula�on and administra�on of the ownership and use of land. In rela�on to environmental management, the Act provides for grazing management and pasture development on tsamdro54 based on a tsamdro management plan and for vegeta�ve and land improvement on sokshing55 based on a sokshing management plan. Land Rules and Regula�ons for the Kingdom of Bhutan 2007 To support the implementa�on of the Land Act of Bhutan 2007, the Na�onal Land Commission has formulated Land Rules and Regula�ons for the Kingdom of Bhutan 2007. The rules and regula�ons define in detail the ins�tu�onal func�ons, procedural requirements and regulatory provisions for management of na�onal land records, land ownership en�tlements and land rights, land registra�on, land conveyance, land acquisi�on and compensa�on, land grants, allotment of government land, cadastral survey, documenta�on and mapping, land conversion, land lease, easement, and annulment of land. 3.4 Institutional Arrangement Biodiversity conserva�on as a na�onal programme started in 1952 with the crea�on of the DoF. Un�l the early 1990s, the country’s biodiversity conserva�on programme was by and large limited to forest and wildlife conserva�on by the DoF. Over the years, the scope and ins�tu�onal framework for biodiversity conserva�on have expanded and there is increasing recogni�on of the need to pursue biodiversity conserva�on on wider 53 Excep�ng provisions pertaining to water channel and embankments, and compensa�on on crop damage by ca�le. 54 Tsamdro means Government Reserved Forest land leased out for grazing and improved pasture management. 55 Sokshing means a plot of Government Reserved Forest land leased out for leaf li�er produc�on and collec�on. 59 partnerships between different agencies, both within and outside the government. Today, a number of organiza�ons share the responsibility of implemen�ng ac�vi�es related to biodiversity conserva�on in Bhutan. 3.4.1 Central Government Agencies Ministry of Agriculture The MoA was formed in 1985, bringing together the agriculture, livestock development and forestry sub-sectors, which are now collec�vely known as the RNR sector. Un�l then, the forestry sub-sector was under the then Ministry of Trade, Industries and Forests while the agriculture and livestock development sub-sectors were under the then Ministry of Development. Besides the three technical departments of agriculture, livestock and forests, the MoA has a number of non-departmental agencies namely the NBC, Agriculture Marke�ng Services, Informa�on and Communica�on Services, and Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority (BAFRA). The Ministry is directly supported by a Planning and Policy Division and an Administra�on and Finance Division. It has also ins�tuted CoRRB to guide and coordinate the research programmes and ac�vi�es implemented by the regional RNR-RCs. The key func�ons of the MoA are to: develop agriculture, livestock and forests for the benefit of the Bhutanese through con�nuous research and development process; raise the living standard of rural people through promo�on of agro-based income genera�ng ac�vi�es, reduc�on of farming drudgery, improvement of nutri�on and health, and access to services, market and informa�on; protect the natural environment through sustainable and judicious use and management of its land, water, forest and biological resources; and ensure food safety through preven�ve and mi�ga�on measures. Department of Forests Established in 1952, the DoF is the oldest government department. It is the overall authority for the management of forest resources and wild biodiversity. Within the DoF, the NCD has the direct responsibility for in situ conserva�on of wild biodiversity through crea�on and management of protected areas, buffer zones and biological corridors. For field opera�ons, the NCD has established park management offices in all opera�onal protected areas, which currently include Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary, Jigme Dorji Na�onal Park, Jigme Singye Wangchuck Na�onal Park, Royal Manas Na�onal Park, Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary, Sakten Wildlife Sanctuary and Thrumshingla Na�onal Park. Outside the protected areas, the DoF has a countrywide network of 12 territorial forestry divisions for implementa�on of field programmes and ac�vi�es related to protec�on and management of forests and wildlife resources (see Table 12). 60 Table 12: Territorial Forest Divisions and their Coverage of Dzongkhags Territorial Forest Division Dzongkhags Covered Bumthang Forest Division Bumthang Gedu Forest Division Chhukha Mongar Forest Division Mongar and Lhuentse Paro Forest Division Paro and Haa Samdrup Jongkhar Forest Division Samdrup Jongkhar and Pemagatshel Samtse Forest Division Samtse Sarpang Forest Division Sarpang Thimphu Forest Division Thimphu Trashigang Forest Division Trashigang and Trashi Yangtse Tsirang Forest Division Tsirang and Dagana Wangduephodrang Forest Division Wangduephodrang and Punakha Zhemgang Forest Division Trongsa and Zhemgang Source: DoF, 2007 At the central level, besides NCD, the DoF consists of Forest Protec�on and U�liza�on Division (FPUD), FRDD, Social Forestry Division (SFD), and Royal Botanical and Recrea�onal Parks Division (RBRPD). The FPUD is mainly responsible for ma�ers related to forest land allotment/ swapping, leasing, clearance and encroachment, coordina�on of forest demarca�on and coordina�on and monitoring of supply of forest produce. The FRDD iden�fies FMUs, carries out forest inventories in the FMUs, prepares forest management plans for the FMUs, and provides technical backstopping for implementa�on and monitoring of the forest management plans. The SFD provides guidance and coordina�on for social forestry and extension programmes, specifically community forestry, and also monitors reforesta�on ac�vi�es in the field. Addi�onally, it is responsible for monitoring the occurrence of forest fires and coordina�ng public awareness and extension programmes for forest fire management. The RBRPD was created in 2008 to coordinate and support management of natural areas for public recrea�on and educa�on to enhance public apprecia�on and love for the natural environment. Department of Agriculture The DoA, which is made up of Agriculture Division, Hor�culture Division and Engineering Division, deals with the development, management and distribu�on of services and inputs, including infrastructure and machinery, for agriculture. Through coordina�on and guidance to the dzongkhag agriculture staff, the Divisions of Agriculture and Hor�culture support the implementa�on of field programmes for agricultural produc�on including extension, marke�ng and processing. The Engineering Division provides engineering services for construc�on and maintenance of farm infrastructure such as farm road and irriga�on channels and assists the dzongkhag agricultural staff in technical and economic feasibility assessments of farm roads and irriga�on channels. With the mandate to oversee, coordinate and provide technical guidance to agricultural produc�on ac�vi�es, the DoA has the responsibility for ensuring sound management of agricultural lands. Also, under 61 DoA is the Na�onal Plant Protec�on Centre which func�ons as a coordina�ng and advisory agency for ac�vi�es to prevent and control plant diseases. These include coordina�on and oversight of pes�cide distribu�on and use, and promo�on of integrated pest management prac�ces. Department of Livestock The DoL is responsible for coordina�on, administra�on and management of services related to livestock produc�on, livestock input supply and livestock health. Livestock produc�on programme includes livestock breeding, feed and fodder development, and livestock products processing at the na�onal as well as dzongkhag level. Livestock input supply programme basically consists of establishment and maintenance of na�onal and regional breeding farms and centers, and livestock health programme concerns with delivery of animal health and care services through various veterinary centers and hospitals. DoL’s ac�vi�es pertaining to improvement of breeds, animal health and care, and feed and fodder development have environmental benefits in terms of reducing livestock popula�on and overgrazing of natural areas. Na�onal Biodiversity Centre The NBC is rela�vely a young ins�tu�on, established only in 1998. It serves as the na�onal focal ins�tute for biodiversity conserva�on and its responsibili�es include: coordina�ng biodiversity related ac�vi�es, including facilita�ng the implementa�on of � the Biodiversity Ac�on Plan for Bhutan in conjunc�on with relevant agencies; facilita�ng na�onal decision-making on biodiversity concerns cu�ng across sectors, � divisions and ins�tu�ons, including ensuring a par�cipatory approach to na�onal consensus building on complex issues related to biodiversity; enhancing a na�onal balance between conserva�on and sustainable use of biological � resources in general and between in situ and ex situ conserva�on in par�cular; facilita�ng Bhutan’s par�cipa�on in relevant sub-regional, regional and interna�onal � coopera�on. To provide policy level guidance and oversight to the NBC, a Na�onal Biodiversity Management Board made up of representa�ves from various agencies of the MoA and from the Ministries of Health, Educa�on, and Trade and Industry, and the Na�onal Environment Commission (NEC) has been established. The Board is chaired by the Honorable Minister of Agriculture. The Na�onal Biodiversity Centre is made up of Agro-biodiversity conserva�on and u�liza�on sec�on, Biodiversity informa�on and Botanical collec�on sec�on, and Bio-Explora�on and Research sec�on. 62 Council for RNR Research of Bhutan The CoRRB coordinates RNR research at the na�onal level and ensures an integrated approach to RNR research programming and technology genera�on. It provides guidance and management of the research programmes and ac�vi�es carried out by the regional RNR-RCs located at Yusipang (Thimphu), Bajo (Wangdue Phodrang), Jakar (Bumthang) and Wengkhar (Mongar). The research programmes focus on forestry, field crops, livestock development, hor�culture, plant protec�on, soil and soil fer�lity, water management, and farming systems. Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority The BAFRA func�ons through two divisions, namely Quality Control and Quaran�ne Division and Analy�cal and Cer�fica�on Division. The BAFRA acts as the Na�onal Food Inspectorate, regulates the quality of agricultural, livestock and forestry products as per the Food Safety Standards, monitors the movement of plants and animals to prevent or control diseases pertaining to food and agricultural crops and livestock, implements the Acts and bylaws of the RNR sector such as the Plant Quaran�ne Act and Seeds Act in conjunc�on with other relevant agencies, and maintains and disseminates informa�on on communicable diseases and non-tradi�onal pests. It has offices at all entry points (Phuentsholing, Paro Airport, Gelegphu, Samdrup Jongkhar and Samtse), regional level (Thimphu, Paro, Wangduephodrang and Bumthang), and in all dzongkhags. In addi�on, it has a city service office at Thimphu and a Na�onal Quality Control Laboratory at Yusipang, Thimphu. Na�onal Environment Commission The NEC was first established in 1989 by Royal Decree as a Na�onal Environment Commi�ee under the Planning Commission. Subsequently, in 1992, the NEC was delinked from the Planning Commission to serve as a more vigorous, autonomous government body. It was recons�tuted in 1998 and serves as a high level body with inter-ministerial representa�on for policy decisions and guidance on ma�ers related to environmentally sustainable development and ins�tu�on of measures to integrate environmental management in overall development process. The NEC Secretariat (NECS) is organized into Environmental Assessment Division, Monitoring, Informa�on, Communica�on and Outreach Division, and Policy and Planning Division. The Environmental Assessment Division is responsible for implementa�on of the Environmental Assessment Act 2000 and suppor�ng regula�ons, development of capacity of line agencies and dzongkhag environmental commi�ees for environmental assessment and monitoring, and development of sectoral guidelines for environmental assessment. The Monitoring, Informa�on, Communica�on and Outreach Division is responsible for research, monitoring, sta�s�cs, informa�on, communica�on and public outreach. The Policy and Planning Division deals with ma�ers related to environmental policy and programme coordina�on. At the present, the NECS is the na�onal focal agency for the CBD and UNFCCC. A Na�onal Ozone Unit has also been set up within the NECS to carry out the obliga�ons related to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone 63 Layer and to oversee and ensure the implementa�on of the recently-adopted Rules and Regula�on on Control of Ozone Deple�ng Substances. There is also a legal unit within NECS to develop, revise and amend environmental laws and regula�ons, provide inputs to line ministries in the development of environmental laws and regula�ons, provide guidance and support to other divisions in ma�ers related to environmental legisla�on, and prepare necessary documents to facilitate ra�fica�on of interna�onal environmental trea�es and conven�ons. Other Government Agencies There are a number of government agencies outside the MoA and NEC whose programmes and ac�vi�es contribute to biodiversity conserva�on. In keeping with the requirements of the Environmental Assessment Act 2000 and the Regula�on for the Environmental Clearance of Projects and given the very high poten�al of the industrial sector to impact the environment especially in terms of pollu�on, the Ministry of Economic Affairs (MoEA) has established an Environmental Unit. The Unit’s mission is to protect the quality of the country’s air, land and water resources while fostering economic development, healthy and safe industries and mines, and increased environmental awareness in the industrial sector. Its responsibili�es pertain to control and abatement of pollu�on from industrial, trade and mining ac�vi�es, facilita�on of environmental assessment and clearance of industrial, trade and mining projects, and environmental monitoring and inspec�ons in close co-opera�on with the different agencies within the MoEA and the NECS. The Department of Geology and Mines, under MoEA, has the mandate to implement the Mines and Mineral Management Act 1995 and Mines and Mineral Management Regula�ons 2002, both of which encompass substan�ve environmental management provisions especially in terms of planning environmental impact mi�ga�on measures and rehabilita�on of mined areas. The Ins�tute of Tradi�onal Medicine Services, under the Ministry of Health, is involved in the promo�on of domes�c propaga�on of medicinal plants which are threatened in the wild and in research on indigenous knowledge about biodiversity for use in tradi�onal medicine. The ITMS uses 230 plant species, 20 types of minerals, and 16 types of animal parts and products to produce tradi�onal Bhutanese medicines. The Na�onal Land Commission (NLC) is a recently formed autonomous government body with the mandate to ensure the implementa�on of the Land Act of Bhutan 2007 primarily through policy and regulatory work, inter-agency coordina�on, cadastral survey and land registra�on, and management of na�onal land records. The membership of the commission is made up of the Gyalpoi Zimpon56, the Secretaries of the Ministries of Agriculture, Works and Human Se�lement, Finance, Economic Affairs, and Home and Cultural Affairs, and a representa�ve each from the agency responsible for interna�onal boundary, private sector, NEC, Thromde Tshogdu57, and the Surveyor General of the NLC Secretariat as the member secretary. The NLC is supported by a Secretariat, which is responsible for implementa�on of the policies, programmes, regula�ons and guidelines issued by the NLC and for day-to 56 Royal Chamberlain 57 Municipal Commi�ee 64 day administra�on of the provisions of the Land Act of Bhutan 2007 and suppor�ng rules and regula�ons. The NLC Secretariat is largely made up of managerial and technical staff of the erstwhile Department of Survey and Land Records. The Drug Regulatory Authority, under the Ministry of Health, was established in 2004 with the main objec�ve to protect public health by ensuring safety, quality and efficacy of the medicinal products (including those derived from biodiversity) primarily by means of pre marke�ng control, proac�ve post-marke�ng vigilance and con�nuous quality monitoring system. The DRA also has the responsibility to ensure safe disposal of expired medicines so as to prevent harmful effects on the environment. The Department of Disaster Management (DDM), under the Ministry of Home & Cultural Affairs, was first created as a Division and subsequently upgraded to a Department in 2008. DDM’s key responsibili�es include: coordina�on of disaster risk management at the na�onal and local levels with relevant agencies; building awareness on disaster risks and their mi�ga�on/ preven�on at all levels; capacity development of disaster management authori�es at all levels; support to affected communi�es, especially the poor, through grant of relief a�er a disaster; support to the local administra�ons in prepara�on of their disaster management plans; development of various guidelines and legisla�ve framework related to disaster management; and facilita�on of exchange of informa�on, experience and exper�se in the area of disaster management. 3.4.2 Dzongkhag and Local Community Institutions Dzongkhag Level Ins�tu�ons The Dzongkhag Administra�ons are the execu�ng agency of development programmes and ac�vi�es at the dzongkhag level. Headed by the Dzongdag, they are made up of agriculture sector, livestock sector and forestry sector in addi�on to other government sectors such as health, educa�on and engineering. Dzongkhag policies, plans and programmes are reviewed, approved and guided by the DYT. The DYT is made up of: a chairperson, who is elected from among the vo�ng members; gups as ex-officio vo�ng members; mangmis as ex-officio vo�ng members; a representa�ve of municipali�es/ towns as a vo�ng member; dzongrab, or in his/ her absence dzongkhag administra�ve officer); as ex-officio non-vo�ng member secretary; dungpas, in dzongkhags with such posts, as observers; representa�ves of various sectoral agencies as observers; and other representa�ves of municipali�es/ towns as observers58. Since 2004, Dzongkhag Administra�ons and NECS have formed Dzongkhag Environmental Commi�ees (DECs) with the responsibility to ensure integra�on of environmental concerns in dzongkhag plans and to implement environmental assessment and clearance procedures for dzongkhag and gewog level projects and ac�vi�es that are small-scale and unlikely to have any major adverse environmental impacts. The forma�on of DECs is in line with the RGoB’s decentraliza�on policy and the requirement of the Environmental Assessment Act 2000. It is also intended to cut down the bureaucracy and �me involved in the environmental assessment and clearance of smaller projects and ac�vi�es. DECs are in 58 The func�oning and structure of DYTs and GYTs would undergo some changes with the enactment of the Local Governance Act, which is under prepara�on. 65 place in all the dzongkhags and they are usually made up of the dzongdag and dzongkhag sectoral heads especially those belonging to forestry, agriculture, livestock development and engineering fields. Dzongkhag Environmental Officers have been placed in all the dzongkhags to manage the ac�vi�es of DECs and to assist the Dzongkhag Administra�on in ma�ers related to environmental management and environmental clearance. Gewog Level Ins�tu�ons Responsibili�es for gewog-level planning, management and implementa�on of development programmes and ac�vi�es lie with the GYT, which is chaired by the gup. Other members include the mangmi and tshogpas. Gaydrung (gewog clerk) and representa�ves of various sectoral agencies at the gewog level sit in the GYT as observers. Recently, the RGoB has appointed a gewog administra�ve officer to facilitate the implementa�on of government plans and programmes at the gewog level. In rela�on to RNR ac�vi�es, the GYT is aided by the Gewog RNR Centre, which is in place in most gewogs. The Gewog RNR Centre has extension agents for agriculture, livestock development and forestry. The programmes and ac�vi�es of the Gewog RNR Centre are supervised and monitored by the respec�ve sectors in the Dzongkhag Administra�ons. 3.4.3 Independent/ Non-Governmental Organizations Royal Society for the Protec�on of Nature Non-governmental organiza�ons (NGOs) are few in Bhutan and the RSPN is the only one specifically dedicated to nature conserva�on. RSPN was founded in 1987 and legally incorporated as a non-profit NGO in 1997. The mission of the organiza�on is to “inspire personal responsibility and ac�vely involve the people of Bhutan in the conserva�on of the Kingdom’s environment through educa�on, applied research and informa�on dissemina�on, and collabora�on with concerned agencies and indigenous ins�tu�ons”. The forte of the RSPN is environmental educa�on and this is very well reflected in the vast network of school nature clubs that they have created and sustained across the country. The RSPN is also ac�vely involved in ac�vi�es to protect the black-necked crane Grus nigricollis and, of late, white-bellied heron Ardea insignis. It is currently entrusted by the MoA with the responsibility to plan and implement conserva�on management ac�vi�es in Phobjikha, Kangpara, Ada, Kamechhu, and Haa/Samtse/Chukha tri-junc�on conserva�on areas on a full-fledged basis. Târâyana Founda�on Formally launched in 2003, Târâyana Founda�on is an NGO which is working towards the socio-economic upli�ment of vulnerable and disadvantaged individuals and communi�es, thus complemen�ng government efforts to alleviate poverty. Although the Founda�on’s direct involvement in biodiversity conserva�on is currently limited, there is considerable poten�al in the future for it to develop and support ac�vi�es that link conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity with poverty reduc�on goals. At the present, it is involved 66 in a project to help the local communi�es of Kheng Silambi to regenerate bamboo and cane species for use in produc�on of ar�san cra�s. Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conserva�on The BTF was created in 1992 and legally incorporated under the Royal Charter in 1996 as an independent grant making organiza�on to sustain environmental conserva�on in the country. Under the guidance of a high-level management board, the BTF use its annual income generated by its US$ 40 million-endowment to support a wide range of environmental projects. 3.4.4 Corporations Natural Resources Development Corpora�on Limited The Forestry Development Corpora�on Limited, recently recons�tuted as Natural Resources Development Corpora�on Limited (NRDCL), is a quasi-autonomous corporate en�ty. Its main responsibility is to carry out sustainable harves�ng opera�ons in the FMUs according to approved forest management plans and to cater to the market demands for �mber and �mber products. With its recons�tu�on, it has also the mandate to cater to the market demands for other natural resources such as sand and stone in a sustainable manner. Druk Seed Corpora�on The Druk Seed Corpora�on is a quasi-autonomous corpora�on affiliated to the MoA. It is mandated to produce and supply seeds and seedlings for food produc�on and hor�cultural purposes. It also procures and distributes fer�lizers and butachlor, a herbicide widely used in paddy cul�va�on in Bhutan. 3.5 International Cooperation for Biodiversity Conservation Bhutan’s par�cipa�on in the global conserva�on movement has increased since the UNCED at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Recognizing the growing need to address biodiversity conserva�on and environmental concerns in general through global coopera�on and ac�ons and the relevance of interna�onal coopera�on in addressing its conserva�on needs, the country has become a party to several interna�onal trea�es and agreements related to biodiversity. The various interna�onal biodiversity conserva�on and related trea�es and agreements to which Bhutan is party are listed in Table 13. 67 Table 13: Interna�onal Biodiversity and Related Trea�es Ra�fied/ Acceded to by Bhutan Treaties/ Agreements Date/Year of Ratification/ Accession Biodiversity-specific Treaties/ Agreements UN Convention on Biological Diversity August 1995 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora August 2002 Cartageña Protocol on Biosafety to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity September 2002 Other Related Environmental Treaties/ Agreements UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, ratified in August 1995 August 1995 UNESCO World Heritage Convention October 2001 Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change August 2002 International Plant Protection Convention June 1994 UN Convention on the Law of Sea December 1982 Statute of the Centre for Science and Technology of the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries and other Developing Countries February 1985 UN Convention to Combat Desertification August 2003 Vienna Convention for Protection of Ozone Layer April 2004 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete Ozone Layer April 2004 In adherence to the CBD, Bhutan produced its first Biodiversity Ac�on Plan in 1998 and an updated version in 2002. At the World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 held in Johannesburg, the country presented the Na�onal Assessment of Agenda 21, aptly �tled Bhutan: The Road from Rio, giving a succinct yet comprehensive account of the country’s path and progress in the implementa�on of Agenda 21 outlined at UNCED 1992. In addi�on, Na�onal Biosafety Framework has been produced under the framework of Cartegana Protocol on Biosafety. Apart from the interna�onal trea�es/ agreements listed in Table 13, Bhutan has entered into a mul�-lateral partnership with Benin, Costa Rica and the Netherlands. This partnership is called the Sustainable Development Agreement and is built on the central idea that sustainable development is a two-way exchange between donors and recipients of environmental aid. Then there is the South Asian Associa�on for Regional Coopera�on, involving Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, within which five Ministerial Mee�ngs on Environment have been so far held – the last one having been hosted by Bhutan. 68 © Sonam Phuntsho © Nakul Chettri 69 Chapter 4 CURRENT TRENDS AFFECTING BIODIVERSITY The country has done extremely well to enter the 21st century with much of its natural environment in a pris�ne state. This has been possible largely due to strong poli�cal commitment and far-sighted leadership, tradi�onal values and way of life that revere nature, belated modern development, and rela�vely small popula�on size. However, conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity are becoming increasingly challenging as the country opens up to meet new development needs of a growing and modernizing popula�on. Localized deforesta�on, overgrazing, forest fires, and conversion of natural habitats to accommodate urbaniza�on and infrastructure development are the key challenges that the Bhutanese face today in the area of biodiversity conserva�on. At the same �me, new environmental trends are emerging in the form of pollu�on, waste and climate change. 4.1 Direct Causes 4.1.1 Forest Harvesting Tradi�onal Bhutanese house construc�on is �mber-intensive. In the rural areas, almost all housing structures – floor, roof, staircase, windows and doors, and beams and pillars – are made of wood. With dilapida�on of old houses, popula�on growth and fragmenta�on of families, construc�on of new houses and renova�on of old houses become necessary. Use of fuelwood is even higher with fuelwood being the main source of energy in the rural areas. Although collec�on of dry fuelwood in the form of fallen twigs and dri�wood is common, bulk of the fuelwood needs is met from natural forests. According to the Department of Energy, in 2005, fuelwood alone accounted for 57.7 percent of the total primary energy supply59. In order to cater to the demands for �mber and fuelwood of the Bhutanese popula�on, logging opera�ons are carried out based on forest management plans and working schemes. The Forest Resources Poten�al Assessment 2004 (FRPA 2004) has forecasted a fairly balanced scenario of es�mated demand-poten�al produc�on of �mber and fuelwood for the country as a whole from 2005 to 2014. However, major problem will be the spa�al distribu�on of wood produc�on and demand in the country. FRPA 2004 suggests that dzongkhags in the eastern region and with high popula�on density are likely to face wood deficits. Thimphu, Trashigang, Mongar, Trashi Yangste, Pemagatshel, and Samdrup Jongkhar dzongkhags are likely to be most affected by wood deficits. Therefore, there is concern that in the wood-deficit dzongkhags wood demand may be met from ad hoc sources. Extrac�on of wood from such sources could lead to unsustainable extrac�on of wood causing forest degrada�on and biodiversity loss. 59 DoE, 2007. 70 Localized deforesta�on is visible in certain parts of the country, where popula�on densi�es are high and forest use is intense such as in a number of villages in the eastern and southern parts of the country. Moreover, selec�ve harves�ng of certain preferred species such as Quercus spp for fuelwood is highly likely to have caused a�ri�on of species. The FRDD has developed planning guidelines for management of forest areas outside the FMU system so that these areas can be used for extrac�on of forest resources based on simple but sound silvicultural principles and prac�ces. A major challenge will be the implementa�on of these guidelines, including compliance monitoring. This will require development of the capacity of the territorial forestry divisions to effec�vely implement the guidelines. Apart from �mber and fuelwood, there is a long list of non-wood forest products that the rural Bhutanese use. These include medicinal and aroma�c plants, forest foods such as mushrooms, ferns and wild greens, bamboo and cane for local handicra�s, plant barks and pulps for tradi�onal paper-making, wood for agricultural and household implements, animal fodder, and leaf li�er for farmyard manure. To give an idea of the magnitude of the importance of biodiversity resources in Bhutanese life, here are some facts and figures: more than 300 species of plants are said to be used in tradi�onal Bhutanese medicines; almost all of Bhutanese farming is based on use of farmyard manure where forest leaf li�er is an indispensable component; and a par�al ethnobotanical inventory of Jigme Singye Wangchuck Na�onal Park recorded more than 20 species of forest plants that the local people consume for food. A villager stacking fuelwood. The per capita fuelwood consumption in Bhutan is reportedly one of the highest in the World. © Tshering Lhamtshok 71 There are several examples from across the country of biodiversity resources becoming scarce due to unsustainable harves�ng. For instance, in Bumdeling gewog, excessive collec�on and unsound harves�ng techniques have depleted Daphne plants to the extent that several families tradi�onally involved in paper-making had to give up the ac�vity60. Similarly, bamboo and cane in the Monpa area of Jigme Singye Wangchuck Na�onal Park, which were once abundantly available in the immediate vicinity of the villages, now have to be collected from three to four hours of walking distance61. 4.1.2 Livestock Grazing Livestock rearing is an important economic ac�vity among the rural communi�es. Ca�le are owned by almost all of the rural households in the country and it dominates the temperate and subtropical regions of the country. In the alpine and sub-alpine regions of the country, such as Laya and Lingshi, yaks are the dominant animals, and the economy is solely based on yak products. Yaks are reared for dairy products, meat and transporta�on of goods. In 2007, there were 319,308 ca�le and 51,500 yaks in the country62. While the ca�le popula�on has increased marginally by about 3.6 percent since 1990, the yak popula�on has increased by a significant 55.9 percent during the same period. Ca�le and yak popula�on density based on total land area is 10 animals per km2. However, effec�ve density of ca�le and yak popula�on based on total area of pasture land is much higher. The Facts and Figures of RNR Sector 2003 show that there is 1,737 km2 of pasture land in the country. This translates to 213 animals (ca�le and yak) per km2 of pasture land. It is important to recognize that livestock rearing is integral to rural livelihood and has evolved as a part of the rural culture in the country, and that grazing at low or moderate level can have certain posi�ve impacts on biodiversity. For instance, in Phobjikha, grazing of bamboo scrubs by yaks in the summer is known to check the overgrowth of bamboo and, in the process, enable black-necked cranes to roost in these scrubs during winter. Grazing becomes an environmental problem when it is excessive and lacks proper management. 60 Norbu UP, 2003 61 Norbu UP, 2002 62 Livestock Popula�on Sta�s�cs 2008, Ministry of Agriculture 72 Figure 5: Ca�le and Yak Popula�on 1990-2007 0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000 1990 1995 2000 2005 2007 Cattle Yak Source: Ministry of Agriculture Source: Forest Resources Development Division, Department of Forestry, 2004 Where livestock densi�es are high, overgrazing readily occurs and consequent impacts on pasture and forest may lead to decline in land produc�vity and exacerba�on of soil erosion. Overgrazing of pastures and forests, mainly in broadleaf forests, may lead to a�ri�on or loss of species, reduc�on of land produc�vity and soil erosion. Forest regenera�on is also hampered and change in vegeta�on is induced where grazing is rampant. Not only does overgrazing affect forest regenera�on and land produc�vity, it also affects the availability of forage to wild ungulates. This can lead to two major consequences, both rela�ng to crop and livestock depreda�on by wildlife. One, wild ungulates would increasingly raid field crops when forage in the forest becomes scarce. Two, insufficient forage in the forest would weaken the natural prey base and, consequently, predator species would turn to li�ing livestock. 4.1.3 Forest Fires Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 1995 prohibits the se�ng of forest fire and imposes fines and penal�es including imprisonment. In spite of such stringent legisla�on and regular public awareness programmes, forest fires are a recurrent and widespread phenomenon. The DoF has recorded 526 incidents of forest fire, affec�ng nearly 70,000 hectares of forest, between 1999/2000 and 2007/08. Figure 6 illustrates a down-ward trend in both the number of forest fire incidents and area burnt from 1999-2000 un�l 2003/04 before rising again from 2004/05. Forest fire occurrence was par�cularly dras�c in 2006/07 73 (see Figure 6). One par�cular fire incident that occurred in Athang, Wangduephodrang dzongkhag, in May 2007 razed more than 15,000 hectares of forest and killed a number of wildlife including a few of the cri�cally endangered white bellied herons63. Depending on the local site condi�ons, the nega�ve impact of forest fires may be immediate or on a long term64. In steep areas the nega�ve impact may be immediate, especially if heavy rains follow a forest fire. The rainwater washes away topsoil and ash, depriving the exposed area of nutrients to support natural regenera�on. When such a process recurs several �mes, a succession process is triggered whereby the site may completely degenerate into a barren area. However, some species such as Chir pine Pinus roxburghii can tolerate a few forest fires. Nevertheless, recurrent forest fires year a�er year can lead to gradual degenera�on of the site and oblitera�on of associate species rendering the site vulnerable to land degrada�on and ecosystem change. Forest fires are most widespread and recurrent in the eastern region, which accounted for nearly two third of the forest area burnt between 1999/00–2007/08. This can be largely a�ributed to the prevalence of dry weather condi�ons, forests with high fuel load, and fire-dependent economic ac�vi�es such as grazing and lemon-grass oil produc�on. 63 Forest fire records maintained by the Social Forestry Division and RSPN Annual Report on Heron Field Studies. 64 Forest fires are not always necessarily detrimental. In some natural areas, for instance in Manas and Kaziranga Na�onal Parks in India, controlled burning of ground vegeta�on is used as a habitat management tool. It is also believed that in chir pine forest, which is a fire-adapted ecosystem, moderate frequency of fires can have beneficial effects. Forest fires are a recurrent and widespread phenomenon in Bhutan. The Department of Forests has recorded 526 incidents of forest fire, affecting nearly 70,000 hectares of forest land in the past ten years. 74 Figure 6: Forest Fire Occurrence, 1999/00-2007/08 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 19 99 /0 0 20 00 /0 1 20 01 /0 2 20 02 /0 3 20 03 /0 4 20 04 /0 5 20 05 /0 6 20 06 /0 7 20 07 /0 8 Nu m be r o f I nc id en ts He ct ar es Area burnt Incidents Source: Social Forestry Division, Department of Forests 4.1.4 Human-Wildlife Con�licts Crop depreda�on by wildlife is common and widespread in the country. Every year, wild animals, especially wild pigs, deer, monkeys, bears and elephants plunder massive quan��es of crops across the country, inflic�ng immense losses to the farmers. Crop damage by wild pigs is prevalent in almost all the dzongkhags of the country. The southern dzongkhags are beset by incursions of wild elephants on field crops and farm proper�es, including homes. Wild elephant incursions have increased in the recent years largely as a consequence of habitat fragmenta�on along the southern border areas. In addi�on to direct loss of crops from wildlife incursions, farmers have to bear several indirect costs such as loss of �me, added costs of produc�on, expenditure on items such as torches and ba�eries, kerosene, used �ns, and building of guard sheds, and disrup�on in family life. Although rare, there have also been cases of human injury or death due to wildlife a�acks. It therefore comes as no surprise that farmers in ten gewogs across the country, where a wild boar crop damage survey was carried out in 1996, unanimously ranked the protec�on of their crops against wildlife incursions as the most arduous amongst all the farming adversi�es65. This fact is corroborated by RNR Sta�s�cs 2000, which ranks crop damage by wildlife as the most severe constraint faced by farm households. 65 Choden D and Namgay K, 1996 75 Livestock depreda�on by predator species, especially �gers, leopards, wild dogs and black bear, is also prevalent albeit on a smaller scale and less uniformly than crop depreda�on. In Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary alone, local communi�es have reported to have incurred losses of 17 ca�le, five yaks and one equine every year between 1997 and 1999. In another example, 30 percent of the households in Jigme Singye Wangchuck Na�onal Park have reported loss of livestock to predators. Although stringent conserva�on laws and social tolerance to wildlife inculcated by religious sen�ments have so far prevented human-wildlife conflict from going out of hand, retribu�on killing in the form of hun�ng, trapping and poisoning of predator species by frustrated farmers is not uncommon. It is highly probable that these farmers may resort to retaliatory killing if crop and livestock depreda�on by wildlife exacerbates or persists for long. A very comprehensive Na�onal Human-Wildlife Conflicts Management Strategy is now in place. The implementa�on of this strategy is expected to considerably alleviate the socio-economic impacts of human-wildlife conflict and lessen consequent resentment of wildlife among rural communi�es. 4.1.5 Wildlife Poaching The country has several species of wild animals and plants of great commercial value in the interna�onal market, especially for use in produc�on of tradi�onal oriental medicines. A porous interna�onal border both in the north and south, inadequate law enforcement personnel, and general lack of public awareness make controlling poaching a difficult job. Of late, study visits for DoF officials to various cross-border protected areas in India have been organized to facilitate sharing of field experiences, knowledge on protected management and ideas for coopera�on between them and their Indian counterparts. It is expected that these study visits will progress into be�er coordina�on and systema�c coopera�on between the Bhutanese and Indian authori�es to curb poaching and illegal wildlife trade in the border areas. A farmer guarding crops from wildlife A horse killed by a Royal Bengal Tiger Crop and livestock depredation by wildlife is a major human-wildlife conflict issue which impacts the livelihood of the rural communities throughout the country. ©WWF © NCD, DoF 76 Wildlife poaching and trade occur covertly and are especially prevalent along the remote borders and within certain interior areas. The main species targeted for poaching are musk deer Moschus chrysogaster and Chinese caterpillar fungus Cordyceps sinensis because musk pods and Cordyceps, both highly valued for their medicinal proper�es, are easy to conceal and smuggle through the borders. Poaching is driven by the ready and lucra�ve market for wildlife parts and products for use in tradi�onal oriental medicines. Illegal fishing also occurs but is largely done for subsistence and recrea�on. The exis�ng schedule of penal�es related to poaching of wildlife is in general so� and not deterring enough, especially considering the high commercial value of wildlife parts and products in the interna�onal market. The totally protected species list of the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Act 1995 has also been found to be lacking sound ra�onale. Some of the species that are not threatened, e.g. spo�ed deer, and snow down lily, have been listed whereas some that are known to be highly endangered, e.g. capped langur, hispid hare and white-bellied heron, are missing from the list. Clearly, there is a need to ra�onalize the exis�ng schedule of penal�es as well as the totally protected species list based on a comprehensive set of na�onal, regional and interna�onal criteria, including the status of the species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and the CITES Appendices. 4.1.6 Land Use Change and Conversion The Bhutanese popula�on must make its living within rugged and geologically vulnerable ecosystems. Bhutan’s usable land resource is limited due to difficult and high mountain terrain, vast areas of snows and barren rocks, and large forest coverage which is mandated to be maintained at a minimum of 60 percent in perpetuity. While 69 percent of the popula�on depend primarily on agriculture, arable agriculture land is less than eight percent mostly located in the central valleys and mountains, and in the southern foothills. Fo re st c le ar ed f or a gr ic ul tu ra l pr od uc ti on a t Bu li, Zh em ga ng . M or e th an 1 ,3 00 h ec ta re s of f or es t la nd ha ve b ee n cl ea re d be tw ee n 20 01 2 00 5 fo r in fr as tr uc tu re de ve lo pm en t an d ag ri cu lt ur al p ro du ct io n. © Singye Wangmo 77 This limited area has to also support other development ac�vi�es of a popula�on, which is currently growing at 1.3 percent each year. While conserva�on of the natural environment is an overriding na�onal priority, intensifica�on of economic ac�vi�es and support systems have led to encroachment and/or conversion of forest lands. Data compiled by the DoF show that more than 1,300 hectares of forest land have been cleared between 2001-2005 for infrastructure development and agricultural produc�on. Roads and power transmission lines alone accounted for more than 70 percent of the total forest area converted to other land use (Figure 7). Figure 7: Forest Land Conversion to Other Uses 2001-2005 258.2 540.7 424.9 123.0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Construction of government buildings Construction of power transmission lines Road construction Agricultural production A re a in h ec ta re s Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 2006 4.1.7 Urbanization Urbaniza�on has taken place at an alarmingly rapid pace over the last ten years or so. During the Eighth Five-Year Plan (July 1997-June 2002), the urban popula�on was es�mated to be only 15 percent of the country’s total and at the onset of the Ninth Five Year Plan (July 2002-June 2007) it was es�mated at 21 percent. By 2005, the propor�on of Bhutanese urban popula�on had grown to 31 percent. There were 61 towns with a total popula�on of 196,111, accoun�ng for 31 percent of the country’s total popula�on, according to Popula�on and Housing Census of Bhutan 2005 (PHCB 2005). The single largest factor contribu�ng to urban popula�on growth in the country is rural urban migra�on. The many difficul�es associated with rural mountain life, inadequate 78 development infrastructure and facili�es in the rural areas, and the percep�on of be�er economic prospects in the urban areas have led many people to the towns. Net life-�me rural-urban migra�on has been es�mated at 91,778 according to PHCB 2005. This implies that nearly 47 percent of the urban popula�on are people who have migrated from rural areas. This is indeed an extremely high rate and more so in a country such as Bhutan where the geologically fragile mountainous ecosystem, rugged terrain and agrarian cultures are not easily reconciled with urbaniza�on. What is even more disconcer�ng is that more than half of the urban popula�on is concentrated in just two towns – Thimphu and Phuentsholing. Thimphu alone has more than 40 percent of the total urban popula�on while Phuentsholing has more than 10 percent (see Figure 8). Burgeoning urban popula�on has created several environmental problems such as air and water pollu�on, water shortage, municipal waste genera�on, conges�on of traffic and buildings, and land degrada�on. In order to accommodate surplus popula�on and develop concomitant infrastructure, urban centers have consumed prime agricultural lands in the valleys and encroached on hill slopes which were once forested. In the smaller urban centers, the lack of proper infrastructure and facili�es for drainage, sanita�on and waste disposal will have cumula�ve adverse impacts on land and water resources. Furthermore, there is increased extrac�on of sand and stones from the river banks and roadsides, and harves�ng of �mber from adjacent forests to cater to the growing construc�on demands in the urban centers. Rural-urban migra�on and the influx of expatriate workforce for construc�on work in the urban centers have spawned squa�ng popula�ons in and around the urban centers and exacerbated illicit collec�on of fuel wood and small �mber from adjacent forests. In addi�on, the urban influx has impacted heavily on Bhutan’s ability to sustain its orienta�on to animal welfare and animal rights – ingrained within the Buddhist orienta�on to life – par�cularly with regard to increasing consump�on of meat, a crisis of stray dogs in many urban centers, and concerns da�ng to the early 1980s over rabies outbreaks. Figure 8: Distribu�on of Urban Popula�on So ur ce : P H CB 2 00 5 79 4.1.8 Mining and Quarrying As of 2006, there were 39 mines and 24 quarries66. The mines are mostly concentrated in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the country, specifically in Samtse, Samdrup Jongkhar and Pemagatshel dzongkhags. Over the years, overall mineral produc�on has increased and mining has become one of the fastest growing economic sectors. In par�cular, the produc�on of gypsum and talc has increased enormously – almost by 100 percent – between 2002-2006 (see Table 14). Mining opera�ons have direct physical impact on the landscape. The primary impact on biodiversity is through the removal of surface features during the extrac�on of materials, thus altering or destroying natural habitats and biodiversity. Secondary effects such as noise, dust, pollu�on and waste genera�on also impinge on plants and animals, including aqua�c life as a result of changes in water sedimenta�on. With the boom in construc�on ac�vi�es and growing urbaniza�on in the last few years, several stone and sand quarries have also opened up especially along mountain slopes and river beds, which are poten�ally prime habitats for many bird and mammal species. A case in point is the threat to the habitats of the cri�cally endangered white-bellied herons due to increased sand quarrying along the banks of Puna Tsang Chhu. Table 14: Mineral Produc�on in Bhutan, 2002 - 2006 Minerals 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Dolomite (metric tonnes) 388,056 367,402 452,336 388,711 476,516 Limestone (metric tonnes) 506,268 551,525 560,807 536,030 581,333 Gypsum (metric tonnes) 105,658 122,829 131,236 150,585 204,198 Slate (square feet) 6,100 57,970 126,789 2,908 5,873 Coal (metric tonnes) 88,567 66,324 29,631 85,279 97,965 Marble (square feet) 3,207 6,228 3,385 4,005 3,813 Quartzite (metric tonnes) 47,464 52,058 42,599 52,694 40,198 Talc (metric tonnes) 23,118 23,101 39,797 42,791 54,208 Stone (metric tonnes) 319,702 316,068 252,207 146,767 232,187 Granite (square feet) 5,559 11,579 2,152 9,436 8,311 Source: Department of Geology and Mines (Sta�s�cal Yearbook of Bhutan 2007) 4.1.9 Infrastructure Development Construc�on of roads and electrifica�on of towns and villages among other things have become necessary to realize socio-economic development objec�ves. The road network has increased from 4,007 km in 2003 to 4,545 km in 200667. Bhutan being a developing na�on, more infrastructure development ac�vi�es are expected to take place in the future. 66 Report on Mining Opera�ons in Bhutan, Royal Audit Authority, 2007. 67 Department of Roads, Ministry of Works and Human Se�lements, cited in Sta�s�cal Yearbook of Bhutan 2007 80 The poli�cal campaigns leading to democracy in 2008 also suggested that roads would be built sooner or later in each of the 47 cons�tuencies. According to the Tenth Five Year Plan Programme Profiles (2008-2013), more than 480 km of new roads, including farm roads will be constructed to improve access and connec�vity to remote areas and to improve alignment of exis�ng roads. In addi�on, during the same period, 468 km of exis�ng roads will be upgraded and 40 km will be widened68. Another key infrastructure development ac�vity that affects biodiversity is the construc�on of power transmission grids and distribu�on lines. The commissioning of new hydroelectric projects such as Tala and Basochhu would necessitate installa�on of more power transmission lines. In the Tenth Five Year Plan, the RGoB plans to undertake inter-regional power transmission and distribu�on works to provide stable and adequate power supply for regionally balanced socio-economic development. The development of these infrastructure is environmentally challenging given the rugged terrain and fragile geologic condi�ons.Where adequate environmental safeguards and mi�ga�on measures are not employed, development of these infrastructure almost inevitably cause problems such as slope instability, deforesta�on, disturbance to wildlife habitats, and sedimenta�on of water bodies. In addi�on to direct impacts, these infrastructure development projects inherently bring in addi�onal demographic pressure on surrounding natural resources as a result of mass influx of migrant workers. 68 Tenth Five Year Plan (2008-2013): Programme Profiles New road construction from Samtse to Dorokha. Construction of roads can have severe adverse environmental impacts if necessary mitigation measures are not employed during the design and construction of roads. © Singye Wangmo 81 4.1.10 Invasive Species Invasive species are species not na�ve to a country or region but which successfully establish themselves in the new environment, out-compe�ng na�ve species and taking over pre-exis�ng ecosystem. On a global scale, invasive species cons�tute one of the most serious threats to biodiversity. The control of invasive species can be difficult, if not impossible, making preven�on par�cularly important. Although there is presently no scien�fic assessment of invasive species and their impacts in the country, some environmental and socio-economic impacts of invasive species are already being felt to some degree. For example, Bhutanese rice farmers are losing crops to the invasive alien waterweeds such as Potamogeton dis�nctus. Terrestrial weeds like Lantana camera, Parthenium spp, and Mikania micrantha are invading the Bhutanese forests, just as they have proven themselves to be problems the world over. Alien invasive plant diseases like chili blight caused by Phytophthora capsici, rice blast caused by Pyricularia oryzae, and potato late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans are nuisances to Bhutanese farmers and cause heavy crop losses. 4.1.11 Hydropower Development High precipita�on, extensive forest cover and well-preserved watersheds have endowed the country with immense poten�al for hydropower produc�on. The DoE has es�mated the country’s hydropower poten�al at about 30,000 megawa�s (MW). At present, the installed hydropower capacity is 1,488 MW. In the next 20 years, the country plans to develop another six hydropower projects with a combined capacity of over 4,385 MW. Apart from being the main driver of socio-economic development in the country, hydropower is viewed as an essen�ally clean source of energy and a means of reducing the country’s dependence on tradi�onal solid fuels, e.g. fuelwood, which are much more environmentally damaging and expensive. Furthermore, as a major source of revenue, hydropower development provides a strong economic ra�onale for environmental conserva�on as its sustenance depends on the sustainable management of the watersheds. Nevertheless, hydropower projects in many places around the world are known to adversely impact the surrounding natural environment, especially where large or mul�ple reservoirs are involved. The most commonly reported impacts of hydropower projects are disturbance in river flow and degenera�on of aqua�c life. In the case of Bhutan, a major issue is that the construc�on of hydropower projects is based on labor-intensive technology. Mass influx of expatriate laborers increases demographic pressure on surrounding natural resources, par�cularly forests and water. In addi�on, construc�on of dams, access roads, and power transmission lines have a bearing on land stability and biodiversity, more so in a mountainous country with fragile geology as Bhutan. 82 4.1.12 Industrial Development Industrial development is cri�cal for employment genera�on and economic development. However, demographic and biophysical factors pre-empt any large-scale industrial development in Bhutan. As of 2006, the Department of Industry had issued 24,505 industrial licenses – about 76 percent more than in 2002 when licenses issued numbered 13,908 (see Figure 9). Of these, a �ny 4.6 percent are produc�on and manufacturing industrial units while the rest pertain to contracts (39.9 percent) and service-based enterprises (55.5 percent). Only a �ny 0.3 percent of all the industrial licenses issued in 2006 fall in the “large-scale” category. While there are yet no studies on the impacts of industries on biodiversity, air and water pollu�on problems generally associated with industries may have harmed surrounding animal and plant life especially in major industrial towns like Gomtu and Pasakha. Furthermore, forest-based industries – which make up 41.5 percent of produc�on and manufacturing industries – are likely to be cause for loss of wild biodiversity especially when extrac�ons of raw materials are not replenished suitably. Figure 9: Industrial Licenses Issued 2002-2006 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Production & Manufacturing Contracts Service-based Source : Department of Industries as cited in Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2007 83 4.2 Indirect Causes 4.2.1 Population The Popula�on and Housing Census of Bhutan (PHCB) 2005 has es�mated the country’s popula�on at 634,982 with a growth rate of 1.3 percent per annum and a density of 16 people per km2. Although, on the whole, the country’s popula�on growth rate and popula�on density is low compared to most countries, its rugged topography and severe clima�c condi�ons limit arable and habitable condi�ons to only a small propor�on of the country and, in the process, creates much greater demographic pressure on land and natural resources than the overall popula�on density may suggest. At the current growth rate, our popula�on would double by the year 2059. Figure 10 illustrates popula�on doubling �me at different growth rates. Though the country’s popula�on in general does not pose a serious problem at the present, localized popula�on pressure exists due to skewed popula�on distribu�on. For instance, on one hand Gasa dzongkhag has a popula�on of only 3,116 people at a density of less than one people per km2, on the other Thimphu dzongkhag has a popula�on of 98,676 people at a density of 51 people per km2 (Table 15). Figure 10: Popula�on Doubling Timeline at Various Growth Rates Current rate 3% 20752059204020292005 2% 1.3% 1% Crowd at Thimphu Tshechu, 2008. At the current growth rate of 1.3% per annum, Bhutan‛s population is expected to double by the year 2059. © Ngawang Gyaltshen 84 Table 15 : Popula�on and Popula�on Densi�es of Most and Least Populated Dzongkhags Dzongkhag Population % of the total population Population density (people/km2) Most populated dzongkhags Thimphu 98,676 15.5 51 Chhukha 74,387 11.7 41 Samtse 60,100 9.5 38 Least populated dzongkhags Gasa 3,116 0.5 0.7 Lhuentse 15,395 2.4 5 Bumthang 16,116 2.5 6 Source: PHCB 2005 Another concern pertains to the demographic distribu�on of the popula�on. The popula�on-age differen�a�on structure of the country has a broad base with nearly 45 percent of the popula�on being under the age of 20 years. This implies that the popula�on is likely to increase at a higher rate in the near future as a result of growing sec�on of individuals nearing their prime fer�lity age. Add to this the fact that the Total Fer�lity Rate is high, at approximately 2.9, while the Contracep�ve Prevalence Rate is quite low, at 31 percent69. While our current popula�on growth rate is only about 1.3 percent, increase in the popula�on growth rate in the near future due to the young age structure and geographically-skewed distribu�on of our popula�on pose major challenges to the conserva�on and sustainable use of biodiversity. A more coordinated effort between family planning and conserva�on outreach services in the country is required to stabilize our popula�on growth within the given geographic and demographic contexts of the country. 4.2.2 Poverty Despite an impressive economic growth with Gross Domes�c Product growth averaging seven percent since 1980, there is rela�vely a high level of poverty although abject poverty and des�tu�on are virtually absent. The exis�ng state of poverty can be mainly a�ributed to the country’s rugged and harsh terrain, limited infrastructure and availability of land for economic ac�vi�es, shortage of labor and markets due to a small and sca�ered popula�on, largely subsistence-based way of life in the rural areas, and nascency of the private sector. 69 Cited from Popula�on Reference Bureau (www.prb.org) 85 Figure 11: Poverty Incidences by Dzongkhags 2.4 3.9 4.1 10.9 13.2 13.9 14.3 15.6 15.8 19.4 20.3 22.2 26.2 29.3 31.1 38.0 43.0 44.4 46.8 52.9 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 Thimphu Paro Gasa Bumthang Haa Tsirang Trashi Yangtse Punakha Wangdue Sarpang Chhukha Trongsa Pema Gatshel Trashigang Dagana Samdrup Jongkhar Lhuentse Monggar Samtse Zhemgang Poverty Incindences % Source: Poverty Analysis Report, Na�onal Sta�s�cs Bureau, 2007 The Bhutan Living Standards Survey 2007 established the total poverty line at Nu. 1,096.94 per person per month, which is about US$ 2870. An es�mated 23.2 percent of the country’s popula�on live below the aforesaid total poverty line. Poverty in the country is rela�vely a rural phenomenon, with 30.9 percent of the rural popula�on living below the total poverty line compared to 1.7 percent of the urban popula�on. Poverty incidences are highest in Zhemgang, Samtse, Mongar, Lhuentse, and Samdrup Jongkhar dzongkhags and lowest in Thimphu, Paro, Gasa, Bumthang, and Haa dzongkhags (Figure 11). Poverty can be both the cause and effect of environmental degrada�on. Impoverished communi�es if not provided with livelihood and income-genera�ng opportuni�es will be prone to engage in ac�vi�es, for example wildlife poaching and illegal fuelwood collec�on, that adversely impact biodiversity. On the other hand, effec�ve conserva�on ini�a�ves which among other things promote access to, and sustainable use of, biodiversity resources by the poor can create substan�al opportuni�es for the impoverished communi�es to enhance their livelihoods and break away from the poverty cycle. 70 One US$ equaled about Nu. 48 as of January 2009. 86 4.2.3 Consumption Trends and Market Forces Increasing affluence and modernizing lifestyle of the Bhutanese, combined with popula�on growth, have inadvertently led to higher consump�on habits leading to pollu�on of air, water and land, and increasing use of natural resources. Per capita consump�on levels of basic environmental products and services, such as wood and hydro-electricity, are reportedly very high in the country. According to the DoE, urban Bhutanese have the highest per capita electricity consump�on (1,174 kilowa� hours per year as of 2005) in all of South Asia. Furthermore, agricultural produc�on is enormously influenced by market forces. Consumer demands for cheaper agricultural produce has led farmers to grow high yielding, but o�en imported, varie�es of crops such as paddy, maize and wheat. In some places, for instance Bumthang, tradi�onal crops such as buckwheat are being replaced by cash crops such as potato. Similarly, people are giving up rearing of Jakar sheep as they increasingly find it economically unviable. As is the general trend across the world, the wealthiest have far extravagant consump�on habit when compared to other sec�ons of the popula�on. In Bhutan, the wealthiest 20 percent of the popula�on account for 38.5 percent of the total na�onal consump�on while the poorest 20 percent account for 9.6 percent (Figure 12). In terms of average per capita consump�on, a person belonging to the wealthiest 20 percent of the popula�on consumes 6.7 �mes more than a person belonging to the poorest 20 percent71. This basically implies that as more people a�ain wealth, consump�on trends are likely to grow unless certain interven�ons are effec�vely implemented to curb wasteful consump�on72. Figure 12: Share of Na�onal Consump�on by Poverty/ Wealth Popula�on Quin�les, 2007 Source: Poverty Analysis Report, Na�onal Sta�s�cs Bureau, 2007 71 NSB, 2007b. 72 Such interven�ons may be policy, social (e.g. educa�on and awareness), or economic (e.g. taxa�on). 87 4.2.4 Climate Change People and the natural environment are becoming increasingly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Although ecosystems have adapted to changing climates in the past, current changes in climate are occurring at rates not experienced historically. In general, the faster the climate changes, the greater the impact on people and their natural environment. The impacts of climate change to Bhutan’s natural environment have not yet been properly assessed. Nonetheless, the country has experienced in the recent past a number of incidents that have brought to the fore the dangers of climate change. For example, the winter of 1998/99 was characterized by a prolonged spell of dry (snowless) weather. This exacerbated incidents of forest fires that winter, with such fires occurring even in places where they were earlier not known. Subsequently, the summer of 2000 was witness to the worst ever monsoon rains in the country’s recent history. The heavy rains triggered off unprecedented number of floods and landslides, causing loss of dozens of human lives and damage to infrastructures and natural resources. Climate change is also resul�ng in the receding of several glaciers in the Himalayas, increasing the risks of dangerous glacial lake outbursts. Recent studies by the Interna�onal Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) men�on that several glacial lakes in Bhutan and Nepal have high risks of outbursts due to global warming. In fact, in 1994, there was a major glacial lake outburst in Lunana in northwestern Bhutan, resul�ng in a flash flood that caused extensive damage to agricultural lands and pastures, and loss of several human lives and livestock along the Pho Chhu. There are about 2674 glacial lakes exis�ng in the country, of which 24 are classified as poten�ally dangerous lakes73. Of these, the most immediate threat comes from the Raphstreng and Thor Thormi lakes in the headwaters of the Puna Tsang Chhu. These lakes are adjacent to each other separated by just a moraine wall. The combined discharge of outbursts of these two lakes is es�mated at 53 million cubic meters – three �mes more than the 1994 Lugge Tsho glacial lake outburst flood. Biodiversity and climate change have a two-way linkage. Just as climate change affects biodiversity, deteriora�on of biodiversity can contribute to climate change. Land use changes resul�ng in biodiversity losses can cause increased greenhouse gas emissions. Forests play a major role in storing up carbon, so when forests are cut down, or burnt, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. On the other hand, careful management of biodiversity can lead to higher levels of carbon sequestra�on and consequently mi�ga�on of climate change and its impacts. Bhutan has hitherto been spared the dras�c consequences of climate change that many other mountainous countries have faced because of its rela�vely well-forested watersheds and hitherto moderate human disturbances of natural resources. 73 ICIMOD, 2000 88 © PAMIR Law Group 2009 89 Chapter 5 ACTION PLAN 5.1 General Premise Gross Na�onal Happiness, being the country’s overarching development concept, provides the fundamental essence for the development of this Ac�on Plan. It shall inherently contribute to the objec�ve of environmental sustainability but shall also seek to contribute to economic growth, poverty allevia�on, food security, and human health. As stressed in Bhutan 2020, the vision document to maximize GNH, this Ac�on Plan takes into account the poten�al to use our biodiversity as an asset for socio-economic development but in a manner that is within the limits of sustainability and without impairing the ecological and spiritual values of the natural environment. Poverty reduc�on is a central theme of the Tenth Five Year Plan (July 2008-June 2013). Therefore, this Ac�on Plan also looks at poverty-environment mainstreaming to the extent that biodiversity conserva�on measures sufficiently consider poverty reduc�on and livelihood enhancement objec�ves. The Ac�on Plan a�empts to address the various trends affec�ng biodiversity in the country, as described in Chapter 4. A matrix correla�ng the objec�ves and strategies to the trends affec�ng biodiversity is provided in Annex 4. 5.2 Goal and Objectives The overall goal of this Ac�on Plan is “the conserva�on and sustainable use of Bhutan’s natural biodiversity for the economic, environmental and emo�onal wellbeing of the present and future genera�ons.” Specifically, it seeks to achieve the following objec�ves: Protect natural ecosystems from degrada�on and fragmenta�on as a consequence 1. of environmentally-intrusive human ac�vi�es and their impacts; Protect species and gene�c diversity in general but more especially those species 2. and their gene�c variants that have immense ecological, economic, scien�fic, and cultural values; Integrate poverty reduc�on and enhancement of local livelihoods in biodiversity 3. conserva�on programmes in a mutually-reinforcing manner; Create public apprecia�on and support for biodiversity conserva�on through 4. nature-based recrea�on and educa�on; Use biodiversity resources as a development capital for na�onal economic growth 5. but within the limits of environmental sustainability. 90 5.3 Strategies and Actions 5.3.1 Strategies and Actions to Achieve Objective 1 Objec�ve : To protect natural ecosystems from degrada�on and fragmenta�on as a consequence of environmentally-intrusive human ac�vi�es and their impacts. Strategy 1: Protec�on and management of protected areas and connec�ng biological corridors Ac�on 1.1: Conduct field surveys and prepare conserva�on management plans for Wangchuck Centennial Park, Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary, Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and Torsa Strict Nature Reserve; Ac�on 1.2: Iden�fy personnel needs for Wangchuck Centennial Park, Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary, Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and Torsa Strict Nature Reserve, and accordingly mobilize the required personnel in coordina�on with the Royal Civil Service Commission; Ac�on 1.3: Iden�fy funding needs for Wangchuck Centennial Park, Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary, Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and Torsa Strict Nature Reserve, and accordingly mobilize requisite funds in coordina�on with the Ministry of Finance; Ac�on 1.4: Develop basic conserva�on management infrastructure for implementa�on of the conserva�on management plans in Wangchuck Centennial Park, Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary, Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and Torsa Strict Nature Reserve; Ac�on 1.5: Revise all outdated conserva�on management plans of protected areas and establish a system for �mely review and upda�ng of the conserva�on management plans to effec�vely respond to evolving conserva�on circumstances and needs of the respec�ve protected areas on a con�nuous basis; Ac�on 1.6: Carry out and complete zoning of the exis�ng six opera�onal protected areas and complete physical demarca�on of the boundaries of these protected areas; Ac�on 1.7: Iden�fy priority biological corridors for conserva�on management based on �ger status surveys, snow leopard status surveys, and other biodiversity surveys that may be carried out from �me to �me; Ac�on1.8: Conduct field surveys and prepare conserva�on management plans for the priority biological corridors covering at least 25 percent of the exis�ng biological corridors; 91 Ac�on 1.9: Iden�fy personnel needs for the priority biological corridors, and accordingly mobilize the required personnel in coordina�on with the Royal Civil Service Commission; Ac�on 1.10: Iden�fy funding needs for the priority biological corridors, and accordingly mobilize requisite funds in coordina�on with the Ministry of Finance and GNH Commission; Ac�on 1.11: Review the ongoing conserva�on management ac�vi�es in the biological corridors adjacent to Thrumshingla Na�onal Park and consolidate them into a full-fledged conserva�on management programme for further implementa�on. Strategy 2: Protec�on and management of conserva�on areas outside the protected areas system Ac�on 2.1: Formulate regula�ons and procedural guidelines for the establishment and management of conserva�on areas outside the protected areas system as legal en��es, and incorporate these regula�ons and guidelines as an addendum to the Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules 2007. This ac�on is cri�cal because currently the legal status of conserva�on areas outside the protected areas system is vague. Without legal recogni�on, the enforcement of regula�ons contained in the conserva�on management plans of such areas can be defied by people especially whose economic interests are in conflict with the nature conserva�on objec�ves; Ac�on 2.2: Iden�fy priority conserva�on areas74 outside the protected areas system for conserva�on management within the next five years, conduct biodiversity and socio-economic surveys in these areas, and prepare conserva�on management plans in accordance to the approved regula�ons and procedural guidelines (refer foregoing ac�on); Ac�on 2.3: Mobilize funding and human resources for implementa�on of the approved conserva�on management plans in the priority conserva�on areas and implement the conserva�on management plan. Strategy 3: Management of forest resources for sustainable produc�on and u�liza�on Ac�on 3.1: Assess old FMUs, par�cularly in wood-deficit dzongkhags, that can be poten�ally revived for sustainable produc�on and u�liza�on of forest resources with some protec�on and enrichment plan�ng over a period of �me, and carry out requisite replenishment ac�vi�es in these FMUs; 74 These areas may include Chelela, Kangpara, and the Chukha/Haa/Samtse tri-junc�on area as preliminary assessments of these areas have been already undertaken. 92 Ac�on 3.2: Develop the capacity of the territorial forestry divisions to effec�vely implement the planning guidelines for management of forest areas outside the FMU system for sustainable produc�on and u�liza�on of forest resources. Capacity development should not only include staff training but also installa�on of necessary computers and so�ware required for implementa�on of the planning guidelines; Ac�on 3.3: Implement the planning guidelines in at least one forest area in each territorial forestry division and evaluate the applicability and effec�veness of the guidelines in these forest areas. The results of the evalua�on will be useful in improving the planning guidelines for more widespread use; Ac�on 3.4: Carry out detailed evalua�on of the effec�veness of FMUs through out the country in the context of environmental sustainability and socio economic development, and use the results of the evalua�on in enhancing the planning and management of FMUs. Strategy 4: Development and implementa�on of a comprehensive forest fire management programme Ac�on 4.1: Fully assess occurrence and trends of forest fires and study the fire ecology in various forest ecosystems; Ac�on 4.2: Based on the aforesaid study, develop forest fire management strategies for the various forest ecosystems; Ac�on 4.3: Develop and implement community-based forest fire management schemes. These may include se�ng up of village-level forest fire management groups and development of mechanism for coordina�on between such groups, local forest authori�es and local administra�ons; Ac�on 4.4: Evaluate the results of ongoing trials on prescribed burning and depending on the results replicate/ adapt prescribed burning at addi�onal sites; Ac�on 4.5: Develop and implement public educa�on and awareness programmes using avenues such as rural theatre, folk music, school cultural events, religious fes�vals, and pain�ng/ quiz/ debate compe��ons; Ac�on 4.6: Review and strengthen ins�tu�onal arrangements for networking, repor�ng and forest fire figh�ng. Ins�tu�onal strengthening would also include procurement and management of forest fire figh�ng equipment such as helmets, fire-proof gear, walkie-talkie, first-aid kit, and binoculars. It would also entail iden�fica�on of focal persons in various agencies for mobiliza�on of fire fighters and se�ng up of a toll free number (in coordina�on with Bhutan Telecom) for repor�ng of forest fire occurrence. 93 Strategy 5: Reduc�on of grazing pressures on natural ecosystems Ac�on 5.1: Provide effec�ve animal health coverage to provide the security that will encourage farmers to keep smaller but more produc�ve herds of livestock; Ac�on 5.2: Carry out studies to determine carrying capaci�es in varying scenarios. Depending on the results of these studies, revise taxa�on scheme on the basis of livestock holding in adult equivalents to discourage the rearing of excess livestock; Ac�on 5.3: Enhance livestock steriliza�on service through be�er coverage, including mobile units; Ac�on 5.4: Improve yak and ca�le breeds through selec�on of superior bulls from local popula�on on the basis of pedigree and/or progeny performance, distribu�on of bulls from other areas to introduce new blood lines and reduce inbreeding and ar�ficial insemina�on with imported semens; Ac�on 5.5: Establish farmers’ coopera�ves that will among other things oversee proper u�liza�on of forage resources through monitoring of stock numbers, grazing dura�on and grazing �me, nutrient management, and shrub and weed control; Ac�on 5.6: Conduct studies on forage compe��on between wild ungulates and domes�c ca�le and yak to aid planning and implementa�on of sound grazing management interven�ons where forage compe��on is most severe; Ac�on 5.7: Establish hay meadows with high-yielding fodder legumes and grasses under high nutrient supply condi�on to reduce grazing pressure on forests; Ac�on 5.8: Introduce controlled burning or mechanical clearing of shrubs followed by reseeding with selected species and protec�on from grazing based on applied research and extension; Ac�on 5.9: Establish community and homestead forests of species with high forage and soil conserva�on values, and preferably with other ethnobotanical values using par�cipatory strategies with local people. This will necessitate establishment of forest nurseries, where such nurseries do not exist. Ac�on 5.10: Iden�fy barren and/or degraded forest lands that can be poten�ally leased for pasture management as per the provision of the Land Act of Bhutan 2007; 94 Ac�on 5.11: Prepare and implement management plans for pasture development on leased barren/ degraded forest lands on a pilot scale, star�ng with one or two sites in each dzongkhag. Strategy 6: Development and implementa�on of measures to protect natural ecosystems against invasive species Ac�on 6.1: Carry out a na�onal inventory of invasive species that occur in the country and iden�fy current and poten�al risks posed by these species; Ac�on 6.2: Priori�ze high-risk invasive species for management interven�ons and develop species-specific management plans for long-term control of these species; Ac�on 6.3: Building upon the foregoing ac�ons and using addi�onal insights, develop a na�onal programme to control invasive species. Such a programme will need to be integrated into the regular programmes and plans of the RNR sector at the central and dzongkhag levels and as well as in those of the RNR-RCs; Ac�on 6.4: Raise public awareness on invasive species and their impacts through mass media and by way of produc�on and distribu�on of educa�onal/ extension materials; Ac�on 6.5: Incorporate provisions to control invasive species, especially with regards to import of foreign species, within relevant laws such as the Plant Quaran�ne Act 1993 and the Seeds Act of Bhutan 2000. Strategy 7: Sustainable land management to protect the produc�vity and stability of various land uses Ac�on 7.1: Develop and implement models of sustainable land management in vulnerable agricultural produc�on landscapes such as on steep slopes and geologically unstable lands. This would basically entail building up on ongoing NLMC ac�vi�es, consolida�ng the posi�ve experiences and integra�ng them in agricultural produc�on systems; Ac�on 7.2: Prepare a Na�onal Ac�on Program to combat land degrada�on with a cross-sectoral perspec�ve and an integrated approach to sustainable land management75. 75 The prepara�on of NAP has commenced recently and is scheduled for comple�on by the end of June 2009. 95 Strategy 8: Development and implementa�on of measures to mi�gate the impacts of climate change on natural ecosystems Ac�on 8.1: Ar�ficially lower Thor Thormi lake to curb the intensity of poten�al glacial lake outburst flood and its impacts on aqua�c ecosystems, forest lands, agricultural lands, and rangelands along the Puna Tsang Chhu basin. Strategy 9: Enforcement of environmental impact assessment requirements76 Ac�on 9.1: In keeping with the Environmental Assessment Act 2002, all poten�ally intrusive development projects and opera�ons, should be subjected to detailed environmental impact assessment and environmental clearance requirements; Ac�on 9.2: Assess the compliance of the environmental impact assessment process and procedures, and the terms and condi�ons under which environmental clearance is issued to projects especially focusing on (but not necessarily limited to) produc�on and manufacturing industries and mining opera�ons. Based on the results of the assessment, strengthen mechanisms to monitor compliance and penalize defaulters; Ac�on 9.3: Carry out detailed environmental audits, including assessment of implementa�on of relevant environmental laws and regula�ons, of intrusive development projects and opera�ons on a biennial basis and make recommenda�ons for enhancement of environmental management of such projects and opera�ons; Ac�on 9.4: Make it mandatory for all produc�on and manufacturing industries and mining opera�ons to produce environmental performance reports and make such reports available for public scru�ny and feedback. Strategy 10: Harmoniza�on of biodiversity conserva�on and infrastructure development/ urban development plans. Ac�on 10.1: Conduct an assessment of road construc�on in rela�on to posi�ve and nega�ve impacts, and develop vigorous compliance monitoring mechanisms for implementa�on of exis�ng environmental codes of prac�ce for road construc�on; Ac�on 10.2: Review the Master Plans for hydropower development and road construc�on and revise them to avoid cri�cal natural habitats; Ac�on 10.3: Amend Forest and Nature Conserva�on Rules 2007 to regulate construc�on of power transmission lines through government reserved forests; 76 This strategy is also relevant to Objec�ve 2 96 Ac�on 10.4: Implement the exis�ng na�onal urbaniza�on strategy to create regionally balanced urban development and alleviate concentrated urban pressure on natural ecosystems; Ac�on 10.5: Develop and implement a na�onal rural-urban migra�on management strategy, outlining among other things measures to improve quality of rural life by way of good local governance, improved access, crea�on of employment opportuni�es in rural areas, and be�er rural development services. 5.3.2 Strategies and Actions to Achieve Objective 2 Objec�ve: Protect species and gene�c diversity in general but more especially those species and their gene�c variants that have immense ecological, economic, scien�fic, and cultural values. Strategy 1: Control and reduc�on of poaching of wildlife and illegal trade in their parts and products Ac�on 1.1: Iden�fy key areas and species vulnerable to poaching threats and assess the magnitude of the threats, including iden�fica�on of poaching hotspots; Ac�on 1.2: Augment an�-poaching measures, including strengthening of an� poaching squads and local informants’ network and upgrading of surveillance equipment, on the basis of the aforesaid assessment; Ac�on 1.3: Establish warden and guard posts to cover all transit points related to wildlife trade; Ac�on 1.4: Revise the totally protected species list based on CITES appendices, global status as per the IUCN red list of threatened species, and na�onal significance; Ac�on 1.5: Ra�onalize the exis�ng schedule of fines related to poaching and trade in wildlife parts and products based on the na�onal status of the species and the actual value of their parts and products in the interna�onal and regional markets; Ac�on 1.6: Conduct yearly inter-agency workshops to update various law enforcement personnel on poaching and wildlife trade and to coordinate ac�vi�es to control poaching and wildlife trade; Ac�on 1.7: Build on ongoing trans-boundary coopera�on with protected area and wildlife authori�es in India, and develop it into a systema�c trans boundary an�-poaching programme focusing among other things on coordinated patrols and intelligence networking. Study the possibility of 97 ini�a�ng similar collabora�on with the Chinese authori�es to curb cross border poaching along the northern border; Ac�on 1.8: Develop database and produce annual reports to monitor poaching and trade in wildlife parts and products in keeping with the requirements of CITES. Strategy 2: Conserva�on of globally threatened species and their habitats Ac�on 2.1: Develop field-based informa�on on �ger and ungulate prey popula�on status (ecology, demography, gene�cs), with ini�al focus on the most cri�cal �ger habitats in various al�tudinal regions; Ac�on 2.2: Curb hun�ng of �ger and prey species and halt illegal trade of �ger parts and products as a key component of the overall an�-poaching programme; Ac�on 2.3: Assess the status of �ger and prey habitats and change over �me using Geographic Informa�on System and remote-sensing technology and iden�fy cri�cal habitat management needs, and integrate them in the overall protected area and wildlife management strategies; Ac�on 2.4: Create enabling condi�ons for �ger conserva�on by way of public awareness, trans-boundary coopera�on, development of in-country scien�fic exper�se, and increase in the number of adequately trained staff for �ger conserva�on. Ac�on 2.5: Carry out status surveys of snow leopard popula�on, distribu�on, habitats and prey base through out the country and develop field-based informa�on using SLIMS approach; Ac�on 2.6: Based on the results of the status surveys, develop and implement a comprehensive programme for snow leopard conserva�on using sound social and scien�fic strategies; Ac�on 2.7: Analyze exis�ng research data on white-bellied heron and develop a conserva�on programme for further research and direct conserva�on ac�ons for the protec�on of the species and its habitats; Ac�on 2.8: Iden�fy cri�cal heron habitats and declare these areas as protected zones or special conserva�on areas, with special rules and safeguards for enforcement. 98 Strategy 3: On-farm conserva�on of plant gene�c resources (PGR) in arable agriculture ecosystems Ac�on 3.1: Establish in situ PGR conserva�on sites, in addi�on to the ones already established through the BUCAP project; Ac�on 3.2: Refine and employ Par�cipatory Plant Breeding (PPB) and PVS techniques and related skills; Ac�on 3.3: Develop and implement tools and methodology for par�cipatory research, such as FFS; Ac�on 3.4: Integrate PGR conserva�on into research, extension and academic ins�tu�ons, through internship, par�cipatory planning, and incorpora�on of PGR topics in the curriculum of College of Natural Resources, Lobesa; Ac�on 3.5: Conduct awareness programs on PGR through farmers’ fairs, field days, and dissemina�on of informa�on using audio-visual and print materials; Ac�on 3.6: Establish community seed banks to improve access to and facilitate exchange of seeds among local producers; Ac�on 3.7: Develop field gene bank for live collec�on and conserva�on of diversity of fruit trees and other vegeta�vely propaga�ng crops. Strategy 4: Ex situ conserva�on of PGR for sustainable agriculture Ac�on 4.1: Carry out collec�on and conserva�on of whole crop diversity (orthodox seeds); Ac�on 4.2: Process and evaluate seed quaran�ne tes�ng of collected germplasm samples; Ac�on 4.3: Carry out and complete taxonomic iden�fica�on of collected samples; Ac�on 4.4: Carry out repatria�on of possible germplasms of Bhutanese origin from other gene banks; Ac�on 4.5: Expand the plant germplasm collec�on at the NGB-PGR to approximately 6,000 accessions; Ac�on 4.6: Establish a duplicate gene bank in natural perma-frost environment for conserva�on of safety duplicates of all samples conserved at the NGB PGR; Ac�on 4.7: Ini�ate collec�on and preserva�on of recalcitrant seeded crops in the country. 99 Strategy 5: Establishment of a full-fledged gene bank for sustainable livestock development and produc�on Ac�on 5.1: Develop and validate cryopreserva�on methods of semen/ embryo of different species/ breeds of livestock; Ac�on 5.2: Develop protocols for semen collec�on/processing/freezing of different species of livestock; number of collec�ons per breed and the sampling strategy; and sustainable use of gene bank collec�on of germplasms; Ac�on 5.3: Carry out collec�on and preserva�on of germplasms in accordance to the aforesaid protocols; Ac�on 5.4: Document morphological/ genotype characteriza�on of different livestock breeds. Strategy 6: Conserva�on of indigenous breeds of livestock using farm-based approaches Ac�on 6.1: Review/ assess threats and associated risks to the existence of a par�cular species or breed of animal for the formula�on of short- and long-term interven�on measures; Ac�on 6.2: Iden�fy sites and establish par�cipatory field breeding programmes and nucleus breeding farms for priori�zed indigenous livestock breeds; Ac�on 6.3: Monitor the performance of priori�zed indigenous livestock breeds in the field as well as in the cross-breeding programmes, and fully computerize data accrued from gene�c inves�ga�on and from monitoring of the performance of priori�zed indigenous livestock breeds, and produce reports to aid the conserva�on and development of these breeds; Ac�on 6.4: Secure approval of pending Livestock Breeding Policy to have clear policy direc�on for planning and implementa�on of livestock breeding programmes77; Ac�on 6.5: Develop a sound policy framework on animal gene�c resources with conserva�on mandates for all breeds of livestock and poultry; Ac�on 6.6: Iden�fy successful and sustainable approaches to encourage farmers to maintain tradi�onal breeds through the ongoing integrated livestock and crop conserva�on program and replicate/adapt in different areas. 77 The Policy is currently in dra� form. 100 Strategy 7: Development and implementa�on of measures to mi�gate the impacts of climate change on keystone/flagship species. Ac�on 7.1: Carry out detailed studies on the poten�al impacts of climate change on keystone/flagship species and restricted-range species, and their natural habitats, and develop conserva�on measures to mi�gate the impacts. Strategy 8: Development of a na�onal biodiversity informa�on system that will aid monitoring of the state of biodiversity resources, iden�fica�on of exis�ng and emerging pressures, and planning of appropriate conserva�on responses. Ac�vity 8.1: Con�nue biodiversity surveys and strengthen exis�ng informa�on on plants, birds and mammals. This should essen�ally include comple�on of ongoing work such as inventory and documenta�on of pteridophytes; Ac�vity 8.2: Carry out addi�onal biodiversity surveys with emphasis on fish fauna, invertebrates, insect-fungi, and herpetofauna, building upon preliminary surveys carried out in the past; Ac�vity 8.3: Ini�ate gene�c assessment of all endangered species and of species that bear high ecological, economic and cultural values; Ac�vity 8.4: Take stock of all pre-exis�ng and new data (gathered through the aforesaid ac�ons), and consolidate them into a na�onal biodiversity informa�on system encompassing taxonomic characteris�cs, popula�on, distribu�on, threats, and vulnerability. 5.3.3 Strategies and Actions to Achieve Objective 3 Objec�ve: Integrate poverty reduc�on and enhancement of local livelihoods in biodiversity conserva�on programmes in a mutually-reinforcing manner. Strategy 1: Development and implementa�on of integrated conserva�on and development programmes (ICDPs) Ac�on 1.1: Evaluate exis�ng ICDPs to assess their strengths and weaknesses and draw lessons on what have worked and what have not; Ac�on 1.2: Complementary to the foregoing ac�on, review exis�ng strategies and approaches used for ICDPs and improve upon them, including development of a complete suite of planning, monitoring and evalua�on guidelines and tools for ICDPs; Ac�on 1.3: Design and implement ICDPs to address the core issues of poverty and human-wildlife conflict. Recommended strategy is to focus on the 10 poorest gewogs and the 10 gewogs where human-wildlife conflict is most 101 severe and subsequently adapt/ replicate to addi�onal gewogs depending on implementa�on capacity78. Strategy 2: Mi�ga�on of human-wildlife conflicts and their impacts on biodiversity conserva�on and socio-economic development79 Ac�on 2.1: Develop and ini�ate workable crop and livestock insurance schemes for recovery of crop and livestock losses caused by wildlife incursion and preda�on; Ac�on 2.2: Reac�vate the currently stalled livestock compensa�on scheme for wildlife preda�on. This would involve development of a financing plan and overhauling of procedures and protocols for assessment of compensa�on claims and disbursement of compensa�on. Revised procedures and protocols would need to look at incorpora�ng community-based mechanisms for increased transparency and veracity; Ac�on 2.3: Design and implement measures to effec�vely protect crops against wildlife incursions. These may include improved fencing, use of visual and noise devices to deter wildlife, and plan�ng of buffer species along farm boundaries; Ac�on 2.4: On a pilot scale and based on adequate ecological studies, ini�ate regulated hun�ng of wild pig as a part of sustainable nature tourism to generate direct economic benefits for the local communi�es. This interven�on may need to be implemented on a priority basis, star�ng first in areas where crop depreda�on by wild pig is most severe; Ac�on 2.5: Carry out field surveys of overlaps between human se�lements and wildlife habitats and migratory routes, and iden�fy conflict hotspots. Based on the findings of the surveys, plan and implement voluntary rese�lement and land-swapping programmes; Ac�on 2.6: Conduct detailed socio-economic surveys related to human-wildlife conflicts, establish baseline data, and create a central database on human wildlife conflicts to monitor future trends and aid planning of appropriate interven�ons. 78 For synergy, this ac�vity could �e up with the UNDP/ UNEP Poverty-Environment Ini�a�ve, which is planning to focus on poverty-environment mainstreaming in the 10 poorest gewogs on the country. 79 The ac�vi�es presented herein have been largely extracted from the “Bhutan Na�onal Human-Wildlife Conflicts Management Strategy” produced in 2008 but have been stated here with some adapta�on for concision and cohesion. It also may be noted several ac�vi�es that have been outlined in the “Bhutan Na�onal Human-Wildlife Conflicts Management Strategy” do not feature here because they are contained, either explicitly or implicitly, in other areas of interven�on presented in this Ac�on Plan. 102 Strategy 3: Implementa�on of Community and Private Forestry Programmes, enhancing local community involvement in forest management whilst enhancing socio-economic benefits in terms of increased availability of, and access to, forest products Ac�on 3.1: Develop a social forestry development vision and strategy to realize forest conserva�on and local community development objec�ves in a sound and sustainable manner; Ac�on 3.2: Organize user groups and management plans for establishment of more than 300 community forest schemes within the next five years; Ac�on 3.3: Prepare management plans and establish 1,000 private forests within the Tenth Five Year Plan; Ac�on 3.4: Integrate sustainable use of at least 15 types of non-wood forest products in the community forest programmes; Ac�on 3.5: Evaluate the progress and impacts of the social forestry programmes, and incorporate lessons learnt in the further development of the programmes. Strategy 4: Promo�on of biodiversity resources use to support local livelihoods based on community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) framework. Ac�on 4.1: Develop and establish CBNRM schemes to promote sustainable use of biodiversity resources that directly benefit local communi�es, star�ng with NWFPs for which management guidelines have already been developed by SFD; Ac�on 4.2: Con�nue and carry out research trials on domes�c cul�va�on of medicinal and aroma�c plants and, depending on the results, carry out extension ac�vi�es to propagate it in the field using community-based approaches; Ac�on 4.3: Iden�fy and promote alterna�ves to biodiversity resources, which are threatened by over-use or fall in core zones/ cri�cal wildlife habitats. Strategy 5: Crea�on of economic incen�ves for producers, especially small farmers, to conserve tradi�onal crop varie�es. Ac�vity 5.1: Assess exis�ng opportuni�es and poten�al op�ons to create incen�ves for crop diversity conserva�on especially by small farmers; Ac�vity 5.2: Develop proposals for economic incen�ve-based crop diversity conserva�on programmes, including linkages with organic farming ini�a�ves, and implement these programmes. 103 5.3.4 Strategies and Actions to Achieve Objective 4 Objec�ve: Create public apprecia�on and support for biodiversity conserva�on through nature-based recrea�on and educa�on. Strategy 1: Establishment of a network of biodiversity-based public recrea�on parks and conserva�on facili�es in various ecological zones. Ac�on 1.1: Con�nue and consolidate the ac�vi�es of the Royal Botanical Park in the Sinchula-Dochula-Helela cool/ warm temperate eco-zone, focusing on field conserva�on ac�vi�es and visitor informa�on development in a mutually-reinforcing manner; Ac�on 1.2: Develop the forest area around Kuenselphodrang Buddha monument in Thimphu as “Kuenselphodrang Nature Park” for conserva�on and public recrea�on purposes. This would include protec�on of exis�ng forests, reforesta�on of degraded/ barren areas, development of a visitor center, and a network of trails, vantage points, and designated picnic spots; Ac�on 1.3: Plan and establish a “Bhutan Orchid Park” in the sub-tropical eco-zone. Preliminary ac�vi�es would include socio-economic and biodiversity surveys followed by development of infrastructure for conserva�on works, public recrea�on and nature educa�on ac�vi�es; Ac�on 1.4: Create a service delivery system for technical backstopping and supply of seeds/ seedlings of na�ve ornamental species for development of avenue planta�ons and municipal parks. Such a service would be built on partnership between the DoF and municipal authori�es. Strategy 2: Development and implementa�on of nature educa�on and visitor informa�on ac�vi�es as an integral part of conserva�on management programmes in all protected areas and conserva�on areas. Ac�on 2.1: Develop nature educa�on and visitor informa�on ac�vi�es into a comprehensive programme, with linkages to sustainable nature tourism and ICDPs to the extent relevant, in all protected areas and conserva�on areas80. Such ac�vi�es could revolve around unique local cultural and natural heritage. 80 A few protected areas and conserva�on areas do have comprehensive nature educa�on and visitor informa�on ac�vi�es. For instance, RSPN is managing an excellent nature educa�on and visitor informa�on programme in Phobjikha conserva�on area, with ac�vi�es largely revolving around the theme of black-necked cranes and their habitat. There is a need to develop similar programmes in other protected areas and conserva�on areas. 104 Strategy 3: Establishment of a fully-func�onal and well-equipped natural history museum. Ac�on 3.1: Develop a plan for establishment of a fully-equipped natural history museum to showcase the country’s natural heritage, inspire curiosity and learning of the natural world, and foster public support for nature conserva�on; Ac�on 3.2: Assess resources, i.e. land, funds and personnel, required for establishment of the natural history museum and mobilize resources accordingly; Ac�on 3.3: Establish the natural history museum with requisite infrastructure and trained personnel; Ac�on 3.4: Develop inter-ins�tu�onal linkages with natural history museums in other countries for collabora�ve research and technical assistance in the management of collec�ons and exhibits. 5.3.5 Strategies and Actions to Achieve Objective 5 Objec�ve: Use biodiversity resources as a development capital for na�onal economic growth but within the limits of environmental sustainability. Basically two components have been iden�fied for use of biodiversity as a development capital for na�onal economic growth. One is bioprospec�ng and the other is sustainable nature tourism. Bioprospec�ng Rich biodiversity and widespread existence of tradi�onal knowledge and prac�ces regarding biodiversity among local communi�es make bioprospec�ng in Bhutan a poten�ally very lucra�ve conserva�on enterprise. Bioprospec�ng, which basically refers to explora�on and u�liza�on of biological materials with commercially and/or scien�fically valuable gene�c and biochemical proper�es, enhances the economic and ethical ra�onale for biodiversity conserva�on and fits in with Bhutan’s policy of integra�ng biodiversity conserva�on and economic development objec�ves. It is par�cularly meaningful in the context of the country’s environmentally sustainable development approach as it represents economic opportuni�es that are not resource use intensive and also helps a�ach a more precise value to preserva�on of biodiversity. Although the poten�al for bioprospec�ng in Bhutan was recognized in BAP I itself, no concrete measures to promote bioprospec�ng have materialized largely because of a lacuna in the ins�tu�onal se�ng and absence of legal framework. It is doub�ul if any comprehensive bioprospec�ng programme can be established in the immediate future although some preparatory ac�vi�es will need to be taken up for developing a full-fledged bioprospec�ng programme in the long term. 105 Strategy 1: Development of a comprehensive biodiversity policy and legal framework; Ac�on 1.1: Review the Biodiversity Act of Bhutan 2003 with the primary purpose to assess its adequacy in addressing issues concerning access to biological resources, benefit-sharing, and protec�on of tradi�onal knowledge and rights; Ac�on 1.2: Prepare Biodiversity Rules and Regula�ons for implementa�on of the Biodiversity Act of Bhutan 2003 and also incorpora�ng the recommenda�ons that emerges from the aforesaid review. In preparing the Biodiversity Rules and Regula�ons, inputs would be elicited from a wide range of stakeholders to encompass all relevant legal aspects of access, benefit-sharing and protec�on of tradi�onal knowledge and rights; Ac�on 1.3: Finalize and subsequently disseminate the Biodiversity Rules and Regula�ons by way of prin�ng and distribu�on of hard copies on a widespread scale as well as pos�ng a so� copy on the internet; Ac�on 1.4: Print and distribute hard copies of the exis�ng Biodiversity Act of Bhutan 2003 (which has been printed and distributed only limitedly since its enactment) on a widespread scale; Ac�on 1.5: Develop na�onal policy framework and strategic guidelines on how to go about judicious u�liza�on of biodiversity within the context of the country’s overall sustainable development agenda. Strategy 2: Systema�c documenta�on and protec�on of tradi�onal knowledge associated with biodiversity Ac�on 2.1: Develop biodiversity-based tradi�onal knowledge documenta�on format and collect data/ informa�on based on this format; Ac�on 2.2: Develop database for biodiversity-based tradi�onal knowledge and effec�vely manage the database for ready access by poten�al users; Ac�on 2.3: Concurrent with the foregoing ac�ons, develop personnel capacity to document tradi�onal knowledge and manage the database; Ac�on 2.4: Establish mechanisms for intellectual property rights enforcement and applica�on with respect to biodiversity. 106 Strategy 3: Development of ins�tu�onal mechanisms and technical capacity for bio-explora�on; Ac�on 3.1: Establish a well-equipped Bio-Explora�on Laboratory within NBC. This would involve procurement and installa�on of laboratory equipments, tools and opera�onal ameni�es; Ac�on 3.2: Construct a treatment plant for chemical wastes emana�ng from the Bio Explora�on Laboratory; Ac�on 3.3: Develop technical capacity for: PCR/HPLC analysis; biochemical extrac�on and fermenta�on; biochemical assays; and handling and maintenance of laboratory equipment; Ac�on 3.4: Record and consolidate informa�on on medicinal plants, and priori�ze for targeted research; Ac�on 3.5: Conduct bio-research and assays based on extract library and demand; Ac�on 3.6: Develop and diversify herbal products through scien�fic valida�on of tradi�onal knowledge; Ac�on 3.7: Carry out marke�ng of bio-chemical and herbal products and of research results and services. Strategy 4: Development of regional/interna�onal collabora�on for bioprospec�ng; Ac�on 4.1: Develop regional/interna�onal collabora�on and nego�a�on skills of NBC and other relevant government agencies in rela�on to access and benefit sharing of biodiversity resources; Ac�on 4.2: Visit regional/interna�onal bioprospec�ng and research companies and establish linkages; Ac�on 4.3: Establish regional/interna�onal collabora�on arrangements by means of undertaking of Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) and Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) with appropriate bio-prospec�ng and research companies; Ac�on 4.4: Ini�ate advanced collabora�ve bio-research with bio-prospec�ng and research companies with whom MoU and MoA have been undertaken. 107 Sustainable Nature Tourism Bhutan has the poten�al to be a premier des�na�on for nature tourism in the region owing to its pris�ne assemblage of scenic landscapes, rich flora and fauna, vibrant tradi�ons and culture, and small popula�on size. There is considerable scope for Bhutan to increase its economic gains from nature tourism without endangering its natural environment. Jigme Dorji Na�onal Park is already a tourist a�rac�on. Other protected areas such as Thrumshingla Na�onal Park, Jigme Singye Wangchuck Na�onal Park, Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary, Sakten Wildlife Sanctuary and Royal Manas Na�onal Park have immense poten�al to become popular tourist des�na�ons with improvement in infrastructure and access. Strategy 1: Enhancement and systema�za�on of sustainable nature tourism products in Bhutan Ac�on 1.1: Assess exis�ng nature tourism products such as the Crane Fes�val in Phobjikha, nature trek to Nubji-Korphu in Jigme Singye Wangchuck Na�onal Park. The assessment would need to look at two aspects. One, it needs to look for ways to enhance exis�ng products especially in terms of socio-economic benefits to the local populace and increasing public apprecia�on and support for nature conserva�on. Two, it needs to look at their poten�al for replica�on/ adapta�on to other areas in the country; Ac�on 1.2: Iden�fy and develop new products for nature tourism. Some new poten�al nature tourism products include trout fishing, game hun�ng81, health spas, river ra�ing, rock climbing, and farm stays; Ac�on 1.3: Streamline exis�ng and new nature tourism products into a na�onal sustainable nature tourism programme, involving tour operators, nature conserva�on authori�es, and other stakeholders. Implement the programme in a phased manner depending on implementa�on capacity and consumer demand; Strategy 2: Develop markets for sustainable nature tourism in Bhutan. Ac�on 2.1: Explore poten�al markets for various sustainable nature tourism products and develop marke�ng strategies, correla�ng market demands with the salient features of the products; Ac�on 2.2: Sensi�ze tour operators on correct marke�ng prac�ces to build credibility of the country’s tourism industry and sustain the markets for nature tourism products. 81 This is to be restricted to regulated hun�ng of wild pigs as a part of the Human-Wildlife Conflicts Management Strategy. 108 Strategy 3: Develop capacity for implementa�on and inter-ins�tu�onal coordina�on of na�onal sustainable nature tourism programme. Ac�on 3.1: Develop and implement training programmes for tour operators to manage sustainable nature tourism; Ac�on 3.2: Develop best prac�ces and minimum environmental impact codes for various nature tourism products, and train tour operators and guides in the employment of these prac�ces and codes; Ac�on 3.3: Establish an inter-ins�tu�onal body for coordinated implementa�on and monitoring of the na�onal sustainable nature tourism programme, with linkages to the exis�ng Associa�on of Bhutanese Tour Operators 109 References Documents BirdLife Interna�onal (2003) Saving Asia’s Threatened Birds: A guide for government and Civil Society. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife Interna�onal. Choden D and Namgay K (1996) Report on the Findings and Recommenda�ons of the Wild Boar Survey. 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Washington DC: World Resources Ins�tute www.bhutan.gov.bt. Website of the Royal Government of Bhutan www.moa.gov.bt. Website of the Ministry of Agriculture www.nec.gov.bt Website of the Na�onal Environment Commission www.pbr.org Popula�on Reference Bureau – a web resource for data on popula�on and demographic trends for countries across the globe www.rbge.org.uk. Website of the Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh www.redlist.org. IUCN’s website on red list of globally threatened species www.rspnbhutan.org. Website of the Royal Society for the Protec�on of Nature, Bhutanese NGO dedicated to nature conserva�on www.tarayanafounda�on.org. . Website of the Tarayana Founda�on, Bhutanese NGO dedicated to socio-economic upli�ment of poor and vulnerable communi�es www.wikipedia.org. An on-line encyclopedia 114 Annex 1 BAP 2009 Preparation Team Informa�on Collec�on, Analysis and Report Wri�ng Ugen P. Norbu, Consultant, Norbu Samyul Consul�ng for Environment and Development Singay Dorji, Senior Biodiversity Officer, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Project Management and Coordina�on Singay Dorji, Senior Biodiversity Officer, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Advisory Support and Supervision Dr. Tashi Yangzom Dorji, Programme Director, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Dr. Ugyen Tshewang, former Programme Director, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre BAP 2009 Technical Group Ganesh Chhetri, Department of Agriculture Dr. Tashi Yangzom Dorji, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Dr. Sonam W Wang, Nature Conserva�on Division, Department of Forests Sonam Choden, Nature Conserva�on Division, Department of Forests Kaka Tshering, Forest Resources Development Division, Department of Forests Sonam Lhundrup, Policy and Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture Tandin Wangdi, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Medon Yaganagi, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Asta M Tamang, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Rinchen Yangzom, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Singay Dorji, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Mahesh Ghimiray, RNR-RC Bajo, Ministry of Agriculture Dr. Lham Tshering, Department of Livestock Karma C. Nyedrup, Na�onal Environment Commission Chukey Wangchuk, Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conserva�on Tshering Lhamtshok, Royal Society for the Protec�on of Nature Vijay Moktan, WWF Bhutan Programme Dr. Michael Tobias, Dancing Star Founda�on, United States 115 Annex 2 Additional People Who Reviewed/Contributed Information Sonam Tamang, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Rinchen Dorji, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Tshewang, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Ugyen Phuntsho, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Ngawang Gyeltshen, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Cheki Wangmo, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Dechen Lham, Na�onal Biodiversity Centre Dr. Sangay Wangchuk, Nature Conserva�on Division, Department of Forests Dr. Sonam Wangyel Wang, Nature Conserva�on Division, Department of Forests Dr. Tashi Dorji, RNR-RC Bajo, Ministry of Agriculture Sonam Wangdi, Nature Conserva�on Division, Department of Forests Ugyen Namgyel, Nature Conserva�on Division, Department of Forests Raling Ngawang, Royal Botanical and Recrea�on Parks Division, Department of Forest G. B. Che�ri, Department of Agriculture Tshering Tashi, Na�onal Environment Commission Dr. D. B. Rai, Department of Livestock Dr. J.B. Gurung, Department of Livestock Dr. Pema Wangda, RNR-RC Yusipang, Ministry of Agriculture Dawa Penjor, Na�onal Mushroom Centre, Ministry of Agriculture Medon Yaganagi, Na�onal Mushroom Centre, Ministry of Agriculture Dorji, Na�onal Mushroom Centre, Ministry of Agriculture L.B. Tamang, Na�onal Mushroom Centre, Ministry of Agriculture Dr. Tashi Dorji, RNR-RC Jakar, Ministry of Agriculture Tshewang Dorji, RNR-RC Yusipang, Ministry of Agriculture Phurpa Wangchuk, Ins�tute of Tradi�onal Medicine Services, Ministry of Health Sonam Dorji, Ins�tute of Tradi�onal Medicine Services, Ministry of Health Kuenga Jamphel, Ins�tute of Tradi�onal Medicine Services, Ministry of Health Tashi, Ins�tute of Tradi�onal Medicine Services, Ministry of Health Doley Tshering, United Na�onal Development Programme Karma L Rapten, United Na�onal Development Programme Tashi Dorji, United Na�onal Development Programme Sonam Y Rabgye, United Na�onal Development Programme Rebecca Pradhan, Royal Society for Protec�on of Nature Ashit Chhetri, Natural Resources Development Corpora�on Ltd. Narayan Pradhan, Natural Resources Development Corpora�on Ltd. 116 Annex 3 Brief Descriptions of Protected Areas Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary With an area of 1,521 km2, Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in the northeastern corner of the country. It is bordered by Khoma Chhu in the west, the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China in the north, the Indian State of Arunachal Pradesh in the northeast, Womenang Chhu and Kulong Chhu in the east, and Nindari Chhu and Sheri Chhu in the south. The Wildlife Sanctuary came into existence following the revision of the protected areas system in 1993. Prior to that, the area was a part of the huge Jigme Dorji Wildlife Sanctuary, which was virtually a “paper park” with no regular conserva�on programme in place. Conserva�on programme was ini�ated in the sanctuary in 1998 with the ini�al focus being on carrying out a series of biological and socio-economic surveys, preparing a five year conserva�on management plan based on the results of these surveys, and star�ng off some integrated conserva�on and development ac�vi�es to build confidence and a good partnership environment with the local communi�es and dzongkhag authori�es. With the development of the conserva�on management plan and commencement of its implementa�on in July 2001, a more comprehensive conserva�on programme has been since underway. More than 2,200 people live in the sanctuary and adjoining buffer zone. Majority of these people are farmers subsis�ng on crop agriculture and livestock rearing. The most important crops are millet, maize, paddy and potato. The main livestock kept are ca�le, equine and sheep. Only five households possess yaks but their herds are huge, averaging 70 yaks per herd. Also integrated in the rural livelihood system is the collec�on and use of a wide range of forest products. Apart from construc�on �mber and fuelwood, other forest products that are used include animal fodder, roofing shingles, leaf li�er for farmyard manure, bamboo and cane, daphne bark for paper-making, incense and medicinal plants, tree burrs for making wooden bowls and containers, incense and medicinal plants, and forest food such as mushrooms, fiddlehead ferns, wild tubers, and dambru (green leafy vegetable) The highest point in the sanctuary is at 6,450 m and the lowest is at 1,500 m. However, much of the sanctuary lies between 2,400 and 5,000 m, with temperate broadleaf forest, pine forest, conifer forest, alpine scrub and meadows being the dominant vegeta�on types. Key fauna include Bengal �ger, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear, musk deer, capped langur, red panda, rufous-necked hornbill, Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis, Asia�c wild dog Cuon alpinus, and Himalayan serow. More importantly, the Bumdeling valley is the second major wintering habitat for the black-necked cranes in the country, with some 150 – 170 cranes roos�ng each year. Wangchuck Centennial Park Declared in December 2008 as a tribute to the Kings of Bhutan and in commemora�on of 100 years of monarchy, Wangchuck Centennial Park is the newest protected area in 117 the country. The protected area has an area of 4,914 km2, making it the largest in the country. It has some of the country’s highest mountain peaks such as Gangkar Puensum and Rinchen Zoegila, and is the headwater source to three major rivers namely Puna Tsang Chhu, Mangde Chhu and Kuri Chhu. With an al�tudinal range from 2,600 m to over 7,000 m, the area has a rich variety of wild fauna and flora. More than 242 species of vascular plants belonging to 51 families have been so far recorded in the park. A large number of these have high medicinal value, adding credence to the portrayal of Bhutan as “Druk Lhomenjon”, meaning the land of medical herbs. The park is so far known to harbor 23 mammal species, including several globally threatened species like the snow leopard, Bengal �ger, takin, musk deer, Himalayan black bear, and red panda. Tibetan wolf, found nowhere else in Bhutan, is also known to occur in the park. The park’s birdlife is outstanding with more than 134 species recorded so far, including two new species – Brandt’s Mountain Finch Leucos�cte brand�i and the Tibetan Blackbird Turdus maximus – earlier not recorded in the country. More than 8,000 people live in eight major villages within the park. Living in the highlands, the local people are mostly yak herders and farmers. Jigme Dorji National Park The 4,316 km2 park is the second largest protected area in the country. It is situated in the northwestern corner of the country, transcending the boundaries of Paro, Thimphu, Gasa and Punakha dzongkhags. With al�tudes ranging from 1,400 to over 7,000 m, the park contains eight of the eleven classified vegeta�on zones found in the country. This variety of vegeta�on zones has given rise to a striking array of flora and fauna. More than 30 species of mammals, 300 species of birds, and 1,400 species of plants have been recorded, including several globally threatened species such as �ger, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear, takin, musk deer, and black-necked crane. The Tsharijathang valley between Lingshi and Laya is perhaps the most important summer ground for takin. Some 6,500 people live in the park, largely subsis�ng on semi-nomadic yak-herding, raising of other livestock, agriculture, harves�ng of medicinal and incense plants, and use of other forest products. By virtue of having several scenic trails and being rela�vely close to Thimphu and Paro – where the country’s only interna�onal airport is located – the park is the most popular des�na�on among trekking tourists. On average, a thousand interna�onal trekkers visit the park each year despite limited infrastructure and facili�es along the way. In addi�on, the Gasa Tsachhu (hotsprings) a�racts a few thousand pilgrims – mostly Bhutanese – every year. Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park Formerly known as Black Mountain Na�onal Park, the park came into being as a result of the revision of the protected areas system in 1993. The 1,730 km2 park is located in the center of the country, covering parts of Trongsa, Zhemgang, Wangduephodrang, Sarpang and Tsirang dzongkhags. It shares a con�guous boundary with Royal Manas Na�onal Park to its south, which then runs along the Mangde Chhu �ll Chendebji from where the boundary skews westwards along Khabe Chhu through Khebethang joining Sunkosh at Kame Chhu. From Kame Chhu, the boundary runs along Sunkosh �ll Hara Chhu. 118 Around 5,000 – 6,000 people live within the park, with another 10,000 – 15,000 es�mated to be living within 3 – 5 km outside of the park boundary. Major human concentra�ons are in Phobjikha valley, Tangsibji and Langthel gewogs in Trongsa, Zhemgang-Ting�bi area, and southern gewogs of Doban and Surrey in Sarpang. As in most parts of rural Bhutan, the local people live from crop agriculture and livestock rearing. Agriculture cul�va�on is prac�ced by nearly all the households with local communi�es in Gangtey and Tangsibji having strong orienta�on to livestock rearing. Major crops grown are paddy, maize, wheat, buckwheat, millet and potato. Major livestock reared by the local people are ca�le, yaks, sheep and goat, an equine. Use of forest products is also crucial for local subsistence. A par�al ethnobotanical inventory lists some 95 species of plants that the local people use for food, shelter, household implements, and medicine. With a drama�c varia�on in al�tude from less than 200 m to nearly 5,000 m, the park encompasses a wide range of habitats from the moist sub-tropical forest in the south to the tundra and permanent ice fields in the north. However, what characterizes the park most is the temperate forest, which is reportedly among the largest and richest in the en�re Himalayas. Largely as a result of vast tracts of primary forest, the park is very rich in birdlife. 395 species of birds have been recorded to occur in and around the park based on field surveys and literature review. These include rufous-necked hornbill, Ward’s trogon, Satyr tragopan, and white-bellied heron. The adjacent Phobjikha valley to the northwest is the most important wintering for the black-necked crane in the country with more than 200 cranes roos�ng each year. In terms of mammals, more than 50 species have been es�mated to inhabit the park, including significant popula�ons of �ger, red panda, musk deer, golden langur and Himalayan black bear. Other important mammal species found in the area include clouded leopard, leopard cat, serow, and Asia�c wild dog. Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary With an area of 335 km2, Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary is the second smallest protected area in the country and lies en�rely inside Samdrup Jongkhar dzongkhag. The sanctuary is an extended modifica�on of the earlier Neoli Wildlife Sanctuary. It is situated on the southeastern edge of the country, bordered by the Indian State of Assam to its east and south, Nyera Ama Chhu to its west, and Martshala and Shingkhar Lauri gewogs to its north. No protected area surveys have been carried out so far but the area is known to be a very good habitat for the rare pygmy hog Sus salvanius, Asian elephant and �ger. Popula�on is concentrated in the southwestern and southeastern niches of the sanctuary, with Samrang and Daifam being the major se�lements. Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary is the smallest protected area in the country. The 269 km2 protected area lies en�rely inside Sarpang dzongkhag and borders the Indian State of Assam in the south, Sunkosh Chhu in the west, Beteni gewog in Tsirang dzongkhag in the north, and Hile gewog in the east. Although a comprehensive conserva�on management programme is yet to be developed, basic conserva�on infrastructure is in place. The 119 sanctuary is unique for it has the only natural sal (Shorea robusta) forest in the country and is a prime habitat of spo�ed deer Axis axis. It has the strongest representa�on of the tropical/ sub-tropical ecosystem in the country. Other key fauna include �ger, Asian elephant and golden langur. In terms of human popula�on, it is rela�vely uninhabited except for the southwestern edge. Royal Manas National Park The 1,057 km2-park has the dis�nc�on of being the country’s oldest protected area. Even prior to its official no�fica�on as a protected area in 1966, it was maintained as a de facto wildlife preserve for many years under the patronage of the Royal Family. Transcending the boundaries of Samdrup Jongkhar, Sarpang and Zhemgang dzongkhags, the park is con�guous to India’s Manas Tiger Reserve in the south and Jigme Singye Wangchuck Na�onal Park in the north. Together, these three protected areas make the single most important protected region in all of Asia, with a truly unique biological treasure encompassing extremely diverse habitats ranging from grasslands and tropical deciduous forests to alpine meadows and perpetually snow-covered mountain tops in the north. Tropical monsoon forest, evergreen tropical and sub-tropical forest, and warm and cool broadleaf forests characterize the park. In fact, it has the largest representa�on of tropical/ sub-tropical ecosystem among all protected areas. More than 900 species of plants have been recorded, including 348 species of trees, 206 species of shrubs, 90 species of climbers and twiners, 192 species of herbs, and nine species of orchids. With respect to fauna, 45 species of mammals and 366 species of birds have been recorded. Mammal species include several globally threatened species such as the Bengal �ger, clouded leopard, Asian elephant, sloth bear Melursus ursinus, Himalayan black bear, gaur Bos gaurus, wild water buffalo Bubalus arnee, serow, golden langur, and hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus. Among birds are globally-threatened species such as the rufous-necked hornbill, chestnut breasted partridge, white-naped yuhina, and Pallas’s fish eagle. Tiger status surveys suggest that the country’s �ger density would be highest in the Manas area with about one adult �ger in every 50km2. Around 2,800 people live inside the park area and 4,500 in the buffer zone (Norbu 1998). The economic mainstay of the local people is largely subsistence crop agriculture. Tseri or slash-and-burn cul�va�on is an important agriculture prac�ce although since the beginning of the Fourth Five Year Plan (July 1997 – June 1982) more sedentary forms of agriculture have been encouraged by the government through construc�on of irriga�on facili�es and supply of improved agricultural seeds. Main crops grown are maize, paddy, buckwheat, millet, and foxtail millet. Cash crops include mustard, orange and cardamom. Important livestock kept by the local people include ca�le, chicken, pig, and goat. As in other protected areas, use of forest resources is pronounced and complementary to crop farming and livestock rearing. Most prominent of all is the ingenious use of bamboo and cane for a number of varied purposes ranging from food and water containers to fodder and fuel to roofing, walling and flooring of houses. 120 Sakten Wildlife Sanctuary The easternmost of all protected areas, Sakten Wildlife Sanctuary is in Trashigang dzongkhag. The 741 km2-sanctuary is bordered by the Indian State of Arunachal Pradesh in the north and east, Phongme gewog and Kangpara gewog in the west, and Shingkhar Lauri gewog in Samdrup Jongkhar in the south. Local anecdotes have it that the abominable snowman Ye� or Migoe (the existence of which is yet to be scien�fically proven) inhabits the sanctuary. The conserva�on significance of the sanctuary lies in the vast, pris�ne mixed conifer forest tracts and the diversity of rhododendron species, which is said to be the highest in the country. Biological and socio-economic assessments have been ini�ated and their results will form the basis for prepara�on of a conserva�on management plan. The development of the conserva�on management plan and construc�on of park infrastructure are being financially supported by the MacArthur Founda�on. Thrumshingla National Park Thrumshingla Na�onal Park, 905 km2 in area, is a product of the revision of the protected areas system in 1993. Mixed conifer and broadleaf forests are predominant, covering more than 66 and 23 per cent of the park area respec�vely. A prominent feature of the park is the old growth fir forest with thick undergrowth of rhododendrons. Some 622 species of plants have been recorded in the park so far. Plant endemism is high with recent surveys lis�ng 21 endemic species including Lobelia nubigena, which is found only in the park and that too in one locality only. In terms of fauna, 68 species of mammals and 341 species of birds have been recorded. Among mammals, key species include the Bengal �ger, leopard, leopard cat, clouded leopard, Himalayan black bear, red panda, musk deer, capped langur, and Malayan giant squirrel. Birdlife includes globally important species such as rufous necked hornbill, beau�ful nuthatch, ward’s trogon, white-naped yuhina, and brown wood owl Strix leptogrammica. Birdlife Interna�onal has recognized the park as an Outstanding Important Bird Area in the Sino-Himalayan mountain forests. Administra�vely, the park spreads into Bumthang, Mongar, Zhemgang and Lhuentse dzongkhags. The park management headquarters is located in Ura with warden posts at Autsho to cover the eastern sector, Lingmethang to cover the central sector, and Ura to cover the western sector. A total of eight guard posts have been planned: at Ladong and Gorsum under Autsho warden post; at Sengor, Tsamang and Ganglapang under Lingmethang warden post; and at Chungphel, Tang and Kheng Shingkhar under Ura warden post. Park infrastructure development is ongoing as a part of the implementa�on of the conserva�on management plan, which commenced in July 2002. The park is es�mated to have around 2,000 people living inside its boundaries and 11,000 in the buffer zone. Torsa Strict Nature Reserve The 610 km2 Torsa Strict Nature Reserve lies mostly in Haa dzongkhag with a very small area spreading south into Samtse dzongkhag. It protects the westernmost variant of central, temperate forests in the country. With the reserve being virtually uninhabited, it is known to have one of the most pris�ne temperate forests and alpine vegeta�on in the en�re Himalayas. 121 Annex 4 Matrix Correla�ng Objec�ves and Strategies to Trends Affec�ng Biodiversity Objective Strategy Trends Affecting Biodiversity Protect natural 1. ecosystems from degradation and fragmentation as a consequence of environmentally intrusive human activities and their impacts Protection and management of 1. protected areas and connecting biological corridors Forest harvesting, livestock grazing, forest fires, wildlife poaching, land use change and conversion Protection and management of 2. conservation areas outside the protected areas system Forest harvesting, livestock grazing, forest fires, wildlife poaching, land use change and conversion Management of forest resources 3. for sustainable production and utilization Forest harvesting, livestock grazing, forest fires, wildlife poaching, land use change and conversion Development and implementation 4. of a comprehensive forest fire management programme Forest fires Reduction of grazing pressures on 5. natural ecosystems Livestock grazing Development and implementation 6. of measures to protect natural ecosystems against invasive species Invasive species Sustainable land management to 7. protect the productivity and stability of various land uses Land use change and conversion Development and implementation 8. of measures to mitigate the impacts of climate change on natural ecosystems Climate change Enforcement of environmental 9. impact assessment requirements Infrastructure development, industrialization Harmonization of biodiversity 10. conservation and infrastructure development/ urban development plans Urbanization, infrastructure development, hydropower development 122 Objective Strategy Trends Affecting Biodiversity Protect species 2. and genetic diversity in general but more especially those species and their genetic variants that have immense ecological, economic, scientific, and cultural values Control and reduction of poaching 1. of wildlife and illegal trade in their parts and products Wildlife poaching Conservation of globally threatened 2. species and their habitats Wildlife poaching, land use change and conversion On-farm conservation of plant 3. genetic resources (PGR) in arable agriculture ecosystems Consumption trends and market forces Ex-situ conservation of PGR for 4. sustainable agriculture Consumption trends and market forces Establishment of a full-fledged 5. gene bank for sustainable livestock development and production Consumption trends and market forces Conservation of indigenous breeds 6. of livestock using farm-based approaches Consumption trends and market forces Development and implementation 7. of measures to mitigate the impacts of climate change on keystone/ flagship species Climate change Development of a national 8. biodiversity information system that will aid monitoring the state of biodiversity resources, identification of existing and emerging pressures, and planning of appropriate conservation responses. Does not correspond to any particular trend but is important for implementation of other strategies 123 Objective Strategy Trends Affecting Biodiversity Integrate poverty 3. reduction and enhancement of local livelihoods in biodiversity conservation programmes in a mutually reinforcing manner Development and implementation 1. of integrated conservation and development programmes (ICDPs) Poverty Mitigation of human-wildlife 2. conflicts and their impacts on biodiversity conservation and socio economic development Human-wildlife conflict, poverty Implementation of Community 3. and Private Forestry Programmes, enhancing local community involvement in forest management whilst enhancing socio-economic benefits in terms of increased availability of, and access to, forest products Poverty Promotion of biodiversity resources 4. use to support local livelihoods based on community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) framework. Poverty Creation of economic incentives 5. for producers, especially small farmers, to conserve traditional crop varieties. Poverty, consumption trends and market forces Create public 4. appreciation and support for biodiversity conservation through nature based recreation and education Establishment of a network of 1. biodiversity-based public recreation parks and conservation facilities in various ecological zones All the strategies under objective 4 do not correspond to any particular trend but is important to create a conducive social environment for implementation of other strategies Development and implementation 2. of nature education and visitor information activities as an integral part of conservation management programmes in all protected areas and conservation areas Establishment of a fully-functional 3. and well-equipped natural history museum 124 Objective Strategy Trends Affecting Biodiversity Use biodiversity 5. resources as a development capital for national economic growth within the limits of environmental sustainability. Bioprospecting-related Strategies The strategies for bio prospecting and sustainable nature tourism are basically meant to enhance the economic rationale for biodiversity conservation and are expected to also contribute to poverty alleviation/livelihood enhancement Development of a comprehensive 1. policy and legal framework for bioprospecting in the country Establishment of systematic 2. documentation and protection of traditional knowledge associated with biodiversity Development of institutional 3. mechanisms and technical capacity for bio-exploration and research Development of regional/4. international collaboration for bioprospecting and research Sustainable Nature Tourism related Strategies Enhancement and systematization 1. of sustainable nature tourism products in Bhutan Development of markets for 2. sustainable nature tourism in Bhutan Development of capacity for 3. implementation and inter institutional coordination of national sustainable nature tourism programme