Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola, 2025

Article 7 of the Paris Agreement encourages Parties to voluntarily submit an adaptation communication to report on adaptation. The present section of the NDC, which results from an extensive review of relevant documents on climate adaptation that have been developed over time, serves as this adaptation communication for Angola. Whilst the National Strategy for Climate Change 2022-2035 and its sectorial working papers were the central axis of this review, the process encompassed the assessment of a series of major documents developed by Angola, such as:  National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), 2011  National Development Plan 2023-2027;  Long-Term Development Strategy for Angola 2025;  National Health Development Plan 2012-2025;  Medium-Term Development Plan for the Agrarian Sector 2018-2022;  National Action Program to Combat Desertification;  Disaster Preparedness, Contingency, Response and Recovery Plan for the period 2014-2019;  Strategic Plan for Disaster Risk Prevention and Reduction;  Fisheries and Aquaculture Management Plan for the period 2018-2022;  Climate Change Adaptation Plan for the Coastal Zone This series of documents denote Angola’s prioritization of adaptation measures for certain specific sectors, namely: Agriculture and Fisheries, Coastal Zones, Forests Ecosystems and Biodiversity, Water Resources, Human Health, and Infrastructures. Chapter 4.2. of this document, “Impacts and Priorities for Climate Change Adaptation”, will further explore each sector and the climate impacts they are subject to in light of the country's circumstances. 4.1. VULNERABILITIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE Angola's vulnerability to climate change has been felt in varied areas and policymakers are aware that the number of economic and social segments affected by climate events, as well as the severity of these occurrences, is expected to increase in the near future. Major vulnerabilities include hydrological aspects of the Angolan territory, socioeconomic characteristics of the country’s population, and urban and environmental challenges, with a specific incidence on coastal zones. As a country situated in a tropical zone, Angola is extremely susceptible to hydrological vulnerabilities, which are mostly discernible when affected by climate events, as was the case of the 2013 drought that affected 1.8 million people in five southern provinces, exposing them to death and malnutrition. Deficiencies in drainage systems and the cumulative effects of erosion on national soil also exacerbate the probability and intensity of floods during heavy rainfall periods, paving the way for health crises and loss of lives with particular incidence in urban areas like Luanda. On the other hand, socioeconomic aspects such as high fertility rates, high poverty, low economic diversification, and inadequate infrastructure heighten Angola's susceptibility to natural disasters and health emergencies. As previously mentioned, as of 2018, 32.3% of Angola’s 37.8 million population live below the national poverty level, a situation which has placed the country at the 150th place out of 193 countries in the Human Development Index (2023/2024) and from which derived a higher than average exposition of almost ⅓ of the country’s population to the effects of climate-related events. Furthermore, IPCC’S 6th Assessment Report underlines the exceptional vulnerability of low-income households to the effects of climate change, as well as those of indigenous communities and small-scale food producers, whose low capacity to answer the effects of extreme weather 48 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 events jeopardises their ability to sustain their livelihood. On a global scale, these vulnerabilities are particularly evident both in children and women, who are more prone to undernutrition and malnutrition as a consequence of extreme weather events, due to their precarious life conditions. In the specific case of Angola, women in rural areas have been identified as one of the most vulnerable groups within society, due to the informal and subsistence character of their activities and their strong reliance on natural resource-based livelihoods such as agriculture, fishing, and selling non-timber forest products, which are increasingly vulnerable to climate-related hazards. Climate change also affects men, women, boys, and girls differently depending on their roles in society and the economy. For example, during droughts, girls may be withdrawn from school to fetch water over long distances, increasing their exposure to protection risks such as early marriage and gender-based violence. Boys may also leave school to accompany livestock in search of grazing areas, disrupting their education. These differentiated experiences underscore the need to consider social roles and gender dynamics in the design of climate adaptation and resilience strategies, particularly in sectors such as agriculture, water, energy, health, and livelihoods. In addition to this, and on a macroeconomic dimension, Angola’s economic growth in past years has been driven by an oil-based economy, which was deemed as incompatible with the national and international low-carbon pathways, resulting in fewer opportunities for new investment. Despite the fact that GDP has grown over time, recent investments have not been sufficient for advancing Angola overall economic development pathway and reverting the tendency of poverty within the lower socioeconomic strata of the population. To counterbalance this decrease in oil investments, Angola has focused on the diversification of its economy to foster employment and economic growth, along with human capital and infrastructure development. However, economic diversification is highly dependent on key sectors (agriculture, fisheries and manufacturing, infrastructure), which not only are highly sensitive to climate-induced effects but have also been subject to extreme climate events (such as droughts and floods) as well as anthropogenic pressure (e.g. natural resource degradation, culminating in substantial direct economic losses. For instance, already during the publishing of IPCC’s 5th Assessment report, Angolan fisheries were identified among the most vulnerable to climate change effects, with projected losses of several million dollars over the coming years. Finally, Angola faces exceptional environmental and urban exposure to climate change effects on littoral zones due to the complexity of its marine ecosystems and concentration of urban conglomerates in coastal lines. On the environmental sphere, The Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME), which borders the coasts of Angola, Namibia and South Africa is of special importance since it is bounded on both the northern and southern ends by tropical or sub-tropical regimes. The Benguela waters provide for a rich diversity of marine life and coastal communities are substantially dependent on the nutrient upwelling of the current, aspects that turn this system especially sensitive to long term climate change. With regards to the urban dimension, coastal areas are considered as extremely vulnerable to rises in sea level and are consequently considered high-risk zones. This is of noteworthy importance since over 68.1% of Angola’s population lives in urban areas and is concentrated in eight of the major cities found along Angola’s 1650 km long coastline, with approximately 27% living in the country’s capital, Luanda. In addition to this, an estimated 10% of the total population resides in risk areas subject to aggravated losses and damage as a consequence of natural disasters during the rainy season. Overall, coastal and urban areas are prone to experience infrastructure strain due to rapid population growth and poor housing conditions, which can be exacerbated by climate-induced effects. Since sea level rise projections, based on observed sea level rise from the period 1980 | 49 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 to 1999 and factoring RCP 4.5 and 8.5 projections, indicate range of potential sea level rise of between 35 cm and 93 cm by 2100, a large proportion of the population is currently vulnerable to the possibility of being displaced due to major modifications in the coastline. 4.2. IMPACTS AND PRIORITIES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION As described before, Angola is highly vulnerable to extreme weather effects, as well as gradual changes induced by climate change such as sea level rise or temperature variability. This is of particular importance since these occurrences are expected to become more frequent and severe over the upcoming years, with disproportional impacts on regions, communities and households which have the lowest ability to respond. Angolan policymakers and other stakeholders are increasingly aware of this tendency, and during the past years have considered necessary to not only analyse the ever-more-present signs of changes in global and regional biophysical systems and the vulnerabilities within Angola’s society and economy, but also to assess the impacts that derive from climate change and influence the various socio-economic sectors so as to plan and mobilise resources to execute and adequate response. Therefore, a list of the most prevalent climate change impacts have been compiled and presented in the image below. Figure 18 - Climate change impacts[16] Sea Level Rise Rising ocean levels due to melting ice caps Bio diversity Loss Water Temperature Extincition of species Increased intensity of due to habitat storms and droughts destruction Bio diversity Loss Water Temperature Spread of diseases due Warming oceans to climate change afftecting marine life Electricity Instability Soil instability Disruptions in power landslides and erosion supply due to climate due to climate change events Water Degradation Desertification Pollution and Expansion of aridlands acidification of water due to drougt bodies Rural Fires Water Scarcity Increased wildfires due Lock of fresh water to dry conditions Head Waves resources Prolonged periods of extreme head 50 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Furthermore, each of the prioritized sectors previously identified - Agriculture and Fisheries, Coastal Zones, Forests Ecosystems and Biodiversity, Water Resources, Human Health, and Infrastructures – have specific characteristics and impacts that differentiate them from the rest. Such characteristics and impacts are further explored below. Figure 19 - Key-sectors for Climate Change Adaptation Agriculture Forests Ecosystems Coastal Zones and Fisheries and Biodiversity Water Resources Human Health Infrastructures Agriculture and Fisheries With respect to agriculture, climate change effects such as temperature variability, changes in rainfall patterns or the occurrence of droughts, pose challenges for the viability of plantations, mainly when it comes to crops with a low tolerance to weather changes. This, in turn, demands that farmers adopt practices like precision agriculture and agro-forestry in order to maintain their productivity. When it comes to fisheries, climate change impacts are highly probable to profoundly impact one of the sectors with most economic development potential in Angola. The vulnerability of Angolan fisheries has already been exposed in the previous chapter, and impacts might arise in face of phenomena such as the generalized heating of surface waters on the northern and southern borders of the front of the Benguela current and cooling on the western and southern coasts of South Africa. This could result in modifications in the distribution and stocks of fish off the coast of Angola, thus incurring in severe economic losses: by 2050 the value of fisheries in West Africa, including Angola, is expected to decrease 21%, resulting in a loss of $ 311 million in revenue. Additionally, the increase in water temperature might also trigger changes on the major currents of the Angolan seacoast (Benguela and Gulf of Guinea), with subsequent impacts in the levels of salinity and existing marine ecosystems. The impacts of an increase in water salinity might also extend to freshwater bodies like rivers, deteriorating the conditions for inland fishing in the country. Coastal Zones As pointed before, Angola’s littoral line is extremely vulnerable to the effects of climate change, whose impacts might be aggravated due to the fact that this zone concentrates a sheer amount of the country's population, infrastructures and economic activity. Fishing operations and recreational and touristic activities associated with the existing natural resources all take place in the coastline, and are highly dependent on favourable climatic conditions to extract value and generate economic benefits for the society as a whole. As an effect of climate change and overall warming of the globe, the average level of the sea waters is expect to increase between 0.13m and 0.56m by 2090, compared to the levels registered between 1980 and 1999. From an increase of this order can potentially derive negative impacts on the population (mainly in densely populated areas close to the ocean, as is the case of Luanda) and infrastructures present in the coastline, with the displacement of the former from their homes and the destruction of the latter due the damage inflicted by their exposition to seawater, thus impairing the national prospects of economic development. | 51 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 In addition to infrastructure and settlement vulnerabilities, the preservation of coastal ecosystems, particularly mangroves found in provinces such as Zaire, Luanda, and Benguela, is essential for climate adaptation. These ecosystems act as natural buffers against storm surges, coastal erosion and flooding, contributing to the resilience of coastal communities. They also play a key role in preventing saltwater intrusion into freshwater systems and protecting agricultural lands. While primarily an adaptation measure, mangrove conservation offers co-benefits for mitigation through blue carbon sequestration and can support sustainable livelihoods, especially for coastal fishing populations. These functions highlight the importance of ecosystem-based approaches in Angola's coastal management strategies. Forest, Ecosystems and Biodiversity The preservation of forests and ecosystems is not only essential as an instrument along the lines of emission mitigation due to their ability to perform as carbon sinks but also owing to the fact that forests provide ecosystem services which are vital for Angolan social and economic life, and for the advancement of climate change adaptation within the country. Angola has a wide range of ecosystems, with tropical humid forests – whose conservation is essential to support biodiversity - found mainly in the provinces of Cabinda, Zaire, Uíge, Kwanza Norte and Kwanza Sul. To reinforce this, inland wetlands and peatlands, particularly in Cuando Cubango, Moxico, Moxico Leste, Huambo, and Bié provinces, are highly vulnerable ecosystems facing degradation from fire, unsustainable agriculture, and increasing human pressure. These systems are critical for sustaining rural water availability, regulating dry-season flows, and supporting community livelihoods. Likewise, Miombo woodlands in Cuando Cubango, Bié, Moxico and Moxico Leste provide essential ecosystem services such as water regulation, fuelwood, non-timber forest products, and biodiversity habitat. However, they are under mounting pressure from shifting cultivation, charcoal production, and frequent fires, which threatens rural subsistence and ecosystem integrity. In southeastern Angola, peatlands and adjacent woodlands form interconnected landscapes that support Angola’s role as a regional water tower. These ecosystems underpin the headwaters of major transboundary basins such as the Okavango and Zambezi, and their degradation has serious implications for regional water security, including downstream drought and flood buffering. Communities living near these ecosystems are directly impacted by their degradation. Many rely on forests and wetlands for agriculture, water, and traditional livelihoods, and are increasingly exposed to fire, soil degradation, and declining ecosystem productivity. Thus, protecting these ecosystems is essential for building community resilience. Climate-induced shifts and human-caused pressures have increased the frequency and intensity of fires in woodlands and peatlands. Recurrent late dry-season fires result in biomass loss, increased carbon emissions, and reduced food and water resources. Furthermore, many of Angola’s most ecologically valuable landscapes, including peatlands, inland wetlands and upper watershed forests, lie outside formal conservation frameworks. This leaves them vulnerable to unmanaged land conversion and reduces opportunities for integrated adaptation and mitigation strategies. Fire is a major driver of greenhouse gas emissions in Angola’s miombo and peatland landscapes. In 2023, wildfires burned 42.5% of mapped peatland areas in southeastern Angola. Studies indicate that shifting fire regimes from late to early dry-season burns could reduce emissions by up to 2.19 MtCO2e annually[46]. In Cuando Cubango specifically, improved fire management in peatland 52 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 zones could avoid as much as 387,000 tCO2e per year. These findings highlight how ecosystem- based adaptation strategies, such as controlled burning and fire regime adjustments, not only enhance ecological resilience but also deliver measurable mitigation co-benefits[46][47]. Water Resources Angola possesses abundant in water reserves and has the potential to fulfill satisfactorily all water demand exercised by the population and industry as long as it has the necessary network of infrastructures for storage, supply, treatment and distribution of its water resources. However, the country faces obstacles regarding the existence of information and monitoring systems for its watersheds, and often encounters difficulties related to management of its water reservoirs due to a lack of knowledge of their status and of the impacts generated on them as a consequence of climate change, since the mechanisms and technical capacities available for climate monitoring are insufficient to support the realization of long-term climate projections. Nevertheless, Angolan policymakers are conscious that droughts will become longer and more frequent as climate patterns evolve during this century, and that the intensity of this extreme weather events will not only cause a surge in the demand for water in areas traditionally affected by droughts but also create a new wave of necessities in zones not previously affected by water scarcity. Special consideration must be given to the southern part of Angola, fustigated by severe droughts over the past decade. Between 2015 and 2016, more than one million people were affected in the Provinces of Huila, Namibe and Cunene, causing damages of $286 million and economic losses of approximately $437 million. In 2021, over 1.2 million people in the six southern provinces continue to face water scarcity because of the drought, and by 2060 higher temperatures and droughts are expected to encompass most of the country, with significant implications for water availability. This expansion of dry conditions causes, in turn, serious consequences for the diversification of the economy in sectors like agriculture, where direct economic losses from droughts may rise from as much as USD 100 million per year nationwide to more than USD 700 million per year by 2100. In addition to this, there are also concerns that climate change will exacerbate natural soil erosion in many regions of the country, with dire implications for sedimentation in river basins. In this context, it is also important to recognise the role of Angola’s natural ecosystems in regulating water flows. Headwater forests and peatlands in the southeastern provinces of Cuando Cubango, Moxico, Moxico Leste, Huambo, and Bié serve as a regional “water tower”, supporting the flow of major transboundary basins such as the Okavango and Zambezi. These ecosystems help buffer the impacts of both droughts and floods and sustain water availability for rural communities. Their degradation, driven by recurring fires, unsustainable land use, and increasing human pressure, threatens national and regional water security. Protecting these ecosystems offers a dual opportunity for climate adaptation and mitigation through improved fire management and nature-based solutions. Human Health Human health has long been linked to climate variability, firstly due to negative health impacts arising from extreme climate events, such as heat waves, hurricanes/storms, floods and droughts, but also according to consequences of gradual changes of climate which influence water and food security as well as air quality. According to the IPPC’s 6th Assessment Report, extreme heat | 53 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 events all over the world have resulted in increased incidence of water-borne, food-borne and vector-borne diseases. Over the past years, animal and human diseases have emerged in areas not previously affected by them, in a phenomenon that is expected to be amplified in the near future. In this scenario, vector-borne diseases are of particular importance since the incidence of malaria in Angola is one of the highest in the African continent and represents the main cause of death in the country (130 per 1000 inhabitants in 2014), affecting the child population in a remarkable way: around 33% of perinatal deaths are attributed to malaria infection and in some districts, such as Bengo and Uíge the percentage of positive cases in children aged 0 to 5 years can reach values as high as 40%. Furthermore, it is estimated that about 37% of households are located in areas exposed to diseases such as malaria, a number which is prone to increase as the climate patterns enable a higher dispersion and incidence of disease vectors. These climate patterns include high temperatures and changes in precipitation, as assessed by IPCC’s 6th Assessment Report, leading to the prolongation of favourable conditions for the exponential growth of species of mosquitoes that transmit malaria and other diseases. According to climate projections developed for the Angolan context, even in areas with altitudes above 1500m, where the risk of contracting malaria is significantly lower, episodes of malaria are expected to become more frequent. In addition, the impacts of climate change on health are not experienced equally across the population. Women and girls are often more exposed to specific health risks due to their caregiving roles and the nature of their daily tasks. For example, collecting water from distant sources during droughts increases the risk of exposure to waterborne diseases and physical exhaustion, while cooking with biomass fuels contributes to higher rates of respiratory illnesses. These gender-differentiated health vulnerabilities are further compounded by limited access to healthcare services, especially in rural areas. It is therefore important that health adaptation measures consider these dynamics to ensure a comprehensive and inclusive response to climate-related health challenges[43]. Other impacts of climate change on human health include increased mortality and morbidity as a consequence of exposition to extreme weather events, a risk of maternal malnutrition and child undernutrition in areas prone to food shortages, heat stress and dehydration due to longer drought periods of a higher magnitude, and challenges for the mental health of citizens exposed to climate hazards. Infrastructures Angola’s infrastructure network is often in a precarious state owed to the fact that the country underwent a civil war for approximately 27 years. Efforts have been made to recover damaged infrastructures after these conflicts, but their current conditions are not sufficient to face the effects of climate change and further damage can occur if no investments are made to adapt the current network to future climate scenarios. These include roads and bridges, which can lead to the isolation of communities and challenges for the circulation of medical emergency services during crises, as well as to impediments related to the evacuation of populations. Negative effects are not only limited to the health factor and can also impact economic factors, since an interruption of roadways can disable the traffic of goods and pose barriers to access to schools, workplaces and markets, resulting in direct economic losses for the Angolan economy. Maintenance costs of these roadways may also become higher if they are not previously adapted to the effects of a changing climate. 54 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Extreme and slow-onset events have been proved to impact infrastructures, with emphasis on floods, cyclones and other disruptive episodes. IPCC’S 6th Assessment Report identifies transportation networks as one of the major elements affected but underlines that other infrastructures such as water and energy supply networks, hospitals and sanitation systems might also be directly impacted by the higher frequency, duration and magnitude of these events. In the case of Angola, where major infrastructures such as airports, oil production and most industries are linked to the eight major cities, climate change can result in the impairment of a significant amount of economic activities. 4.3. ADAPTATION CONTRIBUTION As previously mentioned, Angola is a country profoundly exposed to acute climate change effects with the potential of triggering devastating effects in the national economy and social stability. These effects have been present in the country's recent past and will tend to worsen with the passing of the century. Therefore, it was deemed as crucial the definition of strategical actions to develop Angola’s resilience and adaptative capacity in the major sectors identified in the previous sections: Agriculture and Fisheries, Coastal Zones, Forests Ecosystems and Biodiversity, Water Resources, Human Health, and Infrastructures. The present Nationally Determined Contribution reflects the objectives of addressing the main vulnerabilities and impacts and advancing the adaptation component of the country’s economy. Furthermore, the NDC encompasses three categories of actions with this objective: measures listed in the previous NDC which were not materialized during its time period and have thus been transferred to the new NDC; revised measures which have been updated to reflect the country’s ambition for the period between 2025 and 2030; and new measures derived from national and sectoral strategies developed over the past years. As mentioned before, Angola currently lacks the financial, technological and technical conditions to develop all the initiatives embodied in the present NDC. Therefore, the implementation of a significant part of the listed actions is highly dependent on the international support provided by other signatory Parties of the Paris Agreement. To this effect, the adaptation component of this NDC is divided in two main sections: adaptation actions that can be implemented solely on the basis of domestic resources – constituting the unconditional commitment of the country towards an economy and society more adapted to the future effects of climate change, and actions whose execution is dependent on financial and technological transfers from third-party countries - establishing the conditional commitments of the country. Both unconditional and conditional actions can be consulted in the following chapters, along with the impact they are intended to mitigate and the estimated cost calculated in million U.S. dollars. | 55 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 4.3.1. UNCONDITIONAL CONTRIBUTION Table 8 - Unconditional contributions to adaptation Cost Sector Unconditional contributions Impact Response (Million USD) 9 Conduct studies on the impact of climate change on fishing Acidification of the sea and 17,70 productivity and coastal economies fresh water; Rising water temperature Develop community and school gardens 5,00 and increased Apply the national collection of local seeds in programs to Salinization 7,50 Agriculture and improve and create adapted local varieties Fisheries Studies to deepen knowledge about possible measures to increase the resilience of national production systems in Increased frequency and 10,00 agriculture and livestock, with the establishment of partnerships intensity of heat with other countries to transfer technologies. Development of programmes to recover forest areas, Waves / heat island effect 5,00 agricultural areas and degraded pastures. 2,00 Assess the defence capacity of existing protection structures in risk areas, including the analysis of the feasibility of new Sea level rise investments for the construction of protection structures Coastal Zones against sea level rise Increased frequency and 3,00 Development of programmes for forecasting, alerting and intensity of floods and other managing emergency situations extreme weather events 4,50 Increased frequency and Forests, Develop forest fire prevention actions intensity of rural fires Ecosystems and 5,80 Biodiversity Improve the management of existing conservation areas and Change/Loss of Biodiversity continue the process of creating new areas Degradation of assimilation Develop characterization studies of hydrographic basins and and 3,00 groundwater purification of water courses Increased frequency Increase the number of meteorological and hydrometric and intensity of extreme 10,00 Water Resources stations to improve monitoring of rainfall and watersheds precipitation events Implement a water collection and storage system in drought- Increased frequency and prone areas to ensure continuity of human supply and watering intensity of periods of 4,83 of livestock drought and water scarcity Improve existing wastewater collection and treatment systems Health risks and disease Human Health and build new systems in underserved areas focusing on urban 13,82 transmission areas with a high concentration of population Increased frequency and intensity of extreme Map human settlements at risk of flooding and erosion. phenomena that cause 2,00 coastal overtopping and erosion Infrastructures Improve the road network in the region, guaranteeing Increased frequency and evacuation capacity and access for emergency services to the intensity of floods and other 18,00 most isolated places where families are staying. extreme weather events TOTAL 112,16 9 The budget figures presented are estimates based on a benchmarking exercise with similar actions carried out in comparable countries. The implementation of the measures presented requires the determination of an actual budget. 56 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 4.3.2. CONDITIONAL CONTRIBUTION Table 9 - Conditional contributions to adaptation Cost Sector Unconditional contributions Impact Response (Million USD) 10 Conduct a study on the impact of changing the geographical distribution of animal diseases (infectious and parasitic) and Health risks and disease 7,50 the availability of water on the country's animal production transmission levels Replicate the project “Promotion of sustainable charcoal in Angola through a Value Chain Approach” in the Luanda-Uíge Change/Loss of Biodiversity 17,88 corridor Acidification of the sea and Agriculture and Definition of a network of marine protected areas that serve to fresh water; Rising water Fisheries 12,00 preserve marine fauna. temperature and increased salinization Diversification of water sources to supply water to agri-food Increased frequency and production activities, including use of underground resources intensity of periods of drought 8,00 and reuse of waste water and water scarcity Increased frequency and Research and dissemination of the use of local crop varieties intensity of periods of drought 10,00 adapted to the adverse effects of the climate. and water scarcity Reinforce inspection mechanisms in order to limit the Increased frequency 2,00 occupation of territory located in coastal areas at high risk of and intensity of extreme flooding to essential infrastructures precipitation events Coastal Zones Assessment of the vulnerability of existing port infrastructures 16,00 on the coastline and analysis of the need and feasibility of new Sea level rise investments for construction of structures to protect against the positive variation in the average level of the ocean Develop models to analyse the effects of climate change on 5,10 Forests, biodiversity and ecosystems based on national and regional Change/Loss of Biodiversity Ecosystems climate change scenarios and Actions to preserve forest perimeters in Huambo province, in 3,00 Biodiversity line with the Government's efforts to elevate the province to the Change/Loss of Biodiversity ecological capital of Angola Increased frequency Create water drainage systems in high-risk areas and intensity of extreme 14,50 precipitation events Increased frequency Build flood protection barriers along the main rivers (vegetation and intensity of extreme 5,00 or physical barriers) Water precipitation events Resources Create a water quality monitoring system for consumption in Degradation of assimilation and 0,35 the main sources of drinking water purification of water courses Development of programmes at national, provincial and Increased frequency and municipal level for the recovery of springs and the banks of intensity of periods of drought 6,00 watercourses for urban supply, irrigation and rural domestic and water scarcity use Implement an early warning system, involving the Civil Protection and the National Institute of Meteorology, in order to Health risks and disease Human Health 7,50 reinforce public health contingency and emergency plans in transmission the face of the effects of extreme weather events Increased soil instability and Continuously update the territorial register 5,00 landslide Infrastructures Implementation of energy-efficient air conditioning measures Increased frequency and in public and private sector buildings to better combat heat intensity of heat waves / heat 3,00 waves and reduce energy needs. island effect TOTAL 122,83 10 The budget figures presented are estimates based on a benchmarking exercise with similar actions carried out in comparable countries. The implementation of the measures presented requires the determination of an actual budget. | 57 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 4.4. CO-BENEFITS OF IDENTIFIED ADAPTATION MEASURES In similar fashion to the mitigation measures defined in the previous chapter, mitigation actions in Angola’s Nationally Determined Contribution generate a series of additional sustainable development benefits that exceed its original purpose of enhancing the adaptative characteristics of national economic sector. These benefits comprise social, economic and environmental areas of impact and promote a more resilient natural environment, a higher quality of life, and a just transition which addresses needs from diverse segments of society. In Angola this is of particular importance, due to historical challenges related to poverty, depletion of natural resources, infrastructure degradation and a high incidence of diseases with a significant mortality rate. The co-benefits generated by these adaptation actions aim not only to advance climate action within the country’s context, but also to align Angola with a new path of sustainable development. In the agriculture and fisheries sector, measures such as the realisation of studies to determine the status of fish stocks and its impact on the coastal economies, and the definition of a network of marine protected areas anticipates impacts on the country’s blue economy – thus preventing severe economic damage to coastal communities – but also improve the status of marine life and attempts at an equilibrium between consumption needs and the conservation of underwater ecosystems. On agricultural side, the application of a national collection of local seeds, the conduction of efforts to increase the resilience of national production systems in agriculture and livestock, and the development of programmes to recover forest areas, agricultural areas and degraded pastures lead to improvements in the resilience of food production chains and in the conservation of the terrestrial ecosphere, therefore tackling the food necessities of Angolan citizens and promoting a more sustainable consumption of natural resources. In relation to the coastal zones, the examination of risk zones in the Angolan coastline and the assessment of vulnerabilities in coastal infrastructures such as ports helps in identifying investment needs and in anticipating impacts on coastal communities, thus enhancing the resilience of these communities. Moreover, the development of programmes for forecasting, alerting and managing emergency situations increases authorities’ ability to answer impacts from extreme weather events and avoid widespread health crisis. With regard to the preservation of forests, ecosystems and biodiversity, measure such as a better management of existing conservation areas and the development of forest fire prevention actions play a fundamental role in protecting the natural heritage of the country and in assuring the existence of essential ecosystem services, creating more stability in rural areas and mitigating the social consequence of a severe degradation of their surrounding environment. Actions in the area of water resources also generate crucial co-benefits in a context where drought episodes frequent and of a high intensity and duration. The implementation of water collection and storage system in drought-prone areas ensures access to water both for individual consumers and to agricultural ends, thus guaranteeing the resilience of food production and preventing health crisis situations related to water and food shortages. On the other, some areas in Angola have experienced episodes of heavy rainfall in recent periods, and measure like the creation of water drainage systems in high-risk areas and the construction of flood protection barriers along the main rivers can help prevent damage in both residential and commercial buildings, as well as in critical infrastructures, promoting social stability and economic growth. 58 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 In the field of human health, and apart from the early warning systems so crucial to address the consequences of extreme weather events, is of utter importance to underline the improvements in existing wastewater collection and treatment systems and the construction of new systems in underserved areas as a means to prevent and tackle sanitary crises, particularly those related to the dispersion of high-incidence diseases such as malaria. Finally, and apart from the actions mentioned before, the measures designed for the infrastructure sector also play an important role in improving the quality of life of more isolated communities and in reinforcing the economic status of the country. Among these, measures such as the improvement of the road networks in Angola are of particular importance, since they not only guarantee evacuation capacity and access for emergency services for isolated locations but also improve the circulation of goods and services in the country, therefore creating opportunities for a higher economic output. Overall, the identified adaptation actions are not confined to an enhancement of adaptative abilities but also drive sustainable development in the country, through a promotion of multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Each key sector encompasses measures that improve the stage of multiple SDGs (as can be seen in Figure 20) and stimulate a climate transition which is just for every Angolan citizen. Figure 20 - Alignment of Angola’s Climate Adaptation Measures with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Conservation Characterisation School Gardens Monitoring Food Chain Reilience Water Coliectin Natural Recovery Flood Protection Flood Protection Disease Prevention Emergency Respose Emergency Response Forest Fire Prevention Risk Mapping Insfrastructure Adaptation | 59 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 60 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 5. GOVERNANCE AND IMPLEMENTATION | 61 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 62 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 5. GOVERNANCE AND IMPLEMENTATION An effective implementation of Angola’s NDC is dependent on existence of a harmonised governance structure able to effectively implement the measures that form the basis of the mitigation and adaptation contributions, while simultaneously ensuring these same actions are subject to a well- organised monitoring, reporting and verification system. To this end, Angola developed an institutional architecture with the objective of ensuring the satisfactory performance of both these functions, whose main components consist of cross- sectorial collaboration and a continuum of previously existing systems and policies. 5.1. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS REQUIRED FOR EFFECTIVE NDC IMPLEMENTATION Angola’s NDC is a result of a multi-institutional effort shared between all Ministries overseeing core areas related to the mitigation and adaptation contributions stipulated in the document, whose coordination was mediated by the Ministry of Environment (MINAMB). Furthermore, the current NDC builds on several national policies developed over the past decade, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and developing a low-emission transition pathway for the Angolan economy, in addition to increasing the resilience and adaptative capacity of the country. Among these, it is particularly important to highlight the National Strategy for Climate Change, a central pillar of Angola’s efforts on climate change which was developed in light of major national and sectoral policies, strategies and plans. For an efficient implementation of the NDC, the continuity of this cross-institutional coordination will be indispensable so as to guarantee an effective allocation of responsibilities and a synchronization between all policy-making bodies will be necessary in order to identify and promulgate legislation with the objective of advancing Angola’s mitigation and adaptation targets. Moreover, this harmonization between ministries will be fundamental to ensure the implementation of an integrated monitoring, reporting and verification system to evaluate the progress of the country’s efforts over the NDC’s period of implementation. An implementation effort shared by all relevant government bodies is expected to recognize the more sensitive areas regarding both vectors of the NDC - a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and an advancement in adaptative abilities of Angolan economy and society – and define the priority interventions amid the wide-ranging sectoral planning. Moreover, the institutional architecture of the coordination efforts determined for the NDC implementation will be aligned with the National Strategy for Climate Change (ENAC 2022-2035) and will give continuity to the arrangements defined in the previous NDC 5.1.2. COORDINATION FOR NDC IMPLEMENTATION Legal Framework Angola’s climate action efforts and institutional architecture are supported by a series of legal arrangements which incentivize a proactive adoption of measures by governmental organisations. The Constitution of the Republic of Angola, the cornerstone of Angolan law which was established in 2010, openly states, in its articles 21 and 39, the right of citizens to live in a healthy and unpolluted environment. Furthermore, it charges the organs of the state with the task of promoting the | 63 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 harmonious and sustained development, demanding them to “adopt the necessary measures to protect the environment and the species of flora and fauna throughout the national territory, to maintain the ecological balance, to correctly locate economic activities and to rationally exploit and utilise all natural resources, within the framework of sustainable development and respect for the rights of future generations and the preservation of the different species.” Apart from the country’s Constitution, the Environment Framework Law (Law no. 5/98 of 19 June) is of utter importance since it establishes a set of general principles relating to the protection, preservation and conservation of the environment. Law no. 5/98 of 19 June also stipulates that quality of life should be promoted by state institutions and decision-makers, and that national natural resources should be exploited in a rational way, thus placing the environmental dimension of policymaking in accordance with the Constitutional Law of the Republic of Angola. Finally, Law no. 3/06 of 18 January established the Law on Environmental Defence Associations, a complementary legislation to the aforementioned decrees that regulates the form and modalities of citizen participation in the environmental management of the country. According to article 5 of this law, environmental associations “have the right to participate and intervene in the definition of environmental policy” and to “participate in public administration advisory bodies with competence in matters relating to the environment, nature conservation, constituted natural heritage and spatial planning”. Despite the central character of these three laws, other relevant legislation pieces in the field of the environment also performed a role in shaping Angola’s approach to environmental matters and, more specifically to climate ones. These included the Land Law (Law no. 9/04, of 9 November), the Agrarian Development Framework Law (Decree-Law no. 15/05, of 7 December), the Law on Spatial Planning and Urbanism (Law no. 3/04, of 25 June), the Water Law (Law no. 6/02, of 21 June), the Aquatic Biological Resources Law (Law no. 6-A/04, of 8 October), the Law on Geological and Mining Activities (Law no. 1/92 of 7 October), and the Law on Petroleum Activities (Law no. 10/04 of 12 November), as well as its respective decrees on the protection of the environment in light of petroleum activities. Policy Framework The incorporation of an environmental dimension in Angola’s fundamental laws allowed for the development of several strategies and policy instruments with the objective of promoting a symbiosis between economic growth and a sustainable exploitation of natural resources and conservation of environmental characteristics of the country. Naturally, these also reflected Angola’s preoccupations with climate change – both in its mitigation and adaptation components - and its commitments on the international stage. First and foremost, climate action is now deeply embedded in Angola’s long-term development strategy, the Angola 2050 Strategy, which counts with several targets on electrification, renewable energy incorporation, and the reinforcement of key sectors on the Angolan economy so as to improve their adaptation capacities in the short, medium and long terms. The Angola 2050 Strategy is the guiding tool for national policymakers over the next 27 years and is clear in the commitment of the country towards a holistic approach that “recognises the interdependence between economic development, the improvement of human capital, the quality of infrastructural investments and environmental sustainability”. 64 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Governmental organs are therefore called to take action regarding the attainment of the environmental goals defined nationally and internationally, in order to ensure the fulfilment of strategy’s objectives, namely the removal of oil as the backbone of the Angolan economy by 2050 and the enhancement of other sector’s resilience in face of anticipated climate impacts. Secondly, Angola has developed a National Strategy for Climate Change (ENAC 2022 and 2035) with the general objective of promoting a national context adapted to the impacts of climate change and with a low-carbon development that also contributes to the eradication of poverty. The National Strategy for Climate was developed in consonance with the long-term strategy for the country, and consists of five main pillars: a) Mitigation; b) Adaptation; c) Capacity Building; d) Climate Finance and Funding, e) Research, Systematic Observation and Analysis. The strategy recognises the importance of reinforcing competences in the main national actors (governmental institutions, society, private stakeholders, etc.) and sets the strategic approach from 2022 onwards, with a particular focus on the advancement of decarbonization within Angolan economy and the increase in adaptative efforts by decision-makers and government and state institutions. To this effect, a general basis for institutional organisation was established, an organization that later informed the formulation of the country’s NDC 2.0 and the present NDC 3.0, and which be consulted in figure 19, present in the next chapter. Other major policy tools in the context of Angola’s climate action include the National Afforestation and Reforestation Strategy, adopted in 2010, the Strategic Plan for Disaster Risk Management, approved in the following year, and the National Action Program to Combat Desertification, which came into force in 2014. Additionally, national authorities are currently conducting a reformulation of the country’s National Adaptation Plan, and Angola intends to submit the updated document until September 2025, which will enhance the country’s response to climate change impacts in domains such as fisheries, water resources, agriculture, infrastructures and food security, among others. Institutional Framework The new international apparatus formulated in the aftermath of the Paris Agreements demanded a review of each Party’s institutional architecture in order to accommodate the new goals established both for greenhouse gas emissions mitigation and for the adaptation in face of the drastic effects triggered by climate change. Accordingly, Angola developed efforts to create an organizational structure which would be able to support the country in fulfilling its obligations under the new mechanisms established by the Agreement. This structure has at its centre the Ministry of Environment through the National Directorate for Climate Action and Sustainable Development with the purpose of representing Angola in international climate affairs and of coordinating domestic exercises derived from supranational negotiations and decisions. The Climate Change Office is accountable for the country's participation in international dialogues on climate change policy, as well as for the reporting exercises of the country to the UNFCCC, while promoting engagement with relevant stakeholders, including youth and youth organisations, in line with inclusive governance principles. | 65 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Angola has also instituted a National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity (CNACB), with the aim of improving its efforts on the climate action dimension and of increasing political and executive harmonisation among the most influential entities in this thematic. Initially constituted by the ministries directly related to climate action efforts, the CNACB has evolved in light of its early experiences: advancing cooperation between the various ministries remained a central topic of the commission’s mandate, but a greater focus was given to the dynamization of a higher level of synchronization between ministries and public institutions, as a key component for the achievement of an effective reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and enhancement of adaptative capacity within Angolan territory. As a result, the CNACB enlarged its scope of participation, taking into account provincial governments and other public institutions, so as to provide a platform for the inputs of regional and local organisations on the implementation of the country's Nationally Determined Contribution. Furthermore, the CNACB proceeded to the implementation of two bodies – an Executive Committee and a Technical Committee – in order to ensure a more operational approach and to enhance the overall efficiency of the Commission’s outcomes, particularly in terms of intersectoral coordination. Angola’s second Nationally Determined Contribution further explores the role of the restructured CNACB in the country’s climate action efforts, stating that the organism should act both as a 1) mediator between other institutions so as to create a thriving environment for public discussion allowing for the enrichment of each participant’s contribution, and a 2) communication channel, providing information on climate change effects and solutions through public and educational awareness campaigns, with a special focus on assuring an egalitarian access to information and participation between genders. The proposed reorganisation of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity is detailed in Table 10. 66 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Table 10 - National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity - redefinition National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity Concert the Initiatives and harmonize policies for the implementation of the national strategy on climate change and the strategy for the preservation of biodiversity; Create the necessary conditions for the execution and implementation of NDC; Coordinate and articulate the different sectors in the implementation of the Initiatives defined in this NDC; Create a national investment plan that integrates the mitigation and adaptation initiatives foreseen in NDC, articulated with the future Angolan Fund for Climate Change (PAAC); Create centers of excellence to carry out studies of disasters and systematic observations and observation of the climate; Formulate proposals on national mitigation and adaptation policies for climate change; Identify legislative needs on the matter; Coordinate the integration of climate change policies in the various sectors of the economy and at the provincial level; Prepare an opinion on climate policy documents developed by the Ministerial Department responsible for the Environment for submission to UNFCCC; Assignments (proposed Prepare a recommendation opinion on climate policy documents developed by the Ministerial new assignments) Department responsible for the Environment for submission to UNFCCC; Develop guidelines for planning and preparing NDC progress assessment reports; Promote public discussion on climate change; Establish an NDC monitoring secretariat. Formulate proposals on national mitigation and adaptation policies for climate change; Identify legislative needs on the matter; Coordinate the integration of climate change policies in the various sectors of the economy and at the provincial level; Prepare an opinion on climate policy documents developed by the Ministerial Department responsible for the Environment for submission to UNFCCC; Prepare a recommendation opinion on climate policy documents developed by the Ministerial Department responsible for the Environment for submission to UNFCCC; Develop guidelines for planning and preparing NDC progress assessment reports; Promote public discussion on climate change; Establish an NDC monitoring secretariat. Executive Committee, composed of the Minister of the relevant Ministerial Departments, to meet Composition at least quarterly. Technical Committee, composed of focal points technical offices of the relevant Ministerial Departments, to meet at least once a month Elaboration of annual activity plans Creation of working groups to discuss the theme of climate change in various sectors Indicators Meetings held Periodic publication of documents within the scope of Angola’s obligations under the UNFCCC (National Communication, INDC, BUR) | 67 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Figure 21 - Institutional Arrangements for NDC Implementation 5.1.3. RESPONSIBILITIES AND STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIPS REQUIRED Ministry of Environment As previously described, a correct implementation and execution of the measures defined in Angola’s NDC requires an Nationally Determined Contribution intersectoral approach and the involvement of multiple institutions in order to mobilize resources and services and to supervise National Commission on Climate Change the project developments. Unquestionably and Biodiversity this mobilization cannot depend solely on domestic conditions, and Angola efforts shall be supported by international climate finance Executive Technical flows and a technological transfer from partner Committee Committee countries which will allow an advancement of the emission reduction goals and the national objectives related to its adaptative capacities. Ministerial Departments Public institutions with This dependency on international conditions with responsibilities on: activities related to: will be further explored in the next sections • Environment • Environment of this Nationally Determined Contribution, • Territorial and • Territorial and Development Planning Development Planning namely those incorporated in chapter 6 – • Energy and Water Energy and Water • Means of Implementation. • Transport • Transport • Agriculture and Rural • Agriculture and Rural Development Development • Fisheries • Fisheries Despite this necessity of international • Forests • Forests support, Angolan institutions are responsible • Biodiversity • Biodiversity • Health • Health for creating an appropriate environment • Urban planning and • Urban planning and for receiving this assistance. During the housing housing • Construction • Construction development of the previous NDC, the need • Education • Education to develop a NDC Partnership Plan was • Meteorology • Meteorology • Finance • Finance recognised, so as to dynamize climate action and the implementation of the document’s project for the period between 2020 and 2025. For the current NDC, a similar document is needed, whose development shall involve several layers of the institutional apparatus and public and private spheres, from central and regional governments to the private sector, non-governmental organizations and other sections of civil society such as academia a social and environmental associations. To assure the correct development of this NDC Partnership Plan and implementation of Angola’s Nationally Determined Contribution, it is indispensable to name the main actors associated with this process and associate them with their chief responsibilities. This exercise was initiated during the development process of the NDC, and its results can be consulted in Table 11. 68 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Table 11 - Actors involved in Angola’s climate framework Stakeholders Responsibilities Government and • Create legislative conditions to provide the best possible environment for developing projects that mitigate climate change; public institutions • Implement mitigation and adaptation projects; • Leverage investment, taking advantage of international financing lines; • Budgetary allocation of Angolan funds for climate change; • Sensitize the population and the private sector to the need to respond jointly to the problem of climate change. Ministerial Department • Coordinate and monitor the implementation of NDC; • Represent Angola in the UNFCCC negotiations; responsible for the • Responsible for reporting under UNFCCC; Environment • Coordinate and develop mitigation and adaptation measures; • Coordinate and develop training and awareness actions; • Coordinate and boost climate finance. Private sector • Take advantage of investment lines to develop mitigation and adaptation projects; • Participate in the provision of data for the national GHG inventory; • Mobilize international investment funds to improve process efficiency and make more rational use of energy; • Cooperate with the Government in the establishment of projects that mitigate climate change; • Actively participate in the definition of sectoral policies for climate change. Civil society • Adopt more conscious daily behaviours, which lead to a smaller carbon footprint; • Promote community mitigation and adaptation projects; • Participate in the global effort to fight the effects of climate change in Angola. Universities / research • Develop scientific knowledge in the area of climate change; institutes • Include climate change content in university programs; • Train citizens who are aware and aware of the urgency to act on the effects of climate change The importance of strengthening greenhouse gas emissions monitoring capacity across sectors, particularly in the AFOLU sector, given its significant contribution to national emission, is widely recognised. Future coordination efforts and technical discussions are expected to explore ways to enhance data collection and reporting systems, supporting improved tracking of climate mitigation and adaptation progress. In order to guarantee the engagement of all the above listed national actors, Angolan authorities intend to implement two mechanisms to foster participation: ● A national conference to be held every 2 years, with the objective of informing national stakeholders of the mitigation and adaptation efforts developed by national authorities, enhancing cooperation in matters related to data collection and data sharing between private and public actors, engaging civil society and the private sector for the advancement of climate action projects, and gathering stakeholder inputs for the development of future Nationally Determined Contributions, National Adaptation Plans, etc. ● A digital platform with the purpose of providing civil society, the private sector, academia and other national stakeholders the opportunity to participate in the process of developing the country’s Nationally Determined Contribution through feedback about the mechanisms and actions currently in place and suggestions about future paths of development. The Ministry of Environment will be responsible for the development and general coordination of both mechanisms and shall report its results to the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity. | 69 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 5.2. MONITORING, REPORTING AND VERIFICATION (MRV) SYSTEM With the adoption of the Paris Agreement, a significant shift on reporting obligations occurred among the various signatory Parties in comparison to the previous agreed conditions under the Kyoto Protocol. This accentuation of reporting obligations had already started with the 2010 Cancún Agreements, but the monitoring, reporting and verification exercise of signatory Parties became significantly more challenging from 2015 onwards, with new conditions regarding transparency, rigor, comparability and consistency in accounting and reporting. Since 2021, Angola is obliged to report: a) a National Communication every 4 years; b) a Biennial Transparency Report every 2 years; c) an update to its NDC every 5 years. These changes demanded the implementation of and effective Monitoring, Reporting and Verification System, capable of not only assessing the development of climate policy in the country and the implementation of projects, but also able to fulfil the country’s reporting commitments as a signatory Party of the Paris Agreement. Therefore, Angola would need an efficient MRV system in order to monitor the execution of mitigation measures and adaptation actions, and to track the finance flows utilized to fund them. During the development of the previous NDC, Angola committed itself to establishing a MRV system consisting of 4 subsystems – a GHG inventory, mitigation measures, adaptation measures and financial, technical and technological support – and the institutional framework for this development was instituted through the Presidential Decree no. 8/22 of 13 January, which sets the basis for a National System for the Monitoring, Reporting and Verification of Climate Policy. Presently, efforts towards the development of this system are underway. These efforts will consider inclusive participation mechanisms, ensuring that relevant stakeholders—including youth organisations and institutions—are engaged in the MRV process where appropriate Figure 22 - Components of the MRV System in Angola GHG INVENTORY MITIGATION ACTIONS MRV ADAPTATION FINANCIAL, TECNHICAL MEASURES AND TECHNOLOGICAL SUPPORT 70 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 The national Monitoring, Reporting and Verification system will pave the way for a systematic update of Angola’s national GHG emission inventory and for an efficient implementation of climate policy within the various sectors of the country’s economy and society, thus contributing to the implementation of measures related to the NDC and reporting obligations of Angola under the UNFCCC. Furthermore, the insights gained from this process will assist national policymakers in the development of future actions for the reduction of emissions and enhancement of adaptative capabilities. To this effect, Angolan authorities aimed at leveraging existing national resources so as to align current capabilities with MRV requirements as part of the country’s international commitments. Therefore, at the heart of Angola’s MRV system lies the institutional framework presented in chapter 5.1. The Climate Change Officer, under the supervision of the Minister of Environment, will be responsible for the general coordination of the system, starting with the development of major guidelines for the monitoring, reporting and verification exercises related to climate action within national territory, in close cooperation with the Technical Committee of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity. This will culminate in a set of publicly available methodologies and baseline data which will be function as the starting point for the definition of methodological approaches suited for the evaluation GHG emission reductions, adaptation measures, and financial, technical and technological support originated from national and international sources. The guideline development will also extend to sustainable development co-benefits, where the work developed by the Climate Change Office and the Technical Committee of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity will provide a basis for the definition of coveted co-benefits derived from mitigation and adaptation actions and the methods for assessing their impact. On a broader plane, the Climate Change Office and the Technical Committee of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity will simultaneously be responsible for the definition of data collection procedures and calculation modalities as part of the development of the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. In order to ensure methodological integrity along the process, this effort will be supported by a newly created Statistics Working Group which will aggregate members both from the Ministry of Environment and other relevant Ministries (e.g. Ministry of Industry and Trade, Ministry of Mineral Resources, Petroleum and Gas, and Ministry of Energy and Water) with extensive experience in data collection and processing. This interministerial approach will also be relevant for future data collection, given that, under the MRV system, the responsibility of sectorial data collection will be attributed to each relevant Ministry in coordination with the Climate Change Office, under the guidance of the National Directorate for Climate Action and Sustainable Development. The result of this methodological exercise will consist of a series of four subsystems – a GHG inventory subsystem, a mitigation measures subsystem, an adaptation measures subsystem, and a technical, technological and financial support subsystem – which will provide a context- specific approach for each sphere of climate action in Angola. The collected data as part of these subsystems will be systematically aggregated in a digital database – the Knowledge Management System - which development will be the responsibility of the Climate Change Office. The same organ will be accountable for the general management of this database, as well as for the validation of the main results derived from each subsystem’s MRV cycle (in conjunction with the Technical Committee of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity), and for the compilation and publication of these outcomes. The success of Angola’s MRV system will be dependent on two additional factors: the implementation of a quality control and quality assurance system, and the development of a capacity development | 71 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 plan. The former will be a central pillar for the soundness of the MRV system, particularly in components like the national GHG emission inventory, and shall be developed by the Climate Change Office in collaboration with the Technical Committee of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity and, if opportunity arises, with non-institutional stakeholders (such as Academia) which can provide solid contributions to the quality control and quality assurance national mechanisms. The latter will be a duty of the Technical Committee of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity, in accordance with both the newly implemented MRV system and the general orientation of climate action in Angola, an orientation which shall be defined by the Executive Committee of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity. The capacity development plan should focus on the training needs for the implementation of the MRV system, with the goal of training ministerial focal points, as well as focal points from regional governments and other public bodies. This capacitation will not only enhance technician’s data collection skills but will also allow for a replication of these skills through knowledge sharing among technical bodies. If the Technical Committee deems it necessary, it shall consult the National Directorate for Environment and Climate Action and/or the Climate Change Office so as to better diagnose the capacity building needs of national authorities. All the abovementioned duties and roles will be supported by clear mandates defined and formalized by a complementary legal framework which will encompass the national institutional apparatus, the modes of operation of these institutions, and will reflect the MRV cycle described in the present chapter. A general scheme can already be consulted in figure 23 below. Overall, it is expected that the proposed MRV system can achieve positive effects in the monitoring of the mitigation and adaptation components and in the improvement of domestic capacities to track financial, technical and technological flows received from international partners, therefore creating a favourable and stable environment for new partnerships and investors. Figure 23 - Subsystems of the National MRV System Legal and Institutional Framework Methodologies Knowledge Capacity Subsystems of: and Baseline Management Development • GHG Inventory Data Plan System Plan • Mitigation measures • Mdaptation measures • Support (financial, technical deliverables... HR International and technical received) Plataform/ Guidelines Training Obligations Data base ... subjec to Quality Assurance and Control System The MRV system which Angola intends to implement in the short-term, is embedded into already existing processes and structures, ensuring consistency between past experiences of climate action reporting and future activities related to this matter. The solidness of the system will be further assessed according to an annual evaluation of the MRV system (and its subsystems) by the Technical Committee of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity, with a view to continuously improving climate action efforts in the country. 72 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 On the mitigation component, the results of the evaluation of mitigation measures will be contrasted with the outcomes of the calculation process of the national GHG emissions inventory so as to guarantee consistency between the two subsystems. Progress on the adaptation component, on the other hand, will be measured through indicators related to the projects and actions listed in the NDC and international best practices. Examples of relevant indicators can be consulted in the table below. Table 12 - Monitoring Indicators for NDC Implementation Area Indicator Climate Change in annual temperature Parameter Average monthly temperature Number of days above average temperature Changes in annual precipitation Average monthly precipitation Number of events of extreme rainfall Climate Impacts Number of households impacted by drought Total percentage of animals deceased as a consequence of drought Number of people exposed to a high heat stress Number of people that live in zones prone to floods Number of properties flooded per year Number of properties located in zones prone to floods Number of hectares of productive land lost due to soil erosion Total forest land affected by forest fires per year Number of disruptions in electricity supply derived from climate events Number of properties lost per year due to sea level rise GDP losses per year due to heavy rainfall Adaptation Number of sensibilization campaigns among the population regarding water efficiency per year Actions Number of public servants that received capacitation regarding climate change adaptation per year Level of integration of climate change adaptation in development planning Percentage of municipalities with local regulations regarding adaptation and assessments of vulnerability Existance of interministerial/intersectorial commissions that work on climate change adaptation Utilisation of early warning systems Percentage of coastline covered by zones of marine protection Number of financial mechanisms identified to support climate change adaptation actions It should be noted that national authorities will undergo efforts to integrate the role performed by the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity in a broader architecture, encompassing not only the efforts towards the monitoring, reporting and verification of the Nationally Determined Contributions, but also the oversight cycles associated with the National Adaptation Plans and other documents derived from Angola’s international commitments and under the supervision of the National Commission on Climate Change and Biodiversity, such as the case of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. This integration ensures efforts towards the attainment of each document’s objectives do not occur in silos and guarantees an effective coordination of all parts involved in the monitoring, reporting and verification processes, avoiding an effort duplication, enhancing policy coherence, and maximizing sustainable development co-benefits associated with biodiversity and natural resources. | 73 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 74 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 6. MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION | 75 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 76 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 6. MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION As mentioned in previous chapters of this NDC, Angola’s economy is currently expanding, and the country is making considerable progress in improving the quality of life of its population and the stability of its socioeconomic structure. Nevertheless, Angola is still a developing country which faces a plethora of considerable challenges, challenges whose resolution absorb a substantial part of institutional efforts. This, in turn, increases domestic difficulties related to the allocation of financial, technological, and technical resources towards the decarbonization of key economic sectors and the improvement of climate adaptation and resilience across Angolan society. Due to these circumstances, Angola recognizes that, in order to advance a significant part of the projects listed in this NDC and attain some of its goals related both to the mitigation and adaptation components, a certain degree of support will be needed. The country is committed to establishing the necessary institutional arrangements and policy measures to achieve, as well as to ensuring that the required domestic partnerships are duly in place. At the same time, to fully implement the listed projects, international assistance will be indispensable, particularly when it comes to the mobilization of finance, support in capacity building, and transfer of technological solutions. 6.1. BARRIERS TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NDC Angola has deemed as essential to integrate greenhouse gas emissions mitigation and adaptation to the effects of climate change in its sectoral policy tools, particularly in instruments of territorial planning. This desire to include climate action in broader policy areas has a long track record within the national context: both the National Strategy for Climate Change and the previously submitted NDC have already expressed this objective and identified areas where this approach could be applied. However, several constraints were identified during this process, including:  An absence or unavailability of basic scientific information, with appropriate spatial and/or temporal details. The same lack of elementary conditions was verified in relation to diagnostic and characterization exercises, specifically those which encompass modelling or projections, risk mapping and vulnerability analysis;  A disarticulation of the update and/or review processes, accompanied by a procedural delay and high costs associated with these processes;  Gaps in the level of technical knowledge in the entities responsible for preparing and approving projects, plans and programs, as well as in the processes of early involvement of key players and in the development of communication and public mobilization strategies aimed at the various social and economic agents, with consequent resistance to changing behaviours;  Budgetary constraints, leading to dilution of priorities over time and to shortcomings regarding the creation of an enabling environment for resource mobilization to encourage private sector investment;  Lack of binding administrative tools that allow intervention in certain areas. Some of these barriers can be overcome with the appropriate institutional arrangements and strategic partnerships defined in chapter 5, but a significant number of obstacles remain regarding | 77 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 the domestic abilities to mobilize resources and acquire technical knowledge and a technological maturity able to advance efforts towards the achievement of Angola’s climate targets. To this effect, Angola diagnosed the main requirements the country needs in terms of international support, dividing them in two categories - capacity building and technology needs and financing needs – and identified possible funding options to fill these gaps. Both the requirements and these funding options are listed and further explained in the following chapters. 6.2. CAPACITY BUILDING AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER REQUIRED Under the Paris Agreement, developed countries committed not only to providing climate finance, but also to supporting developing countries through technology transfer and capacity building. For many developing nations, including Angola, strengthening institutional and technical capacities is essential in order to effectively track climate finance flows — both bilateral and multilateral — identify gaps, and ensure that available resources are implemented in a timely, efficient, and transparent manner. Angola recognizes that capacity building and technology transfer are critical pillars of international support in addressing climate change and reducing national vulnerabilities. To this end, the country has conducted a thorough evaluation of its immediate capacity and technological requirements with respect to both mitigation and adaptation. This assessment is part of Angola’s broader climate policy framework and is reflected in its National Strategy for Climate Change. This strategy outlines the capacity requirements necessary for the successful implementation of each mitigation and adaptation measure. Angola has identified several specific national requirements that are essential for enhancing its capacity to mitigate and adapt to climate change. These needs reflect institutional and technical shortcomings that must be addressed to ensure the effective implementation of climate-related policies and actions. Key priorities include:  Strengthening knowledge across sectors — both public and private — on emerging, efficient, low-carbon technologies;  Expanding the pool of qualified human resources capable of designing, implementing and monitoring mitigation and adaptation initiatives;  Building national capacity for developing and deploying clean technologies that support a low- carbon development trajectory;  Enhancing access to and understanding of climate finance mechanisms to enable public institutions and private stakeholders to mobilise and utilise funds effectively;  Establishing a robust and integrated national data collection and management system to support evidence-based decision-making. In this context, the Government of Angola is planning a set of cross-cutting actions aimed at strengthening the national response to climate change, encouraging private sector engagement, and raising public awareness. Key initiatives include: information sessions for investors on the regulatory framework for renewable energy; public awareness campaigns on energy efficiency, proper vehicle maintenance, the use of public transport, waste management, and the health impacts of climate change. The government also plans to enhance climate modelling capacity in the agricultural sector and to develop early warning systems to support communities and improve emergency and contingency response mechanisms (Figure 24). 78 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Figure 24 - Key Actions to Strengthen Angola’s Climate Response 1 2 3 4 Promote Raise Strengthen Create Early Information Awareness Climate Warning Sessions Modeling Systems Educate Investors Conduct compaigns Enhance Develop systems on renewable on sustainable agricultural for community regulations practices climate resiliense support In addition, the government is prioritising two further areas: institutional capacity development and integrating climate change education into the school and university curricula. Acknowledging the pivotal role of education in effective climate action, Angola is dedicated to bolstering the necessary skills, knowledge, and institutional frameworks for fostering long-term resilience (Figure 25). Figure 25 - Capacity building actions Public Dervice Ministerial Teacher Curriculum University Training Training Training Integration Degress Training for public Climate change Training educators Integrate climate IDegress teaching service on climate training for to promote climate change education complex climate change ministerial officials education in curricula problem/solutions 6.3. FINANCIAL REQUIREMENTS An initial assessment of Angola's climate finance requirements has revealed the scale of investment needed to meet its NDC targets. Although these estimates are currently based on available data, they will be refined as more evidence-based information becomes available during the implementation process. The total estimated cost of implementing the identified mitigation measures in Angola by 2035 is around 412 billion US dollars, while the estimated cost of adaptation efforts is 235 million US dollars. | 79 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 These figures represent a total financing need of around 412 billion US dollars across all sectors, with mitigation accounting for 99.9 % of the overall budget and adaptation accounting for just 0.06 %. Table 13 estimated financing needs for mitigation and adaptation summarises these financial requirements for mitigation and adaptation. Table 13 - Estimated financing needs for mitigation and adaptation Unconditional Conditional Total Contribution Total (%) (Million USD) (Million USD) (Million USD) Mitigation 2025-2035 48.059,00 364.900,38 412 059,38 99,9% 7.433,30 370.186,98 Energy 362.753,68 89,8% 1.254,70 2.501,40 LULUCF 2.146,70 0,8% 39.360,00 39.360,00 Industry - 9,5% 11,00 11,00 Waste - 0,0% Adaptation 2025-2035 112,15 122,83 234,98 0.06% Agriculture and Fisheries 45,20 55,38 100,58 0,02% Coastal Zone 5,00 18,00 23,00 0,01% Forest, Ecosystem and 10,30 8,10 18,40 0,00% Biodiversity Water Resources 17,83 25,85 43,68 0,01% Human Health 13,82 7,5 21,32 0,01% Infrastructure 20,00 8,00 28,00 0,01% 48.171,15 364.123,21 412.294,36 Total 100% The lack of financial resources remains the primary obstacle to developing and implementing effective climate action in Angola. This hinders the implementation of mitigation and adaptation initiatives and limits national efforts in terms of research and development, as well as human and institutional capacity building. In this context, mobilising climate finance is essential for implementing Angola's NDC. Adequate and sustained financial support, particularly through international cooperation, climate funds and private sector involvement, is essential to boost the country's climate resilience and low-carbon development pathways. 6.4. FUNDING OPTIONS While Angola’s unconditional contributions for the mitigation and adaptation components are expected to be achieved solely on the basis of domestic resources, the projects associated with the conditional contributions are highly dependent on international support through financial, technical and technological transfers from partner countries and multilateral institutions. This financial support is expected to result from funds and financial entities, some of which are listed in the next chapter, and form bilateral agreements resulting from Article 9 of the Paris Agreement, 80 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 which stipulates that developed country Parties shall provide financial resources to assist developing countries in developing their mitigation and adaptation efforts. As of now, negotiations regarding the modalities of Article 9 operationalization are still underway. To implement these projects, Angola intends to use financial mechanisms associated with climate finance and market mechanisms derived from international agreements regarding cooperation between countries towards the achievement of global climate action commitments. This last category includes the use of international carbon markets, both the Article 6 mechanisms and the voluntary carbon market. These are instruments in which the country can leverage opportunities to advance the technical and technological maturity of domestic projects through the use of its past experiences related to the Clean Development Mechanism and other market mechanisms.

Article 6 of the Paris Agreement is of the uppermost importance in this context: it allows Parties to voluntarily cooperate in the implementation of their NDCs through market and non-market-based mechanisms, with some recent positive experiences in projects developed under the guidance of

Article 6.2 attesting the potential of international cooperation approaches for countries in the same situation as Angola. Recognising the additional mitigation potential of initiatives funded by international private sector actors, which may fall outside the scope of the unconditional and conditional targets listed here, project developers are encouraged to develop these activities under standards accredited to the IC-VCM, an independent governance body. 6.4.1. NATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR CLIMATE FINANCE Angola’s modalities of climate finance deployment have historically been based on a blend of international financial support and domestic mobilization of financial resources from private and public funds. This mobilization has been consistent with the necessities associated with typologies of projects implemented and executed since the ratification of the UNFCCC in 2000, and has been able to align the country with previous commitments reached under the advent of the Kyoto Protocol. However, the entry into force of the Paris Agreement brought a new level of ambition which the country is unable to meet with its current financial resources. This gap was further enlarged due to slowdown in economic growth that Angola has been experiencing during the past years, due to decreases in productivity observed in the oil sector which led to fractures in stability of the national economy and budgetary constraints, impairing the allocation of resources for climate action from both the private and public sectors. Due to these circumstances, access to international financial flows is exceptionally important to drive the efforts projected for the period between 2025 and 2035. In this context, and as described in the previous NDC, Angola’s graduation from Least Developed Country (LDC) – despite reflecting a positive economic and social development – incurs in disadvantages in terms of access to climate finance destined to LDCs, namely: 1. An inability to benefit from the special and differentiated treatment these countries enjoy in the World Trade Organization, namely longer periods in the implementation of multilateral agreements and commitments; 2. The withdrawal of public development aid through financing lines directly aimed at Least Developed Countries; | 81 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 3. Benefits derived from lower tariffs and exemption of duties enjoyed by exporters from Least Developed Countries. In light of this, the remaining parts of this chapter list the financial instruments which are available to Angola and which the country intends to use in order to achieve its climate commitments. National Climate Finance Despite the aforementioned constraints, Angola has at its disposal a relatively small number of options for the financial support of its mitigation and adaptation actions. This results from the major domestic instrument for the conservation and management of the environment – the National Environment Fund – and from other smaller financing lines that are exclusively maintained by the state budget, such as the National Electricity Fund and the Support Fund for Agricultural Development in Angola. Despite this, national funds and instruments are still below what is needed to implement the projects established in this NDC, and greater financial availability is necessary to cover all key sectors in terms of emissions reduction and adaptation to the effects of climate change. Each of the domestic financing lines are described in detail in Table 14 below. National Environment Fund (FNA) The FNA was created in January 2011 and is administratively supervised by the Ministerial Department responsible for the Environment. Its objectives are: Financially support the management, promotion and conservation of the environment; Contribute to the promotion of activities related to the rational management of environmental protection Description areas, rehabilitation or recovery of degraded areas; Support technical and scientific activities for the introduction of clean technologies; Support the activity of civil society. Budget appropriations; Percentage of the values of environmental licensing fees; Percentage of fines applied; Financing sources Proceeds from the sale of the seal or certificate of clean technologies; Values from pollutant emission rates; Compensation and compensation. National Electricity Fund (FUNEL) FUNEL intends to support the fulfilment of the Angola Energia 2025 vision by supporting rural electrification programs. The fund's allocations, rules and management will be carried out by the National Institute of Rural Electrification (INER). Its objectives are: Description Support renewable energy projects connected to the grid; Finance or subsidize rural electrification; Support the distribution of improved solar lanterns and ovens, manufactured in Angola; The performance of CDM procedures reverting their benefits to the financing of rural electrification. 82 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 State financing via concessions; Articulation with the Sovereign Fund of Angola (FSDEA), which will seek to take a minority stake in larger Financing projects; sources Collaboration with local banks for credit lines; Cooperation with international entities to maximize obtaining non-repayable financing. Support Fund for Agricultural Development in Angola (FADA) Created under Executive Decree no. 40/87, FADA was reactivated in October 2016, under the supervision of the Ministry of Finance, as a “specialized financial institution” designed to support the country's agricultural development policy. According to government data, the agriculture sector adds more than 80% of the country's labour force and represents less than 10% of the national GDP. The fund is intended to be an Description instrument to boost agriculture, one of the priority sectors for the diversification of the national economy. The Government intends to develop the sector by promoting the local, regional and national economy and being a driving force for compliance with SDG 2: Eradicate hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. Tax revenue associated with the import of agricultural products; Financing State budget sources Angola Sovereign Fund (FSDEA) On November 20, 2008, the President of Angola, José Eduardo dos Santos, announced the establishment of a special commission to create the basis for a new Sovereign Wealth Fund (FSR) in order to promote growth, prosperity and socio-economic development in Angola. In 2011, the Fund was legally ratified Description and officially established as the Angola Sovereign Fund in 2012, with an initial allocation of US $ 5 billion. Its objective is to promote the social and economic development of Angola, generating wealth for the Angolan people. FSDEA is capitalized with revenues from oil exports and an important part of its investments are allocated to national energy conversion. FSDEA has already allocated $ 1.1 billion to a venture capital fund for the infrastructure sector with capital-intensive investments in the energy, transport and industry sectors. Financing In terms of agriculture, FSDEA has allocated $ 250 million. FSDEA expects that its investments in the sources agricultural sector will contribute decisively to economic growth in Angola and other regions of the continent by increasing the revenues from this activity. In addition to the above stated domestic financial lines, Angolan authorities will leverage opportunities to expand national climate finance availability, particularly through joint efforts directed to blended climate finance instruments – financial instruments which conjugate public and private funding sources. Through this approach, national authorities will explore strategies related to de-risking, concessional loans and other instruments that may increase attractiveness to private national and international investors and direct them to mitigation and adaptation projects. Furthermore, national representatives will simultaneously try to diversify their climate finance streams by exploring the feasibility of less common (but increasingly more popular approaches) such as nature bonds, debt-for-nature swaps, and project finance for permanence in the Angolan context, so as to increase the funding options of the mitigation and adaptation initiatives present in this NDC, as well as other initiatives that might be proposed or implemented in the future. International Climate Finance International climate finance is an indispensable pre-requisite to materialize the latent potential of Angola’s climate action. In the past, the country has benefited from funding and programs instituted by institutions such as the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the | 83 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 European Development Fund (EDF), the French Fund for the World Environment (FFEM), the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), the United Nations Development Program and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP, or in English UNEP - United Nations Environment Program). Similarly, Angola has taken advantage from the Fast-Start financing program that was agreed upon at COP15, a program which encouraged developed countries to channel an approximate amount of 30 billion US $ until 2012 in order to support climate action efforts originated in developing countries. Currently, a significant degree of financial aid is needed to implement the projects listed in this NDC. To this effect, Angolan representatives have identified the major financing lines that can support the country in its mitigation and adaptation objectives, which can be analysed in Table 15. Table 15 - International financing instruments for mitigation and adaptation Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) The Least Developed Countries Fund was established by the COP to support Least Developed Countries in developing and implementing adaptation actions included in their National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs). The Fund is currently operated by the Global Environment Facility and Angola has a track record related to the utilization of the finance lines provided by this fund. GEF Trust Fund The GEF Trust Fund, operated by the Global Environment Facility, was instituted with the objective of helping developing countries in transitioning to an economy model based on sustainable development and a low level of greenhouse gas emissions, thus contributing to the objective of the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement. The Fund is specifically designed to help countries implement environmental measures which surpass a business as usual scenario. By the end of 2016, 2 projects in Angola (1 for mitigation and 1 for adaptation) with a total grant amount exceeding US$ 7 million were under the umbrella of the GEF Trust Fund. Green Climate Fund (GCF) The Green Climate Fund (GCF), a global fund established in 2010 under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to support developing countries in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change, is widely considered the world’s largest fund dedicated solely to climate action. The GCF aims at promoting low-emission, climate- resilient transition pathways through an allocation of financial resources for projects and programs. As of 2025, the GCF has supported 314 initiatives related to renewable energy, climate-resilient infrastructure, and sustainable agriculture, totalizing 18 billion USD in financial fluxes. Furthermore, the GCF has supported a total of 133 developing nations, ensuring inclusive and equitable climate action. Carbon Markets Angola only had one project under the now dissolved Clean Development Mechanism: the Gove hydroelectric power station, which was registered in 2014 with a reduction potential of 126,118 tCO2e / year. However, by the end of 2016 the project had not issued any certified emission reduction (CER). With new carbon market instruments being implemented as part of international negotiations, namely those derived from Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, as well as activities certified under independent standards, Angola intends to activate the potential inherent to the application of carbon market dynamics in its national context. 84 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Adaptation Fund (AF) The Adaptation Fund has the goal of supporting adaptation action in developing countries exceptionally susceptible to the effects of climate change, through the allocation of financial resources to deploy concrete projects. Initially implemented as part of the Kyoto Protocol, the Adaptation Fund has proceeded to its next phase under the Paris Agreement and is now linked to the proceeds generated by transactions under the Agreement’s Article 6.4. 6.4.2. CARBON MARKETS Carbon markets have long been part of international efforts towards the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions. If initially, under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, the main goal of the previous instrument (the Clean Development Mechanism) was to support developed countries in achieving their emission reduction objectives through the financing of emission reduction projects, with the Paris Agreement slight changes were implemented so as to promote a more dynamic global market.

Article 6 of the Paris Agreement and its subsequent modalities of application initiated a new wave of global carbon market mechanisms, based on an openness to every signatory Party and not only a specific segment of the countries which are trying to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The Article includes several approaches to international cooperation – some centralized in a similar fashion to the previous Clean Development Mechanism, while others are based on a bilateral, decentralized approach. This offers a series of potential benefits to countries where the emission reduction potential is relatively high, but the domestic technological, technical and financial abilities are unable to meet the exigencies demanded by such actions. Angola has recognized the potential of the new carbon market mechanisms and is currently developing its national abilities, legal framework and institutional arrangements to receive projects under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement or developed under independent standards. This is expected to include work on the following elements:  Establish a regulatory framework with clear institutional roles and responsibilities.  Develop detailed requirements for carbon project registration; Letter of No Objection; credit issuance, transfer and retirement; and Letter of Authorisation (LOA) for international export.  Publish associated fee structure; monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) requirements; and control mechanisms. Additional details are expected in the near future. | 85 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 86 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 7. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND JUST TRANSITION | 87 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 88 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 7. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND JUST TRANSITION Climate change is one of the major challenges Angola has to face in the coming decades, but a climate transition based on its mitigation and adaptation components would be insufficient if it could not promote a sustainable development of the country and ensure a just transition for each social group in Angola. In light of the differentiated impacts that Angola’s social and non-social groups have to face, national authorities have identified three main areas of action for the planning and future implementation activities related to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions of the Angolan economy and the enhancement of adaptative capabilities within the country. 7.1. GENDER Climate Change has the potential to impact all segments of society, with dire implications for social stability and economic growth. However, IPCC’s 6th Assessment Report recognises that impacts do not affect everyone in a similar manner, and some particular groups are more likely to feel the consequences of extreme weather events and gradual changes in climatic variables than others. Women are among the later category, with climate change impacting disproportionately their health, subsistence and general livelihood. A gender dimension is present, for example, in disaster- related mortality, where women face considerably higher rates than their male counterparts, particularly when their socioeconomic status is lower. Furthermore, research shows that women’s life expectancy is more severely impacted by extreme weather events than men’s, due to factors such as injuries resulting from these disasters or epidemics that follow them[32]. Women are also at risk in indirect ways. According to the IIMS 2023–2024, 43% of women aged 15– 49, currently married or in union, have decision-making power over their sexual and reproductive health, including decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use, and access to health services. This proportion decreases to 26% in rural areas, compared to 55% in urban areas.[41]. The burden of domestic tasks and unpaid labour also falls disproportionately on women and girls. In rural areas, women are predominantly responsible for the collection of water for household consumption, often over long distances and in insecure conditions. Although the IIMS 2023–2024 does not quantify this task allocation directly, this reality is widely recognised in both national and global assessments of gender and climate vulnerability. This burden is further exacerbated by the fact that only 9.2% of rural households use clean cooking fuels, and just 7.3% have access to electricity, reinforcing both health and environmental vulnerabilities for women and girls [41]. The gender digital divide also persists. According to the IIMS 2023–2024, 33.7% of women reported having used the internet in the last 12 months, but this percentage falls dramatically in rural areas, where only 2.6% of women reported any internet use [41]. This limited digital access restricts opportunities for education, information sharing, and climate-related early warning alerts. Gender-based violence remains a critical concern. The IIMS 2023–2024 indicates that 31% of women aged 15–49 who have had a partner have experienced psychological, physical, or sexual violence from an intimate partner in the past 12 months. Of these, 20% reported physical abuse and 7% reported sexual violence [41]. Attitudes towards domestic violence also reflect deeply rooted gender norms. According to the IIMS 2023–2024, 20% of women believe that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances, with this belief being more prevalent in rural areas (27%) compared to urban settings (16%)[41]. | 89 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 These overlapping social and structural factors reduce the adaptive capacity of women and girls, particularly in rural areas where subsistence livelihoods depend heavily on natural resources. Prolonged droughts, heavy rainfall, and other extreme weather events directly impact their ability to secure food and water, threatening both their economic output and well-being. Additionally, women are also more exposed to violence in the aftermath of climate-related disasters, especially violence of a sexual nature. As pointed out by the 2007 World Disasters Report, “women and girls are at higher risk of sexual violence, sexual exploitation and abuse, trafficking, and domestic violence in disasters”. This, in turn, disincentives women from seeking refuge in shelters out of fear of domestic abuse, causing higher degrees of mortality and injury among them[34]. Despite the severity of the examples above, these are just some of the disproportional risks women have to face as a consequence of climate change effects; other impacts may be linked to migration, urban health, and negative consequences of poorly planned mitigation actions which do not take into account women’s role in the social fabric. Angola is aware of these differentiated risks, as evidenced by the 2022 Diagnosis on Gender Equality in Angola, where it is stated that “women suffer disproportionately from poverty and are more vulnerable to the effects of an unstable climate that causes droughts or floods. Furthermore, it is important to emphasise that women play a fundamental role in fundamental role in mitigating the effects of climate change on family life”[35]. Due to this central role both in adaptation and mitigation planning, Angolan women are called to play an important part in the climate action efforts present in this Nationally Determined Contribution. While it is indisputable that women should take part in decision-making mechanisms, data has shown that there is an imbalance in gender representation inside these mechanisms, with women having fewer opportunities to act as agents of change and climate resilience. Therefore, and as part of Angola’s process of developing the policies and projects present in this NDC, national authorities will reinforce the incentive instruments for women’s participation, seeking to involve the female gender more in the strategic planning of the country's climate policy and including the specific visions and concerns of Angolan women. At the same time, it is important to recognise that climate change also affects men and boys in distinct ways, according to their roles in society and the economy. For example, in some rural areas, boys may leave school for extended periods to migrate with livestock in search of pasture during droughts, exposing them to risks such as child labour or reduced educational opportunities. Men working in sectors such as fishing, mining, or construction may face increased occupational health hazards due to extreme heat, resource scarcity, or disasters. Considering these differentiated experiences ensures that climate action is both gender-responsive and fully inclusive[43]. In this regard, Angola’s climate actions are aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 5 on Gender Equality, to ensure that women and girls are not left behind in the transition to a low-carbon and climate-resilient economy. Angola also upholds the commitments of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995), especially in the critical area of “Women and the Environment”, reinforcing the need for inclusive and gender-responsive climate governance[69]. 7.2. CHILD SENSITIVITY AND YOUTH INVOLVEMENT Children and young people play a significant part in Angolan society: in 2019, around 32.4% of the 30.175.553 inhabitants are young people, of which around 59.4% (5.814.309 inhabitants) are concentrated in the 15-24 age bracket[36]. Furthermore, approximately 66.2% of the young 90 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 population is concentrated in urban areas, mainly located in coastal areas, while 33.8% live in rural areas. This latter category is mainly associated with the agricultural professional activities, the most prominent occupation in the Angolan youth context. Children in Angola are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. According to the Children’s Climate Risk Index, Angola ranks 10th globally in terms of "extremely high risk" for children, despite contributing only 0.8 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions. This reflects a stark example of climate injustice[44]. Furthermore, Angola’s Multidimensional Poverty Index shows that 74.4 per cent of children experience between three and seven deprivations simultaneously, with poverty being far more widespread among children under the age of 10. These conditions make children particularly susceptible to the health, education, and livelihood impacts of climate-related shocks[45]. Youth involvement in climate action is not only a priority line of action due to young population’s activity in the national economy, but also due to the climate change impacts young people are subject to in the near future. Children and young people are disproportionately affected by climate change. They are more prone to dehydration and heat stress due to extreme temperatures and limited access to clean drinking water. They are also more vulnerable to diseases and malnutrition caused by climate change. The impacts of climate change, including hurricanes, floods, droughts and ecosystem degradation, directly threaten the health, education and overall well-being of our young population[42]. Children in Angola are exposed to multidimensional poverty, making them more vulnerable to the impact of climate change than those with access to basic services. Disadvantaged and marginalised groups of children and young people, such as orphans, street children and the children of migrants and refugees, are particularly vulnerable[68]. Children and young people are among the most vulnerable groups affected by climate change, yet they also represent a vital resource for driving transformative action. Decision-making processes should encompass inputs from the younger segment of Angolan population in order to include perspectives and opinions that otherwise would be neglected in the general processes of formulating policies and implementing projects. Recognising this dual role of being both a vulnerable group and agents of change, Angola has already established participatory spaces where children and young people can express their views on climate challenges. In collaboration with schools, youth associations and local communities, workshops, focus groups and educational sessions have been developed to raise awareness of climate change and encourage engagement. These initiatives allow children and young people to share their experiences and concerns and contribute ideas on how to address environmental risks in their own contexts. Such participatory processes have also supported the development of the skills needed for active involvement in climate action while fostering intergenerational dialogue on sustainable development. Therefore, Angolan authorities are invested in involving youth in the process of executing the projects mentioned in this Nationally Determined Contribution, not only in its planning phase but also in the subsequent application, monitoring and evaluation stages. This intention of youth involvement in climate action aligns with the National Plan for Development (PND), the medium-term Development Plan for 2023-2027, and Angola 2050, the long-term development plan for Angola. It also supports the National Climate Change Strategy of Angola and the National Environmental Education Strategy, all of which recognize the vital role of Angola’s youth as the driving forces behind the nation's future. In the particular case of the National Environmental Education Strategy, there are specific objectives related to providing youth with the necessary | 91 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 environmental education for sustainable development and developing training programs for educators and environmental professionals, as well as fostering partnerships between the government, NGOs, and the private sector to create a collaborative approach towards sustainable development MINAMB is committed to advancing these intentions through key activities. These include mapping and organizing training initiatives, as well as supporting existing ones, to enhance knowledge on climate actions and challenges. Additionally, MINAMB aims to empower and connect youth with available instruments, such as platforms and initiatives, at both national and international levels. A crucial activity involves organizing locally focused youth and climate forums to decentralize initiatives and foster greater engagement from the provinces. By prioritizing these actions, national authorities ensure that young people are at the forefront of climate solutions, equipped with the knowledge and tools they need to make a meaningful impact. 7.3. BIODIVERSITY Climate change impacts are not circumscribed to the social sphere: natural elements, particularly biodiversity, is highly exposed to climate fluctuations and extreme weather events, which can severely impair the stability of the ecosphere. IPPC’s 6th Assessment Report states with a high level of confidence that adverse impacts in biodiversity resulting from human-caused climate change will continue to intensify in the future, with dire consequences for terrestrial, freshwater and ocean ecosystems. As the world becomes warmer, the risk of extinction or irreversible loss in biodiversity increases severely. This, in turn, results in aggravated effects for populations whose livelihoods are highly dependent on ecosystem services and in access to specific natural resources. An example of these chain effects lays in the marine ecosystem susceptibility to extreme-weather conditions: the high probability of a future increase in the frequency of marine heatwaves will lead to higher risks of biodiversity loss in the oceans, related to mass mortality events, as assessed by the AR6. This, in turn, undermines the economic output of the fishing industry and the livelihoods of thousands of Angolans who depend on access to fish stocks not only to generate income, but also for subsistence reasons. Angola has long been aware of the importance of biodiversity for its social and economic fabric, something which is reflected in the policy measures and strategic plans adopted by its authorities. Among these, the most relevant one is the National Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity 2019- 2025 which sets specific actions for the diverse sectors of Angolan economy, including agriculture, industry, and the oil sector. Moreover, the plan as detailed measures focused on the promotion of the role women in Angolan society, thus intersecting with chapter 7.1. of this Nationally Determined Contribution[37]. Owing to the strategic importance of biodiversity in the national context, Angolan authorities are committed to applying a biodiversity lens on the planning phase and execution stage of the actions listed in the present NDC, with the objective of not only assuring the conservation of endemic fauna and flora, but also increasing the resilience of the terrestrial, freshwater and oceanic ecosystems in the country, therefore improving the chances of keeping the stability of ecosphere in face of the incoming adverse impacts of climate change. 92 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 8. ANNEX a. Solar energy projects considered to reduce emissions Project Installed Power State of implementation Kuito 11 MW In progress Lucapa 7,2 MW In progress Baía Farta Solar Power Plant 96,70 MW Finished Biópio Solar Power Plant 188,88 MW Finished Lucapa Solar Power Plant 7,192 MW In progress Luena Solar Power Plant 26,9 MW In progress Saurimo Solar Power Plant 26,906 MW In progress Cuíto Solar Power Plant 14,52 MW In progress Bailundo Solar Power Plant 7,992 MW In progress 60 Locations Project 295,88 MW + 719,03MWh batteries In progress Luanda Solar Power Plant 104 MW Approved / Starting Laúca Solar Power Plant 400 MW Approved / Starting 65 Mini-Grid Project 220 MW +287,04 MWh batteries Approved Cabinda Solar Power Plant 90 MW + 25 MWh batteries Approved Bailundo 7,9 MW In progress Luena 26,9 MW In progress Saurimo 26,9 MW In progress Caraculo 25 + 25 MW Approved / Starting Quilemba 35 + 45 MW Approved | 93 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 b. Categories included in Angola’s GHG inventory by sector Table 16 - Categories included in Angola’s GHG inventory - Energy SECTOR SUB-SECTOR CATEGORY DESCRIPTION Energy Industries Electricity generation. Fuel utilisation activities Civil aviation, rail, sea and road Transport transport. Natural Gas Oil Fugitive emissions from fuels Oil and Natural Gas Energy Flaring Venting Emissions from wood and charcoal Residential Cooking consumption Emissions from charcoal plants Energy Industries Charcoal Production Table 17 - Categories included in Angola’s GHG inventory - IPPU SECTOR SUB-SECTOR CATEGORY DESCRIPTION Cement production Cement production. Production of Dolomitic Mineral Lime production Limestone and Virgin Lime. Industrial Industry processes and Glass production Glass production product use Ceramic production Brick and tile production. Production of Iron and Production of Iron and Steel Metal Industry Steel Alloys Alloys 94 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 Table 18 - Categories included in Angola’s GHG inventory - Agriculture SECTOR SUB-SECTOR CATEGORY DESCRIPTION Liming Applying lime to agricultural soil CH emissions4 from rice production in general Rice cultivation (Irrigated and Upland/sequel). Includes direct and indirect emissions of N2 O in managed soils. E.g. fertiliser application. Organic fertilisers (from agricultural and animal waste), which Aggregate have not been inventoried, and inorganic fertilisers, sources and N2 O emissions from soil which are fertilisers obtained from mineral extraction sources of non- management or oil refining), synthetic fertilisers (compound CO2 gases on fertilisers (NPK, ammonium sulphate and urea), earth simple fertilisers (sulphate, carbonate and chloride), limestone (used to correct the soil)11. Agriculture At a national level, the main crops that involve GHG emissions from burning waste are sugar cane and herbaceous burning biomass in cotton. As these crops are not significant in Angola, agricultural crops12 emissions from burning agricultural waste will not be considered in this inventory. CH emissions4 from enteric fermentation in cattle, Enteric fermentation sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, pigs and poultry. Flock Emissions of CH4 and N2 O in the management of livestock manure Bovine/beef; Ovine/sheep; Equine/ Handling animal manure horses; Caprine/goats; Asinine/mules; Swine/pigs; and Poultry/poultry. Table 19 - Categories included in Angola’s GHG inventory - Waste SECTOR SUB-SECTOR CATEGORY DESCRIPTION Waste disposal on unmanaged Dumps sites Solid waste disposal Waste disposal on managed Landfill sites sites Incineration and open Incineration of waste Incineration of waste burning of waste Wastewater Treatment and disposal of Treatment and disposal of domestic treatment and domestic wastewater wastewater Waste and disposal wastewaters Wastewater Treatment and disposal of Treatment and disposal of industrial treatment and industrial wastewaters wastewaters disposal NE- Not estimated. Emissions of CH4 and N2 O in this section were not estimated due to Biological treatment Production of organic waste difficulties in obtaining significant data from of solid waste compost the country on the biological treatment of waste, composting and flaring of gas generated in landfills. 11 Note: Only synthetic fertilisers (used in EAF) have been inventoried by IDAR. 12 Categories not included in Angola’s 2010/2019 GHG inventory | 95 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 c. Indicators for Tracking NDC Implementation Indicators to track NDC implementation Indicator 2020 2025 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 General Population (million) GDP (million USD) GHG Emissions Energy Waste BAU GHG emissions LULUCF (MtCO2e) Industry TOTAL Energy Waste Current GHG emissions LULUCF (MtCO2e) Industry TOTAL Unconditional Mitigation through NDC Conditional measures (MtCO2e) TOTAL Unconditional Mitigation of NDC measures (% change Conditional compared to BAU) TOTAL Finance Internal TOTAL External TOTAL 96 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 9. REFERENCES | 97 Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 98 | Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola 2025 9. REFERENCES 9.1. DOCUMENTS [1] UN General Assembly (1995). Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly during its forty-ninth session, A/RES/49/133, 14 February 1995 [2] IPCC (2006). 2006 IPCC Guidelines on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC Guidelines on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories). 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