Fishery Management Plan for Coral and Coral Reefs in the Gulf of Mexico and the South Atlantic

FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR CORAL AND CORAL REEFS of the GULF OF MEXICO AND SOUTH ATLANTIC GULF OF ~X ICO FISHERY MANAGEMENT COute I L LlteOLN CENTER, SUITE 881 5401 w. KENNEDY BOULEVARD TAMPA, FLORIDA l3609 SOUTH ATLANTIC FI SHERY MANAGEMENT COUtel L SOUTHPARK BUILDING. SUITE 306 1 SOUTHPARK CIRCLE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA 29407 APR I L, 1982 · .) ) 1.0 PREFACE ThIs fIshery manag .... nt plan fo,. co,.al and co,.al ,. •• ts Is unlq .. In many respects and should be approached wIth that und.rstandlng. The management unit Is canposed of SOllIe 400 specIes, many of which have no common names. ~uch of the descriptIve mate,.lal Is nec.ssa,.lly technical. Data on growth and pot.ntial production are scant, and a maximum susfalnable yield Is Incalculable. Harvest p,.esently Is at a ve,.y low level, and the p,.lnclpal valu. of thIs resou,.c. Is d.termlned to be In non consumptIve uses. Such uses Includ. the use of co,.al as habItat by many oth.,. Important recreatIonal and canme,.clal specIes of fIsh and sh.llflsh. Th. coral r •• fs a,.. also Important eeonanlca' Iy to the tourIst and recreatIonal Industry as a majo,. attraction fo,. dIvers and oth." nonconsumptlye users. Because the g,.owth of maOny co,.als Is slow (Ocullna thlck.ts may be a c.ntu,.y oold) the "flsh.ry" In many Instanc.s must be conslde,.ed as a nonrenewable resou,.ce. Corals In the FCZ, whIch Includ.s much of the FlorIda r .. f t,.act, w.". protected by a fed.ral ag.ncy until 1979 wh.n a court ruling restrIcted tnls authorIty. Although harv.st of co,.al and d.structlon of r .. fs Is at a low lev.1 at thIs tIm., la"g. scal. harvest of co,.als could begin as It becomes g.n.,.ally known that thIs resource Is no longe,. protected by law. The th,.ust of thIs plan therefo,.e Is to conserve this resou,.ce at the p,.es.nt low lev.1 of harvest. 1.1 PreparatIon The InItIal draft of this plan was prepared In 1979 by the C.nte,. fo,. Natu"al A,..as under contract to the Gulf of MexIco and South Atlantic Fishery Management CouncilS (Contract No. C-97-6A). List of Preparers: Center fo,. Natural Areas: Alfred G. Zangrl, Vic. Presld.nt, Director of Econanlcs Thomas E. Bigford, Ma,.ln. Affairs Sp.ciallst Jo.1 Blumst.ln, Legal Assistant Glenn Haz.lton, Cartograph.,. David W. Lalst, Coastal EcologIst John B. Noble, Vice Pr .. ld.nt, Director of Law Kermit L. Rad.r, Legal Assistant William C. R.ed, Pr .. ld.nt, p,.og,.am Director B,.lan J. O'Sullivan, Envl,.onnentaIPlann.r Georg. w. Robertson, Resou,.ce ~anagement Spec! al! 51' Sheph.n D. Cal,.ns, Department of Inv.rt.brate Zoology, National ~useum of Natu,.al HIstory, Smithsonian Institution. Walt.,. ~. Goldberg, Associ at. Prof.sso,., Department of Biological Scl.nces, F 10 0 ,., da I n1'8,.nat I ona I Un I v.rs I tv. Te,.rance R. L.ary, Biologist, Gulf of MexIco Fish.ry Manag.ment Council. Each of the listed p.opl. contributed to the drafting of the fishery management plan. Sinc. thIs Is truly a coop.,.atly •• ffort coordinated by the Councils, no Indlylduals can be Jlsted as authors of separate s.ctlons 0,. chapt.rs. App,.eclatlon Is .xt.nd.d to the several federal and state ag.ncles, academic Institutions, and Indiyld uals who contributed h.lpful Information, adyice, and suggestions. 1-1 Special appreciation Is extended to the members of the SpecIal Coral ScientIfic and Statistical ComMltt .. , the Coral Advisory Subpenel and Jennifer Wheaton LowrYb whose suggestions, InSights, and data facilitated preparation of this plan. Cover drawing of Eusmilia fastlglata by Chuck ~ .. slng. 1.2 Review List of Agencies, OrganIzatIons, and Persons to whom CopIes of the Statement are Sent: Department of the Interior Department of State Oepartment of AgrIculture Oepartment of Transportation Department of Energy EnvIronmental Protection Agency Florida, Alabema, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina state agencIes All fIshery management councils Southeastern FIsherIes AssociatIon Florida League of Anglers Gulf States MarIne Fisheries Canmission Sea Grant AdvIsory Services: Texas Mlsslsslppl*Alabema Florida Louisiana Georgi a South Carol I na North Caro" na 9ureau of Land Management, New Orleans OffIce Organized FIshermen of Florida Southern Offshore Flshennen's AssociatIon rexas Shrimp Association LouIsIana Shrimp AssociatIon State Coastal Zone Agencies Marine Sanctuary Office, Department of Canmerce Sport Fishing InstItute Marl ne WI/ derness Society Environmental Oefense Fund FlorIda Marine Life ASSOCiation Audubon SOCiety of Florida Audubon SOCiety of rexas Houston Sportsman Club Houston Audubon SocIety Houston Regional Group of the Sierra Club Lone Star Chapter of the Sierra Club Harbor Brandl Foundat Ion 1-2 " EnvirGMental t.pact St.t...,t for The n.hery "*"atJI8f1t P 1M for Coral Ind Coral R .. f. of the Gulf of Mexico and South At18ntic () Dr.ft Respon.ible Agencie.: Gulf af Mexico nshery Menag8llent C~cU Contact: Wayne Swingle Lincoln Cent.r, Suit. 881 5401 W. Kennedy Boulevard Taapa, rlorida 33609 (BU) 228-2815 South Atlantic rishery Manag ... nt Council Conhct: David Gould Southpark Building, Suit. )06 I Southpark Circl. Charleston, South Caralina 29407 (S03) 571-1\'66 National Marine risheri •• Servic. Contact: Jack Brawner Acting Regional Director 91\50 Koger Boulevard St. Petersburg, rlarida 33702 (8U) 893-'11\1 1. ~ .. e af Actionl (x) A~inistrative 2. Oeecription of Action: (x) rinal Environmental St.t8llent The proposed action is to adopt and illpl ent a f'ishery managMent plan for coral and coral reefa within the geographical ar.a af authority af the South Atlantic and Gulf of M.xico rilh.ry ManagM.nt Councila. The pri~ary objactiv. of this plan ia to opti~ize benefits while cona.rving the .."ag ent unit. This goal ia supported by specific objective. ta gener.t. sufficient data to ...... the fea.i bility af harv .. t af cor.l, to aint.iz. adv.r •• huMan ~pactl, ta provide sp.cial ~ag .. ent to par ticular habitat ar ... , to incr .... public awaran ••• of the r •• ource, end to provide a coordinated manag .. ent reg . Thi. fi.hery plan cov.rs ov.r 400 speci .. of coral diatributed throughout the l18nag .. ent ar.a. The size and div.r.ity of this unit ia .xceedingly cCliplex, including speci.a ranging 'r .. shallaw .. t.r, IIUddy Mdillent aea whip. to deepwat.r precious corals, and 'rCli hard bott .. solitary speci.a to out.r banle ree' corals. AnIong the lIOat significant and unique atocles are tI). new.r Garden Banle. on the T." .. /Louiaian. out.r continent.l sh.lf' and the nor ida r .. ' trect. ElSewher., lIuch of the coral occur. in hard bottOll cOllllunitie. where it contribute. habitat and 'ood to many oth.r specie., with e.tablished recreational or cOllllercial value, e.g., snapper, group.r, shriNp. In certain ar ... , particularly southern rlorida, corals Ilso help support ~port8nt buei neesee such as diving and charter-boata. J. Date by Which C~ent. Muat Be Received: i Thil int •• ~ doc .... t contain. all el .. entl of The nshery Han.g tnt Plan and Environllental Intpact Stat...nt. To aid the r.vi ... r • table of contents for the EIS al .. ents is provided separately referencing carr .. ponding section. of the FHP. •• Teble of Content. S~ary (Section 2.0) • • • • • • • 0 • 0 • • eo.~~.8ct.90. Purpoe. of ."d Need for Action (Section •• 0) ••• 0 • e I) • . . ;. Altern.tive. Including Propoeed Action Objectives (Section-12.2) ••••• Dpti.u. Yield (Section 12.3) •••• Manag.-ent Options (Section 12.4) • • • • • o· Af'ected Environ.ent Description of Stocks (Section 5.0) Description of Habitat (Section 6.0) Fishery Manag8lltnt Jurisdiction (Section 7.0) ••••••• 0 • rishing Activitie. (Section 8.0) ••• Econa.ic Char.cteristics (Section 9.0) • User Groupa (Section 10.0) •••••••••••• Socio-Cultural rr ... work of Ulers (Section 11.0) ••••• Environ.ental Consequence. Analysi, of IIIIp.cts (Section 12.4) Tr.deoffs between z.pact, (Section 12.5) list of Preparers (Preface, Section 1.1) lilt of Aqenciea, Organizationa, and Persona to wha. copiea are sent (Preface, Section 1.2) ••••••• ii Page "40. 2-1 4-1 5-1 6-1 7-1 8-1 9-1 10-1 11-1 12-5 12-11 1-1 1-2 \ \ 2.0 SLMlARY 2.1 The Fishery The fishery for coral and coral reefs as addressed In this plan Is located In the Gulf of ~exlco, and The waters of the. Atlantic Ocean from the Texas-Mexico border through North Carolina. 2.2 The Management Unit The ~nagement unit consiSTS of the coral and coral r .. fs of the fishery conservation zone (FCZ) of the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils. Managemen.t measlres In this plan .11 I be recomllllnded to adjacent states where apprcprlaT" 2.3 The Species Included Included in this management unit are: A. Corals: the corals of the class Hydrozoa (stinging and hydrocoralS) and the class Anthozoa (sea fans, whips, precious corals, sea pen and stony corals). B. Coral Reefs: the hard bottoms, deepwater banks, patch reefs and outer bank rMfs as defl ned In this plan. 2.4 Problems In the Fishery I. Degradation of the stocks through natural and man-made Impacts. 2. Limited scienTific Information on many species and ~ny sections of the management unit, which includes the Inability to assess the impact of coral harvest. 3. Susceptibility to stress because of corals being located at the northern limit of their d i strlbut Ion. 4. Inability of corals to escape stress because of their sedentary nature. ,. Comp lex I ty and I ncons I steney of management reg i mes. 6. Lack of adequate publiC understandIng of the Importance of coral and coral reef~ 7. PresenT lack of jurisdictIon over most coral and coral reefs by a federal ageney which has traditionally exeCUTed authority and jurisdiCTion. 2.5 S~at ... nt of"M8xlmu. Sustainable YIeld, OptImum Yield, ExpecTed Domestic Annual Harvest, and Total Allowable Level of Foreign Fishing 2."'.1 Maximum Sustainable Yield With the existing data, a single maxImum sustainable yield (MSY) for the entire management unit is Incalculable. An estImate of M$Y for select species at Biscayne NatIonal ~ark gave an MSY range of 0.0026 to 0.0158 kg/m2/yr for three hard cor~ls and 0.0026 to 0.0132 kg/m2/yr for six soft coral 3enera. Those estimates are based on morTality and living tIssue biomass data that are subject to widespread speculation (see FMP Section 5.4.9 and Tables 5-t8 and 5-19). 2-1 2.5.2 Optl~ Yield 'OY for al I corals Is the level of harvest specified or as may be authorized pursuant to the permitting criteria established In this plan. BaSed on available data It Is the Counells i Intent to al low the existing level Of. legal. reported harvest consistent with the objectives of this plan. or for stony corals Is to be zero CO) except as may be authorized for scientific and educational pur poses. The current and expected level of harvest for this purpose Is estimated to be about 140 kilograms per year. OY for oefoeerals Is the,~unt of harvest which Is authorized pursuant to this plan. It Is to be al I oefocorals (except sea fans) that are harvested by U.S. fishermen. Octocorals, except for sea fans, are Identified as presently being harvested without apparent stock damage (SeCtion 8.2.6). Present and expected directed level of harvest is estimated to be about 5,845 colonies .. 1,463 of which cane fran the FCZ. Because of the value of some species of oefocorals as a source of ho~nes, there exists the potential for localized or even widespread overflshing. For this reason, the Councils are proposing that the condition of the stocks and the harvest be monitored so that the Secretary of Can.rc. may take appropriate action should there be an Impending threat of overflshlng. 2.5.3 EstImated Domestic Annual Harvest The Estimated Domestic Annual Harvest (EDAH) is to be equal to OY. 2.5.4 Total Allowable Level of Foreign Fishing The Total Allowable Level of Foreign FiShing (TAl.FF) Is to be zero .. 2.6 SpecifIc ~ana9ement Objectives PRI~ARY ~ANAGEMENT OBJECTIVE Optimize the benefits generated from the coral resource while conserving the coral and coral reefs. SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES I. Develop scientific Information necessary to determine feasibility and advisability of harvest of ceral. 2. Minimize, as appropriate. adverse human impacts on coral and coral reefs. 3. PrOVide, where appropriate, special management for coral habitat areas of particular concern (HAPCs) • 4. Increase public awareness of the importance and sensitivity of coral and coral reefs .. 5. Provide a coordinated management regime for the conservation of coral and coral reefs. 2.7 ~a"agemant Measures 1. Catch Llml~atlo"s 2-2 A. Total Allowable le~1 of Foreign FishIng - none. The expected do .. stlc annual har~st wll I equal the optimum yield. B. Types of Catch limItations: (1) Pl"'ot! I bl t the tak I ng of stony cora I s and sea f,ans (Gorgon I a f I abel I UIII or Q.. ~nta I Ina) or the destruction of these corals and coral I"' .. fs In the FeZ of tha Gulf and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils' geographIcal area of authority, e.cept as ~I"'o­ vld.d for In this plan. (2) Stony CQrals and sea fans tak.n Incidentally In othar f/sh.rl .. must be r.tUl"'ned to the water In the general area of captlr. as soon as posslbl.. An .xceptlon I s pro vIded for the gl"'oundflsh, seal lop, 01'" oth.r sImilar flsharl .. , wh.r. the entlr. unsol"'ted catch Is landed. In such Instanc.s the stony corals and sea fans may be landed but may not be sold. (3) Should har~st of octocorals beco.. accel.rated whIch In the Councils' JudgeMent Is threatenIng the habItat In localIzed or wIdespread areas, the CouncIls may request the Secr.tary to take a\1llIJabl. measlres desIgned to allmlnat. such threat of damage to the I"'esource and fIshery habitat. On the advIce of Its ScientIfIc and Statistical Commltt .. 01'" other sources that one or mora species of octocor'als nay be endangered frOll! wIdespread 01'" local I zed dep letlon from o~rhar~st or threat of o ... rhar~st, the CouncIlS nay notIfy the Secretary of the threat and recommend that ha take one or more of the followIng actions. 2. PermIts a. Restl"'lct by I"'egulatlon amendmant or through promul;atlon of emergency regulatIons the har\1llst of one or more specl.s of octocorals to a r8COl!ln.nded I .... ' or amount. b. Restl"'lct by r-egulatory amendmant 01'" through promulgatIon of .... rg.ncy regulatIons the area frOll! which one or more specl.s of octocorals may be takan. c. Restrict by regUlatory amendment or through promulgation of .mergency r-egulatlons the method of h.,. ... st by whIch one or mora spacles of octocorals nay be har\1llsted. d. UtilIze any procedur.s other than regUlatory amendment or promulgatIon of emergency regulations whIch may be wIthin the r.alm of authOrIty of the Secl"'etary and whIch will achle~ the results of action proposed In optIons (a) through (c) abo~. EstablIsh a parmlt system for: A. the use of toxic chemicals In taking fish or other narlne organ I SIllS whIch Inhabit coral r .. fs, B. for taking prohibIted corals for scIentific and educatIonal PUl"'posas. 3. TIme and Area R.strlctlons See S.ctlon 13.5 for specIal r-egulatlons appllcabl. In habitat areas of partIcular concern. 2-3 4. Types of Vessel, Gear, and Enforcement Oevlces ~rohlblt the use of toxic chemicals In taking fish and other marine organisms which inhabit coral reef areas except under pennlt as may be specified In this or any other tlsher-y manage Ift8nt plan. 5. Identify habitat are .. for corals which may be threatened or subject to degradation and pre vide a management program for them. These habitat areas of particular concern (HAPCs) are recognized as providing habitat to valuable or special ass.mblages of corals or coral reef~ Some of these areas are presently under jurisdiction of management programs, ~ are under cons Ideratlon for I nclus Ion I n such programs, and others are presentl.y wi thout Iftanagement. Identltled coralliabltat areas of particular concern: A. MeasUl"'es proposed for the coral HAPCs~ (a) East and West Flower Garden Banks (nominated National Marine Sanctuary). Within the HN'C def I ned as be I ng that port Ion wi th I n the 50 fathal! contour, the tak I ng of a I I corals Is prohibited except as authorized by pennlt. The use of bottaa longlln., traps and pots, and bottom trawls, and anchoring by vessels 100 feet or nor. In reg Is tered length are proh I b I ted wi th I n the HAPC. (b) Florida Mldd Ie Grounds ~ the northerlWllOst hennatypfc (shalle:. reef-type) coral Cal munlty In the Gulf of Mexico. The taking of al I corals Is prohibited except as authorized by pennlt. Within the HAPC defined In Section 12.4, MeasUl"'e 5b, the use of bottom longllnes, traps and pots, and bottom trawls Is prohibited. (c) Ocullna Bank - Within the tour by 23 nm HAPC of Florida's central eastern coast as defined In Section 12.4, Measure 5c, the use of bottaa trawls, bottom longllnes, dredges, fish traps and pots Is prohibited In order to protect the coral from dalftage. B. Coral HAPCs presently under Iftanagement programs: (a) Dry Tortugas (Fort Jefferson National Monument). Management Is provided by the National ~ark Service. (b) Looe Key Reef National Marine Sanctuary. Designated In 1981, this sanctuar-y con sIsts of fIve square nautical miles. Sanctuary regulatIons prohibit or regulate anchorIng, coral collection and damage, wire trap fishIng, lobster fishing, tropical specimen collecting, spearfishlng, and discharge of certain substances. (c) Biscayne National ~ark. Management Is prOVided by the National Park Service (Department of Interior). (d) Key largo Coral Reef National ~arlne Sanctuary. Oeslgnated In 1975, this sanctuary consists of a one hundred square nautical mile section of the upper Florida reef tract. Regulations prOhibit, among other activities, removal or destruction of hard and soft corals within the boundaries of the sanctuary. (el Gray's Reef National ~arine Sanctuary. Designated In January, 1981, this diverse coral line hard bottom encompasses about 17 square miles off Sapelo Island, Georgia. Regulations prohibit alteration of seabed, diSCharge of certain substances. bottom trawling and dredging, wire fish trapping. and marine specimen collecting. 2-4 1. R.canmended th.t the S~r.tary establish a canmunlcatlon progrMl to Intol"lll the public of the r .. sons for coral manag .... nt and regulations wh lett protect corals and coral r •• fs. 2. Recanmended that the S.cretary establish a procedure to coord I nat. coral manag .... nt activities In the FCZ and terrItorial sea within the Councl Is' geographIcal are. of authority. 3. R.canrnended that the states and NMFS IlIOn I tor at least at the present level of effort the co dltlon of the oetocorals and report damage or threat of damage to th.lr habitat. The Councils believe under ex.l.stlng IIIOnltorlng regime. these agencies can eff.etlv.ely carry out this request without a significant Increase In current expenditure. 2.9 Oata Needs for Management The CouncIlS Identified the following needs for data and research: 1. Oet.l"llllne and monitor level of harvest of octocorals. 2. Survey of distribution and abundance of corals In the management ar ... 3. Study of growth. mortality. reproduction and other biological data on which to base MSY. 4. Effects of other fisheries and fishing gear on coral. 5. Effects of natural and human Impact on coral. 6. AnalySiS of Import and domestic price structure of harvested corals. 7. Comparison of value of coral in Its nonconsumptlve use vs. harvested coral. 2-5 3.0 CONTENTS 1.0 PREF Ia, .....".. II • e • a " • • • • • II • (I • • rI • • • • • • • • • • • • • J.l ~reparatlon •• 0 ••••• G ••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • ~ • • • • 1.2 Review •••• a •• e 8 •••••• II •• 0 ••• G •• • • • • • •• • • • • 2.0 SU~ •••••••••• G • " • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 3.0 4.0 5.0 2.1 The Fishery •••••••• ~ • . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . . . . . 2.2 The Management Unit •••• ~ •••••••••••••• • • • • • 0 ••••• 2.3 The Species Included ••••••• • • • • • • • • e • • • • " • • • • • • 2.4 Problems In the FIshery •••••••••••• ~ •••••••• • • ••••• 2.5 Statement of Maximum Sustainable YIeld, Optimum Yield, Exp~cted Domestic Annual Har¥est, and Total Allowable Le¥el of ForeIgn Fishing ••••••••••••• 2.5.1 Maximum Sustainable Yield ••••••••••••••••••••••• 2.5.2 Optimum Yield ••••••••• ~ ••••••••••••••••••• 2.5.3 Estimated Domestic Annual Har~st ••••••••••••••••••• 2.5.4 Total Allowable Le~1 of Foreign Fishing • • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • 2.6 SpecifIc Management Objectl¥es ••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 2.7 Management ~asures •••••••••• ~ •••••• 0 •• 0 ••••••• 0 • 2.8 Special Recommendations . . . o • . . ~ . . . . . . . . . • • 2.9 Data Needs for Management ••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••• CONTENTS •• •• I1." •••••••••• s.g •• o ••••••••••••••• I NTROOLCT ION. . . . . . . . . . . . DESCRIPTION OF STOCKS CCM'RISI tG THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM • • o • • • 0 • ~ . 5.1 Specl .. or Groups of Species and Their Distributions fa • • • • • • • • • • 5.2 5.1.1 5.1.2 Shallow-.ater Specl ..... 0 •••••••••••••••• ~ 5.1.1.1 Octocorailia (sea fans, sea whips, etc.) ••••••• 5.1.1.2 Mffleporlna and Scleractinia (the tire corals, stinging . . . . • • • • corals, and stony 'corals) ••• ~ •••• eo •••• ~ ...... 0 ••• 5.1.1.3 Antlpatharla (black corals) ••••••••• 0 Q & ...... . 5.1.1.4 Stylasterlna ••••••••••••••• 0 0 •••••••• 5.1.1.5 Potent I al Comll'8rCl ally Important Shal low-water Species •••• 5.1.1.6 Protected Shal low-water SpecIes •••••••••••••• Deepwater Corals •••••• e 0 0 •••••••• 0 ••• 5.1.2.1 DistrIbutions •••••••••••••••••• 5.1.2.2 PotentIal Commarclally Important Deepwater Species 5.1.2.3 Protected Deepwater Corals ••••••••••• ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . Abundan~ and Present Condition ••••••• II • • • e8Ge •• goeoo,.. 3-1 I-I I-I 1-2 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-5 2-5 3-1 4-1 5-1 5-7 5-7 5-7 5-8 5-8 5-10 5-10 5-1 I 5-12 5-12 5-12 5-13 5-13 IS.O 5.2.1 Shallow-water SpecIes ••••••••••••••••••••••• 5.2.1.1 No~h CarolIna to Cape Cana~rel ••••••••••••••• 5.2.1.2 Central FlorIda to South FlorIda (Cape Cana¥eral to Palm Beach) 5.2.1.3 5.2.1.4 ·5.2.1.5 5.2.1.6 5.2.1.7 Southeast FlorIda Coast (Palm Beach to Fowey Rocks) •••••• FlorIda Keys (Fo .. y Rocks to the Dry Tortugas) •••••• Northeastern Gulf of MexIco •••••••••••••••••• Northern Gulf of MexIco •••••••••••••••••• Northwestern Gulf of MexIco •••••••••••••••••• 5.2.2 Deepwater Corals •••••••• · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 EcologIcal Rel.~tlonshlps •••••• · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 Coral Ecosystems as a Special Resource ••••••••••••••••• Value as Habitat. • ••••••••••••••••••••• EconCII' c Va lues • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •.• • •••• Buffer Values ••• • •••••••••••••••••••••• Sources of Energy ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Predators and AssocIations ••••••••••••••••••••••• 5.4 BIologIcal Factors and MaxImum SustaInable YIeld ••••••••••••••• 5.4.1 Growth and SIze ••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 5.4.1.1 5.4.1.2 Octocorals (Gorgonlans, PrecIous Corals) ••••••••••• Stony Corals (FIre Corals, Branched Scleractlnlans. BraIn Corals, etc.) •••••••••••••••••••••• 5.4.2 MortalIty Rates •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5.4.3 Abundance and DensIty ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5.4.3.1 Octocorals •••••••••••••••••••••••• 5.4.3.2 Stony Corals •••••••••••••••••••••• DI~rslty ••••••••••• • • • •• • • • • • • · . • • · . ,. . . 5.4.4.1 Octocorals •• · . . . . .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 5.4.4.2 Stony Corals ••••• • • • ••• • • · . . . • • • · . . . . 5.4.5 Age •••••••••• · . . . . . . . . . · .. ReproductIon and RecruItment. • • • · . . . · .. . . . · . . . . . . . 5.4.7 Dlstrlbutton. ." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.8 BIomass • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 5.4.9 Nexlmu. SustaInable YIeld (MSY) · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,., Problble Future Conditions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • DESCRIPTION OF HABITAT •• • • • • . . . • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • · . . • • 6.1 Geographical Range of HabItat Types ••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 SoIl tary Coral s Hard BottOlllS . . . . . . · . . . . . . · . . . . . . . . . · . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · . . . . . . Deepwater Banks •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Flatch Re.fs . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Outer Bank Reefs • • • . . . • • • . . . . . . • • · . . . . . . . . 6.2 COndItIon and Trends · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 5-13 5-13 5-17 5-18 5-18 5-24 5-25 5-25 5-41 5-45 5-47 5-53 5-53 5-54 5-54 5-54 5-54 5-56 5-56 5-58 5-58 5-61 5-62 6-1 6-1 6-1 6-1 6-2 6-4 6-7 6-10 6.2.1 6.2.2 NIIn-•• I ""acts • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Natural I ""acts •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Habl tat ArNS· of ParT I cu I a,. Coneern • • • • • • •• • 0 • . . • • ~ (II . . . . . 6.4 Habitat Protec:tlon Programs ••••••••••••••••• • • • • ••••• 7.0 FISHERY MANA~EMENT JURISDICTION, LAWS, and POLICIES •••••••••••••• 6-1( 6-17 6-18 6-35 7-1 7.1 Management InstItutIons. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 7-1 7.1.1 InternatIonal ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-1 7.1.2 Federal •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-1 7.1.3 States •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • e a •• 7-3 7.1.4 Local . . . . . . . • 8 •••••••••• e '0 ••••• 7-3 7.2 Tr.atles and InternatIonal Agreements. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 7-3 7.2.1 Treaty on MarItIme Soundarles aetween the UnIted States of AmerIca and the UnIted MexIcan States. SIgned at ~xlco CIty, May 4, 1978 •••• 0 7-3 7.2.2 MarItIme Boundary Agreement getween the UnIted States of AmerIca and the RepublIc of Cuba. SIgned at waShIngton, December 16, 1977 ••••• 7.2.3 Genera' ProvIsIons on ShIps Routing. IMOO Resolution A.378(x), adopted No~mber 14, 1977 ••••••••••••••••• •• . . . . 7.2.4 InternatIonal Con~ntlon for the Pre~ntlon of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954, as amended. Done at London, May 12, 1954; Entered Into Force 7-3 7-4 July 26, 1958, for the U.S., December 8, 1961; T.I.A.S. 4900, 6109 • • • 7-4 7.3 Federal Laws, PolICies, and RegulatIons •••••••••••••••••• 7.3.2 7.3.3 FIshery Conser~tlon and Management Act of 1976 (FCMA): 16 U.S.C 1§1801-1882 •••••••••••••••••• · . . . . . . . MarIne Protec:tlon, Research, and SanctuarIes Act of 1972 (MPRSA), TItle III: 16 U.S.C BI431-1434 ••••••••••••••••• • • • Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, as amended In 1978: 43 U.S.C ttl331 et seq. • •••••••••••••• . . . . . . . . . 7.3.4 Biscayne National ~nument: 16 U.S.C 11450 qq et seq. . . . . . . . . Fort Jefferson National ~nument: Presidential ProclamatIon No. 2112; January 4, 1935 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 7.3.6 Clean Wat.,. Act (CWA): 33 U.S.C 111251 et seq. . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.7 MIIrlne Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA), Title I: 33 U.S.C 511401-1444 ••••••••••••••••••••• & • • • • 7.3.8 011 POllution Act of 1961, as amended: 33· U.S.C II 1001-1016 " . . . . PorTs and Waterways Safety Act of 1972, as amended: 33 U.S.C 111221-1227 • • • • •••••••••• • • 7.3.10 Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended (CZMA): 16 U.S.C 111451-1464 •• 0 ••••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • · . . . . . . . 7-4 7-4 7-4 7-4 7-5 7-5 7-5 7-5 7-6 7-6 7-6 8.0 • • • 7.3.12 National Envl~on.ental Policy Act (NEPA): 42 U.S.C 114321-4361 • • 7.3.13 Fish and Wlldllf. Coordination Act: 16 U.S.C 11661-66c . . . . . . 7.3.14 Fish R .. to~atlon and Manag ... nt p~oJ.cts Act: 16 U.S.C It777-777k • 7.3.15 ~~andum of Und.~standlng fo~ the Manag ... nt of ~a~ln. R.sou~ces In the Fishery Cons.~~tlon Zone Betw •• n the Gulf of Mexico FMC • • 7-6 7-6 7-7 7-7 and OCZM (NOAA) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-7 7.3.16 Memo~andum of Und.~standlng fo~ the Manag ... nt of Ma~ln. R.sou~ces In the Flsh.~y Cons.~¥8tlon Zone Betw.en the South Atlantic FMC and OCZM (NOAA) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-7 7.3.17 MeIllO~andum of Und.~standlng on Co~al P~otectlon Ju~ISdlctlon·.on the Outer Contln.ntal Sh.1f Betw .. n the Bu~.au of L.and Manag .... nt and the National Ma~ln. Flsherl .. S.~vlc. and the Offlc. of Caestal Zan. P~oposed • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• 7-7 7.3.18 Regulations and Pollcl.s on Impo~tatlon of Co~als ••••••••••• 7-7 7.3.19 ~~andum of Und.~standlng on E'ttIluatlng P.~mlt Applications Betw .. n the Army Co~s of Eng I n .. ~s and Depart nt of COIMII~ce (NOAA) ••••• 7-8 State Laws. Regulations, and Policies •••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . . . 7.4.1 Alabe 7.4.2 Florida 7.4.3 Georgia 7.4.4 Lou I slana • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . 7.4.5 ~Isslsslppl . . . . · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.6 Nb~th Carolina. • • • • • • • • • • • . . .. ,. . • • • • • • • • • • • South Ca~o II na • • • •• • • • • • • • • . . . . • • • • • • • • • • 7.4.8 Texa. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• Local Autho~ltl .... • • • • •••• • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • • • · .. 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-10 7-10 DESCRIPTION OF FISHlrG ACTIVITIES AFFECTI~ THE STOCK(S) COMPRISI~ THE MANAGEMENT UNIT ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • 8-1 8.1 History of Exploitation •••• • • · . . • • • • · ..... • • • • • • • • • • 8-1 8.1.1 . o.~lop .. nt of the Industry • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• 8.1.2 CoII.ctlon Techniques and Practlc •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 8.2 Oomastlc eo.n.~clal and R.creatlonal Fishing Activities • • • • • • • • • · . . 8-3 8.2.1 Participating Us.~ G~oups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 8.2.2 V.ssels and Fishing Gea~ •• • • • . . .. · . • • • • • · . . · .. • • 8.2.3 Employ nt In R.creatlonal and C~~clal Secto~s · . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 8.2.4 Fishing and Landing A~eas Utilized Throughout the Rang. of the Stock(s) •••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •• • • • 0 0 8-7 3-4 8.2.' COnflicts Among eo..stlc Fishermen In~lvlng Competition for Fishing Areas, Gear Camage, ~tc. • ••• ~ •••••••••••• $ • 8-7 8.2.6 AllDunt of Land/ngs/Catches •••.••••••••• • • • • • • • • • 8-7 8.2.7 Asses ... nt and Specification of the U.S. Har~st/ng Capacity. • • • • • 8-8 8.3 Foreign Fishing Activities •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8-8 8.4 Interactions Between Domestic and Foreign Participants ••••••• · . . 8-9 8.' Domestic Processing Capacity ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8-9 9.0 DESCRIPTION OF ECONCJ4IC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FISHERY AND RESMCE. • .. • • • • • • 9-1 9.1 Domestic Use Sector. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 9-1 9.1.1 Har~stlng and Consumpt/¥a Uses •••••••••••••••••••• 9-2 9.1.1.1 Scientific and Educational Har~st •••••••••••••• 9-2 9.1.1.2 Aquarium Trade Har~st •••••••••••••••••••• 9-2 9.1.1.3 Other Commercial or Recreational Har~st ••••••••••• 9-2 9.1.2 Recreational and Other Associated Consumptl~ Uses of Coral •••• • • • 9.1.2.1 Charterbaat Operators. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 9-4 9.1.2.2 Diving Shops and Schools ••••••••••••••••••• 9-, 9.1.2.3 Tropical MarIne LIfe Enterprises ••••••••••••••• 9-7 9.1.3 Associ ated Bus I nesses • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 9.2 Domestic Processing Sector •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9.3 International Trade •• . . . . . . . · . • • • • • • • • • • • • Present Status • . . . . . . . . . • • • e • • • • • • Future Projections. · . · . . . . . . · . · . • • • • • · . . • • 10.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE USER GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE RE~CE • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 10.1 Relationships Among Har~st/ng, Brokerlng, and Processing Sectors •••• 10.2 10.3 • • Cooperatl¥as and Associations. Labor Organizations ••• • • . . . · . . . • e • • • CiI • • 0 • · . . . . . .. • • • 10.4 Foreign In~st.lftt •••••••••••••••• 11.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FRNEWORI( OF USER GROUPS AND THEIR COMMJN I TI E,S • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · . • • • • • • • • • • 9-10 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-15 10-1 10-1 10-2 10-2 10-2 11-1 11.1 Ethnic Character, Fa.l/y Structure, and Community Organization ••••••• Ilml Ethnic Character • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• 11.1.2 Family Structure · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 11.1.3 Community Structure. 11.2 Age and Education Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.1 Age e •••• ' • •• . . . · . . . . • • . . .. . . . • • • • • • • • II .3 Employment Opportunities and Unempl~ymant Rates. · . . • • . . • • 11-1 11-5 11-7 11-8 11-8 11-9 11.4 Recr .. tlon.1 U..,.s ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 11-9 11.' Econa.lc Dep.nd.nce on COIIIIIII,.clal or Rec,.eat I ona I Fishing and R.'ated ActIvit'. • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 11-1.3 11.6 DIstribution of Income Within the Us.,. Community •••••••••••• 11-14 • 12.0 OPTIMUM YIELD ••••••••••••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1 13.0 12.1 Prob/.ms In the Flsh.ry · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . . 12-1 12.2 Recomllllnd.d Manag.llllnt ObJ.ctlves • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 12-2 12.2.1 R.cammand.d Gen.,.al Manag.llllnt Obj.ctlve •••••••••••••• 12-2 12.2.2 R.COlllllllnded Specific Management Objectives ••••••••••••• 12-2 12.2.3 Alternative Management Objectives Consld.,.ed But Not Reeommand.d • • 12.3 Desc,.lptlon of A/te,.natlve Optimum Yields. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 12.3.1 Recommanded . . . . · . . . . . . . · . • • · . ' .... • •• • • • • 12.3.2 Alternative Optimum Yields Conslde,.ed But Not R8COIIIIIIInded ••• 12.4 Analysis of Beneficial and Ad~,.s. Impacts of Potential Managellllnt • • • 12-3 12-4 12-4 12-5 Options • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 12-5 12.5 Tradeoffs Between the Benef/clal and Ad~rs. Impacts of the Prefe,.red 0" Opt lmal Management Opt Ions • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 12.6 Specification of Optimum Yield ••••••••••••••••••••• MEASURES. REQUIR~ENTS. CONDITIONS. OR RESTRICTIONS SPECIFIED TO ATTAIN MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES. • • • • • • • • ••••••••••• · . 13.1 Pe,.mlts •••• .. . . . . · . . . . . . . .. . ... 13.2 TIIIII and A,.ea Restrictions · . . . . . . . . . . . · . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Catch Limitations • • • • • · . . · ... • • • • • . . · . . . . 1.3.4 Types of Vessels, Gea,., and Enforcement Devices. . . . · . . · . . . . 13.5 Habitat Pr ... ,.vetlon, Protection. and Restoration. · . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Oth.,. Measures to Ach I.ve OY .. · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7 State, Local, and Othe" Laws and Policies. . . . . . . . . . . 13.8 Lllllited Access Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.9 Develop nt of Flsh.ry Resou,.ces 13.10 Nanag.llllnt Costs and R.venues •• · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • · . . . . 12-12 12-12 I~I I~I 1~1 I~I 1~2 1~2 1~2 1~2 1~3 1~3 1~3 "14.0 SPECIFICATION AND SOURCE OF PERTINENT FISHERY DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1 14.1 Genera •••••••••••••• · . . . . . . . . • • · . . . . . . . · . . 14-1 14.2 Domestic and Fo,.elgn Fishermen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1 14.3 Processo,.s • • • • .0 . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • • • • • • 14-2 Data Gaps • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .0. • • • • • •• 0 <) 14.4.1 ScIentifIc •••••••••••••• e 0 8 e ••••••••••• 14.4.1.1 EcologIcal Data Distribution and Abundance ••••• 14.4.1.2 BIologIcal Data - Growth Rates, ~rtallty Rates. Age at MaturIty, etc. • ••••••••••••••• 14.4.1.3 FIshery ConflIcts - TerrItorIal and Gear Issues •••••• 14.4.1.4 Natural and Human Induced Damage ••••••••••••• 14.4.2 Soclo-economlcallCultura' •••••••••••••••••••••• 14.4.2.1 User Groups - Dependence of Cora' and Coral Resources ••• 14.4.2.2 User Groups - Cultural CharacterIstIcs •••••••••• 14.4.2.3 Coral ~rlces - ~Iece PrIces from VarIous Sources ••• MIl n agernant ••••••• Q • • • • • • • • • · . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.3.1 HabItat Areas of ~art'cular Concern AdmInIstration . . . • 15.0 RELATIONSHI~ OF THE RECOMMENDED MEAStAES TO EXISTIt«; APPLICABLE LAWS AND ~OLICIES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (I • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••• 15.1 FIshery Management Plans •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 15.2 TreatIes or International Agreements • II • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Federal Laws and PolIcies • • · . • • • • • • • . . . 15.4 State, Local, and Other Applicable Laws and ~ollcles • • • • • • • • • • • • 16.0 STATEMENT OF COU~IL INTENTION TO MONITeR THIS PLAN AFTER APFROVAl BY THE SECRETARY • • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.0 LITERATURECITEO • • • • • • • • • • • • 41 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • e • • 18.0 APPENDICES 3-7 ) 14-2 14-2 14-2 14-3 14-4 14-4 14-4 14-4 14-4 14-4 14-5 14-5 15-1 15-1 15-1 15-1 15-2 16-1 17-1 4.0 INTROOLCTION Whll. the scientific IIt.,..tur. provld •• only limited data on cor. I ,growth. III)st 1"' .... l"'cII.l"'s agr .. th.t growth of IIIIny specl. of cor. I Is ... ry slow. Th. n.tur.1 beauty of coral speclnans nak.s th ... wlner.bl. to unregulated h.r ... st by c~rcl., and .,.t.,r coll.ctors. AIII)ng the states only Florid. provld.s sona pl"'otectlon to living stony cor.ls Ind two specl .. of sea fans. It Is of limited eff.ct because the prohibition of possession Is I"'estrlcted to uncul"'ed specl nans, and curing can be I slmpl •• on-board process of dipping In bl.ach. Hlr ... stof cor.ls In ted.rll •• t.,.s .as I"'egulated by th. Bureau of L.nd Manag ... nt CBLM) und.1'" th. Out.,. Contln.nt.1 Sh.lt Lands Act until Septelllber. 1979 •• h.n In United St.t •• v. AI.xand.,.. th. COUl"'t h.1 d that BLM' 5 author I ty .as restr I cted to act I vi 1'1 .. connected to th. adml n'lstrat I on ot ml nera I leas.s. This action has I"'ac.ntly lett III)st coral and coral r .. fs In th. FCZ • .lthout IIIInag ... nt or pl"'otectlon. This Includ.s much ot the Florida I"' .. t tract .hlch lies just beyond th. stat.'s 1''''1'''1 torlal sel. This lack ot protection to this valuabl. l"'8S0urc. Is not y.t generally known, but har ... st and d.stl"'uctlon of th. cOl"'al I"' .. fs could legally occur at any 1'1 ... The Fishel"'y Cons.l"'vatlon and M.nagement Act (FCMA) of 1976 CPubllc Law 94-265). signed Into la. April 13. 1976. pl"'ovld.s fol'" .xclusl ... United Stat.s flshel"'Y IIIInagement authority 0 ... 1'" fishery resources InhabIting th. fishery cons.r~tlon zone CFCZ) that ar.a bound.d by th. sea.ard limit of stat. juris diction and an equidistant line 200 nm or 370 km fl"'om shore .Ith .xceptlons for International treaties. The I"'esponslbility to preplr. flsh.I"'Y IIIInag.ment plans CFMPs) .as ... sted In a n.twork of eight Regional Flsh.ry Manag.ment Councils. The FCMA also d.legated I"'esearch and .nforcement dutIes to the National Marin. Fisheries S.rvlce In the U.S. Department of Commerce and .nforcement po •• rs to both the U.S. Coast Gual"'d and NMFS. The Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils determined that a need does exist for Il!III8dlate manag.ment of corals and that thIs may best be pl"'ovlded In th. d .... lopnant of a joint fishery manag.ment plan, th. thrus+ of hlch Is: I. To provld. Immed I at. protection to hat Is. for the III)st part, an unprotected and Important nonl"'en .. able I"'esource. 2. To aCQull"'. additional Informetlon on the I"'.source. 3. To pl"' .... nt any sudden d.wstatlon of th. I"'esource that cou I d be bl"'ought about by: Ca) Sudd.n Inten.l~ har ... stlng. Cb) Sudden Intensl~ d.structlon of th. I"'esource by man, e.g., a Quantum jump In the use of roller rig tra.'. or bottom longllnes. Th. flsh.ry for coral a. addr .. sed In this plan Is located In the .aters of th. U.S. Gulf of ~xlco Ind Atlantic Oce.n fro. th. Tex.s-Mexlcan bOl"'del'" through North Carolina. Th. IIIInag.ment unit Includes the coral and coral I"' .. f. of th. FeZ (s.e definition In Table 5-1) und.1'" the juriSdiction of th. Gulf of ~xlco and South Atlantic Flsh.I"'Y Management CouncilS. Management naasures In this plan .11 I be I"'ecommended to adjacent state. where appl"'opl'" I ate. The Councils' prlmal"'Y manag.nant obJectlw Is to optimiZe ben.tlts generated fl"'OII! the coral resource while cons.rvlng the coral and cOl"'al I"' .. ts. Very little published d.ta .. !st on many aspects of corals and coral reefs In the management area. Most .xlstlng deta and .. ny on-going studies hnd to concentrate on a limited number ot species In a very f .. loealltl. within the ar ... Hence, much of the study area and many specific subjects are unavoidably lightly addressed In this plan. Certain biological, socl~cultural, and econaalc data are especially limited. While many people recognize the existence of numerous valuable conSUMptive and noneonsUlllpt Ive uses of the r..aurees, tllat recogn I t ion I s base:<! I argel y upon I ntu It Ive observat Ions rather tllan liard research dat.~ The existence of tllese data gaps Is reflected and documented tllroughout tile FMP. In atteMpting to utilize the best available data several sections of tile plan rely lIeav/ly upon Intormal Interviews with knowledgeable professionals, users, and user groups. While this approad'l has contributed to the pr~aratlon of tile FMP, It lias also emphasIzed the need to develop more and better deta to fulfil I the management objectIves (Section 12.1) of tile FCMA and tile two CouncIls. 4-2 5.0 OESO\IPTION OF STOCKS C('WRISING THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM To clarify the presentation of Sections 5.1 and 5.2 of the F~, corals have been divided into deep water and shal low-water specl .. , with the 200 m (660 ft) Isobath or depth contour arbitrarily chosen as the dividing ilne since It approximates the edge of the co~tlnental shelf. This fishery management plan manages the following species: the corals of the class Hydrozoa, (stinging and hydrocorals), and the class Anthozoa (sea fans. whips, precious corals. sea pen and stony corals). Figure 5-1 Illustrates several of the more commonly observed and/or researched corals. Table 5-1. Definitions of selected terminology used throughout this F~. ~: Species belonging to the Orders Stolonlfera. Telestac.a, Alcyonecea (soft coralS>, Gorgonacea (horny corals. sea fans. sea whips). and Pennatulacea (sea pens) In the Subclass Octocoral Ila; Orders Scleractinia (stony corals) and Antlpatharla (black corals) In the Subclass Zoantherla; and the Orders Milleporina (fire corals. stinging corals) and Stylasterlna In the C.ass Hydrozoa. Phylum Coelenterata Class Hydrozoa Order Mil leporina (fire. stinging corals) Order Stylasterlna (hydrocorals) C lass Anthozoa Subclass Octo cora I II a Order Stolonifera Order Talestacea Ord.r Alcyonacea (soft corals) Order Gorgonacea (horny corals, sea fans. whips, preciOUS red coral) Order Pennatulac.a (s.a pens) Subclass Zoantharia' Order Sclerectlnla (stony corals) Order Antlpatharla (black corals) Stony Corals: For the purpose of this plan. InCludes species belonging to the Class Hydrozoa (fir. corals and hydrocorals) and Class Anthozoa, Subclass Zoantharia (stony corals and black corals). Octocorals: For the purpose of this plan. Includes species belonging to the Class Anthozoa. Subclass Octocorailia (soft corals, horny corals, sea fans. sea whips. sea pens. and others). Hermatypic (Corals): Corals that contain symbiotic. unicellular zooxanthel lae In their endodenwal tissue. Always found In sha' low (0 to 100 m; 0 to 330 ft), warm (15 to 35-C; 60 to 95-F). sun-lit waters Usually colonial but may be solitary. Often referred to collectively as r .. f corals. however SOllIe specl .. are small and are nev.r found on r .. fs. Within the diSCUSSion In SectiOns 5.1 thr~gh 5.2 on shal low-water corals, this definition has been qualified to exclude SODa corals with aberrant zooxanthel lae r.'atlonshlps. e.g •• facultatlv.ly symbiotiC species (Boschma, 1925; MCCloskey, 1970; Ouclaux and Lafargue, 1973) and those which appear capable of "bank-building" without the benefit of symbl onts (Avent, .1' al., 1977). Ah.rmatyplc (Corals): Corals that do not have zooxanth."a.. Theil'" distribution Is not restricted by ~epth. tamperature. or light penetration. Found from 0 to 5.880 m (0 to 19.000 ft). and 0 to 3'·C (32 to 95·F). Both colonial and noncolonlal (I •••• single polyp) species In about equal number. Although often referred to. as "deep sea" or "so" tary" (s.e next def I n I tlon) coral s. they often oCQlr In shal low water and many are colonial. Theil'" distribution overlaps that of the hennetypes and Is exclu sive In wat.rs deeper than about 100 m (330 ttl. U1 • N ,:,> .:.~ " 1\ \\ .... ~ • ~ . ~ .~ '"\,, .' ;'111. '.' '.' ....... . " " .11' "',' "i: .. i'", ...... ... , I '~\ \"\ ~ '. ""'~' "l .. .... . I ,\ :\t::\ I, ' .. :.~ ..• ~\ .• ' .:. ;:-.:-:. ;' ':-J. '.~:.. . \ ..• ~; ' .. , .... '- .... ,.,' ;,. ,1//.\ \\ \\< '. OAJ) I, :::::" ... ~ :-- ,. 11'1'\ 'f~\\\\ " I, '. it '"'\;.;:~o{" ,"', \~. \ N', \\"", " .' .. '\ ........ \\'''~\\\ J' '/1' .' I .''''~·(t,.:/./II~~ \' .. ,\ I .,. ':'~.\;'-: .. ' 1\\' '\)' I' ~"" . .': :-"':':";'1 :'.J~ \ ', 1\ . ", ".''--''1''J ". , \ I :U~ f.' .. :, . ;' ':~~. (" • ". \ I .. :r~. .....' " \ . ] \\.\.,~, .,...... , \' 'I; ~ ""';- ~ 1 g'.. ~" ~ ~ ~~~or: ~~OOiP--:( ~\\~~ /It\0.1'~ F. G .............. . , '"111.'. "41 .. '1 ",,,, •• ,.~ "'1) J, rl.o ""'.L •• " .. caD. '1",,1 \a,,'o, ~ .• 3. pw .......... -.w .. "'1kN,.I. C. 11'."0&lIl'."'0''' ...... "11 .. ... .,-;" II\t h'III'II, ....... I ••• 1'.1 "II ..... ' •• i,,~ .... "I ••• I": G •• '''09W •• Me ••• Aft4.,'11 ..:6 .llIp H.".'8iI'N" C,II.... I.,. ........ ~ .. ,. ~~.. '1.1 f'l1.'I .. , ... , . "'-" .. ~ ... .. .. f ... ~ '" :C .... ~. • .... I&hIIU)O.:\ ,:4:f 1,~ ·';)l!, ... 1b/ ftli~ -;,··r···l' ';:~f,l.i ~~ I 1 {:.:I;.I;~; •. ~~ "lit .~,I~ I . :ov:~: ... ~ .• J.f.;i N: f1t'~ '::t:, H .~;~ ;.'{.'; .. ~ J l1[}v fJ .. ", 't '''', :~" ;,.;"t'J •.•• .;..(~ ~... . . .... ,-,. """!l"'·l,..: ~ A ~ ...... , .... ,.;,. . 'r j....J A'; i{~ ~ ~ .: .J::; :~-!('~~, A V C'! ~~. :J. •.•. ,..... y 0. ~ .; I.... .t. ".', ,,~, £1 ~ 0 jlo. ~ • ~ ...... ~"... J V. "I'. ,;c "..... • ;,.r, ••.. I .. , ..... " ij •. ~ ••.•• ,.l.,:..... p~O ',; .. ~ ~ ... < ~l;; . ~. -. 1.;.",,0"'. U 0 ... ..,. ••• , ...... ,,, •• .. :",", .. ,, ,I", .. 'I.' H~ •• , '1\: /' J. R.""a ."I1.",.a '·,1.,1"1.", ...... ,1,' "'11 ......... "'1' I hi ..... It., IC 0 fe.n,n. ,...,.lIe .. '1 .. lIe 1 ...... I .... ~.' E. f' ... .,au .. 'O" ....... I~ .... 11I~'.L.fl4 FIG. 5-1. line drawings of se1ected corals B. Pseudopterogorgia bipinnata; E. Pseudopterogorgia americana; H. Pterogorgia citrina; I. P. 1976.) from the management area. A. '~ricea muricata; c. pseudo~tero90r,ia acerosa; D. Gorgonia flabellum; F. Gorgon a venta ina; G. Ptero~orgia an~eps; guadalupensisi K. Renilla muellerl. (A-K rom Voss \, ,. 0---. t. • ."erMt ......... ,...~ ": .. ,11""'" sr 4'':1011'' l .ol'"'' ,~ .. ' .lIce" .. 0' :~, : " !~ I .. ~ ., .. - , • I~\ J 0 •• '. .~., .. . ~" o. <.~ I "' '., r-' M. JII ••• ..., ............. . "'- ..... 1 .. ".,11.1 r" ... • .... r. Ul ......... ', '" ·i . .0. 0 0 c. '" .. ac ........... . FIG. 5-1, cant. Line drawings of selected corals from the manage ment area. L. Briareum asbestinumi Mo Plexaura 11omomalla; N. Plexaura flexuosai O. Eunicea palmeri. {L-O from Voss, 1976.} 5-3 n I ~ r-\ .,·t .,., J..' r ;.1 /;; • I ~::, ',I!j' '·r .. ·.... ~. '1 \:\ l..";.t './ '\ ,.,:£ \'~.:lI. .. .::;./ ~"';. ~ ~ .. ~ .. ../ .. ~ , .. ,.' ... ~. . ,'\: .';, ./:;; • J'''1 IT ',J: "t •. • ,1J •• 1" e:: ,:I ... 'I I ., P •• "ot-er. C".,C",,,,, O. AuotlOl'e ... , •••• \ ....... "1 ~ ..... 1 I "'h"ul' , ••. d ~ i;ti.\\: .'!.,01~ ...;, .••• ,. '""> . :,', . .:. . -'\":.~ \ ,. . -,.', -.- ... ,,:,.;,: ... -. ... , .:.. -- ' .... -1:\ •• '0 -' ... , . .. ~ .. ~.'~ ...... ' .. '/ ~';;.-:~~:~ ~." R ......... 'O .... ec.,.. . .. ,." ...... ~ .. II S.S" ...... ' ...... n. 1.·1 ......... 1 ~ ,;.::,j /.'''''' f'·· ~ • ' 0 •• ".' .' • , ". :e.""' : - ... ~ .• J .... '.: ··i"~ '.. ~l t.; f;~· , ."... .. ~ ~ ... :~ w ............ ...... I'LlI.hat".'I,1 ..... •. '.'. - .. ' '\Iwi--' . , .. ,...... ~\~~ ; ·:;;:·:'>~yzw~~ . , .. j\(~ :UfllW ',:. ';,: .. ; jin .• I ... , x.O ....... " ... DM "1",~"b ... III"II'" ~/ii ,~~ \\IJ~ ~~"'~ J' ~l" .. :i1.'tIll?.' .'W~~ ~,. .4lI' ',1.4 '.,:',"'-. ~8!'" -~jtt. 10. t •. : .. ~~ .. ~. .~ .... ~~ .,.,;~ '/I~!,.~ .. rif:~ .. ·~ . ~~, If'~· 'I '!.4In~·1 !II!' Y .. 0 ........ , ......... """' •• z. M.nocan ...... Ill 1I • .lu''''''.t 11· ..... ··' .. 1 fIG. 5-1. cont. line drawings of selected corals from the management area. P. Acroeora cervicornis; Q. Acropora palmatai R. Agaricia agaricites; S. Slderastrea radians; v. Porites porites; w. Poritesastreoidesi x. Oiploria clivosa; Y. biploria labyrinthifonmisi z. Manicina areolata. (P-A from Voss. 1976). U. ?orites ~orites FIG. 5-1, cont. Line drawings of selected corals from the management area. T. Eusmilia fastigiata; (from Messing in Taylor, 1977); U. Pori tes ,orites, formerly P. clavaria; (from Rathbun, 887). 5-5 FIG. 5-1, cont. l ...... • .. f 38. OCU ........... . \ \ ,J ::D ...... Line drawings of selected corals from the manage ment area. AA. Montastraea cavernosa; BB. Oculina diffusa; ce. Oichocoen"fcf stokes;;; DO. Mussa; EE. Dendrogyra cyl;ndrus. (AA-EE from Voss, 1976) • 5-6 . ) Solitary coral.: A cot"al organlSlll camposltd of a single polyp. Colonial corals: A coral organlSlll with more than one polyp .nd which may be part of • cor.' ~ .. f or some other another coral aSseMbl.ge. ThIs m.y also be ~.f.rred to .s • colony, unIt, or Indlvldu.1 coral. Cor. I Reefs: For purposes of this F~, coral ~ .. fs .r. defln~ .s the h.rd bottoms, deepwat.r bankS, p.tch r .. fs .nd out.r bank reefs .s d.scrlbed below: 1) Patch r.ef: Irregul.rly distributed clust.rs of corals and .ssoclated biota located In the manage ment .r.a only .'ong the s .... rd (south •• st) coast of the Florida K.ys. Occur as dome-type patches on the I ... ar~ sid. of outer bank coral r.efs (see d.flnltlon below) or as Iln.ar-type patch.s that paral lei bank reefs In acuat. patt.rn.. The latter support tlora and fauna, Includ Ing .Ikhorn cor. I (ACropora palmata), which more n.arly r .... bl.s the bank.reefs. Patch r .. fs Include h.rm.typlc reef-building corals plus ah.rm.typlc species. Most patch r .. fs occur 3 to 7 km (1.6 to 3.8 nm) offshore betwe.n Miami .nd the Dry Tortuga. on the Inner shelf (Ie •• than .bout I'm or 49 ft depth). V.rtlcal r.llef r.nges fran le.s than 1 m to over 10. (3 to over 33 ft). 2) Outer bank ~eefs: Includes ah.rmatyplc and h.rmatyplc species In • complex .s~blage oft.n with great.r ~rtlcal ~.'I.f than patch ~eefs. Located In the Florida r .. f tract primarily snor .. ard of the 18 m (60 ft) Isobath and on two h.rd banks (East and West Flower Glirdens) on the Texas-Louisl.na shelf In much d.ep.r wat.r. Biota .Iways .xhlblts zonation, with the number and type of zones d.p.ndent upon the h.lght of the cor.1 substr.te, the location of the r.ef, and the str .. ses present. Also ref.rred to as the "out.r r.ef .rcW (Davis, 1928) and a "fringing b.rrl.r" (Mil liman, 1973)~ 3) Hard bottom.: Coral communities lackIng the density, reef dev.lopment, and coral diversity of patch and out.r bank r .. fs. Some hard bottoms are more appt"oprlat.'y tel"llled hard banks, organiC banks or simply banks since they may occur atop "topographic highs" In the Gulf of Me.lco. Hard bottoms may Include some hermatypic cor.ls. Wld.'y distributed In the manag.m.nt .rM. Biota usually Include a thin ven..,. of II.,. corals, oft.n covering a rock outcrop or a relic reef, .nd .ssoclated benthos Ce.g., s~nges, tunlcat .. , holothurlan.) In an asse.blage with low relief. Also cal IItd live botta.. (Struhsaker, 1969), hardgrounds, or pinnacles. (when found In a nonbank setting). Hard ground. I. not us4td her.'n since the ten. connot.s a particular geological sedi ment structur. r.ther than. biotic community. 4) D .. pwat.r banks: A structure camposed primarily of surface-hardened crusts of submarine muddy to s.ndy carbon.te sediment •• upportlng • comp.r.tlvely diverse an .. blage of benthic .nlmals. The .henftltyplc corals (En."op .... ,a profunda and Lophella prollfera) may provide framework .nd pro mot. entr.p nt .nd accullUlatlon of sediments and skeletal debris. Simlla,. structures may be called haystacks, de. sea mounds, or II thoh.Mfts. 5.1 Species or Groups of Specie •• nd Thelr·Olstrlbutlon. '.1.1 Sh.llow-w.ter Specie. '.1.1.1 Octocorailia (se. fans, s.a whips, .tc.) The shelf wat.rs of the southern and southeastern United States cont.ln a consld.rable div.rslty of octocorals (see Appendix A). Among those listed for the shelf regions of the west.,.n Atlantic by Bayer (1961), onl y 19 have not been reported fran the manag .... nt ar.a (four species are reported wh I ch require confiMftatlon). Ho.ev.r, 36 species of primarily de.er-dweiling species have been added to Bay.r's list sln.at 1961, brInging the total sh.lf oc1'ocoral feuna of the pres.nt study ar .. to 113 .specl •• Of that total, 18 species appear to be endemic, and an additional thre. species find their prIncipal distribution h.r. (Tabl. 5-2). Octocorals In the-Gulf of ~.xlco can be divided Into thr .. groups: 1) a deepwater element, most notably fra. the Paramurlceldae; 2) a disjunct Carolinian eleMent. represented by the genera Leptogorsla and ,",urlcN; and 3) trcplcal ~tlantlc and Carl.bbean species or fonns (see Appendix A). The north and northwestern Gulf of ~ .. Ico (Texas to Florida) lacks the latter, but has a we' 1 developed deepwater tauna which becomes locally prominent on the continental shelf. Th. paramurlceids and the .llIs.llIds ar. mor. comlll)n there than elsewh.re. The region from North Carolina to south Florida contains no distinct Iv. octoc~al elements. Typical tnere are Leptosorsla vlrsulata. ~. setacea. Lophogorgla hebeS, Murlc .. p.ndula. and Tltanldeum frauenfeldll, all of which are represented In the Gulf of Mexico as Carolinian tauna. The area from Palm aeach south to the Dry Tortugas contains a tropical Atlantic fauna, which appears to be talrly homogeneous. Some taunal differences occur along the Florida r .. f tract In response to water temperature range~, substrate availability, and other variables. The distribution of octocorals In the Gulf of Mexico has been thoroughly Inv.stlgated by Glamlll)na (1978) and sumnerlZed In Appendix B. Cairns (1977a) published a field guld. to the ~re comlll)n gorgo nlans of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and Florida. 5.1.1.2 Milleparina and Scleractinia (the fire corals. stinging corals, and stony corals) Sixty-eight species of stony corals are known from the continental shelYes of the study arN (Appendix C), 62 of which have been noted trom the Florida K.ys and the Dry Tortugas alon.. This Is a remarkably high number, conslder!ng that the most dIverse local. In the Caribbean (Jamaica) lIsts only 66 species (Goreau and W.I Is, 1967; Wei Is and Lang, 1973). Twelve JamaIcan specl .. are absent frQII Florida waters and an addl t lonal seven species are known from the Florida r'" tract but not Jamaica: Madracls asperula, Ocullna tenella,~. robusta, Cladocora debills, Carvophyilia horologlum. Flabellum fragile, and!!:!!.!,Sr'avlda. The latt.,. species had been considered as endemic to BrazIl until their Identification fra. Florida by Jaap (1979, personal communication) and Avent, et al. (1977), respectively. Three colonial scleractlnlans are endemic to the study ar.a, and two III)r. have their main distribution h.r .. Most of these are members of the Ocullnldae and Include those listed In Table 5-3. Unllk. octo cora I distribution, stony corals show Iitti. separation by subregion (Appendix C). Th. only notable stony coral group other than the ocullnlds are the occasional speCimens of Madracls myrlaster,~. asperula, and~. brueg .... nnl found In the Gulf of Mexico. Madracls mirabilis Is also appar.ntly quite CatMOn In the Gulf and south AtlantIc regions. There ar. several other specIes of stony corals found In the Florida Keys or on the west coast of Florida and the Tortugas whIch ar. typical Caribbean fo""s. The data show that tor the most part, the outl yl ng areas of the Gul t of Mexico and the southeastern coast of the U.S. are accurat.,y described as spars.ly develoPed exten sions of the scleractlnlan fauna found in the Florida Keys and the Dry Tortugas. 5.1.1.3 Antlpatharla (black corals) Black corals are not wei I represented In the management area with the exception of Clrrlpathes sp. (probebly.£,. 'utk.nl) which occurs on shCllt-edge hardbenks (usually below 60 to 80 m) throughout the Gulf of Mexico (Bright and R.zak, 1976), and rar.'y In the Florida Keys (Goldberg, 1979, personal communication).". "T;he species appears to be quite comllll:)n below 20 III (66 ft) on the southeast Florida coast (Goldberg, 1973.). An unidentified species of Antlpathe. has been recorded frail the north.rn Gulf (Bright, 1978). Addl tlonal records are II .ted In Table 5-4. "'-" Table 5-2. End .. lc el ... ntl of the octocoral fauna trom t~e s~al low-water continental shelf regions (l.sI t~an 200. or 660 ft) ot t~e sout~ern United Stat ... Telestace. Alcyonace. Gorgonacea (Sc leraxon I a) Pennatulacea Telesto f lavu la T.sanguln .. T.frutlculosa Pseudodr I fa ~ Anthopocll UIII- rubens Anthothela tropical Is WTltanldeum frauenfeldll Vlrgularla pres bytes Stylatula antillarum Acantnoptllum agassizll !.. ol'gacl s -T.nell ... (Ho laxon I a) T~es .. clrtlna .I. plana Swl ft I a £!!.!!. Tr I chogorg I a !.!.2.!.!. Eunlc .. palmerI Eunlc .. knlghtl "'uric .. pendula Leptogorgla medusa Lopnogorgla cardinal Is Indicates specIes wlt~ principal distribution .Ithln study area but also reported fra. Cube. Table 5-3. EndemIc elements ot the scleractlnlan fauna from the shallow-water continental sh.,f regions (less than 200 m or 660 ft) of the sout~ern and sout~eastern United States. (References as listed) Ocullna robusta PourtaleS. Ocullna tenella Pourtale'. Ocullna varlcosa Lesueur. Ocullna arbuscula Verrll I. FlabellulII fragIle Cairns. Caryophyilia ~orologlulII CaIrns. west coast of Florida. Recorded from the Cry Tortugas (Pourtales, 1871). Hourglass and t~e Florida ""ddle GrQ,lnds 8 to 55 m (26 to 180 ttl (Jaap, 1979, personal communication). Same geographical distribution as above,,6 to 73 III (117 to 240 ft). Rare otf Florida Keys at 72 to 90 m (236 to 295 ft) (Pourtales, 1871; Verrll I, 1901). Found at Loce Key from 5 to 30 III (16 to 100 ft) (Antonius, et al., 1978). Canlll:ln on t~e continental s~elf and shelf edge north of Palm aeach (Avent, et al., 1977; Reed, 1978, personal communication). Known as far north as Cape Hatteras, Nort~ Carolina from subtidal to 152 ~ In dept~ (Reed, 1980b). Also known from aennuda In 5 to 22 m (16 to 72 ft) (Verrll I, 1901). Ludwick and Walton (1957) Include a questionable report of this species from t~e northern Gulf of "'ex I co. Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to C~arleston, South CarOlina (~cCloskey, 1970). Reportedly common off Savannah, Georgia, 3 to 25 III (10 to 82 ft). Porter (1978, personal communication) reports this specl .. from aennuda. Eastern Gulf of MexIco and the Florida Keys (Cairns, 1977b). West Florida coast (Cairns, 1977b) and Florida Keys (Cairns, 1979, personal commUnlcatlon)~ 55 to 91 III (180 to 300 ft). Table 5-4. Sha' Iow-.ater Antlpatharla frem the continental shelYes of the southern United States. SPECI ES Clrrlpathes desbonnl (D. & M.) Antlpathes pennacea (Pal las) LOCAT I ON/OEPTH Sand Key, 81 m (267 ft) Jeff~ Reef (Vera aeactl. Florida), 80 to 90 m (265 to 300 ft). Crocker Reef, Florida. 28 m (93 ttl. AI Jlgator Light, Florida, 29 to 38 m (96 to 125 ttl. Antlpathes lenta Pourtales Carystort Reat - Dry Tortugas. Florida, 45 to 67 m (149 to 221 ttl. Parantlpathes columnarls (Ouch.) Dry Tortugas, Florida. 183 m (604 ft); East Flower Garden Bank, 91 m (300 ft). 5.1.1.4 Stylasterlna REFERENCE Pourtales. 1878; Reed, 1979. personal cemmunlcatlon; Goldberg. 1979, pel"'Sonal canmun I cat Ion. Goldberg, 1979. personal cO'llmun Icat ion. Opresko, 1974. Opresko. 1972. CaIrns (1979, personal ca.munlcatlon; SmIthsonian Institution recordS). .Some Stylasterlna have been reported In watel"'S less than 200 m (660 ft) deep (Boschlllll, 1957): Styla.ter duchassalngl P~ frem Dry Tortugas at 78 m (257 ft); ]L. punctata P. northwest of Dry Tortugas at 185 m (600 ttl, Dlstlchopora tollacea P. fram Key West at 183 m (595 tt) and off Vaca Key (Marathon) at 152 to 244 m (500 to 720 ttl; and Pllbothrus symmetrlcus p. fran American Shoal at 179 m (585 ft). Each of these records probably represents unusually shallow occurrences of deeper water specl es. 5.1.1.5 Potential CommercIa"Y Important Shal low-.ater Species WIthIn waters shal lower tI'laA-200 m (660 ft), corals have been Identified as havIng potentIal canmer clal value, defined herein a. a monetary value tor use In research, Industry (e.g., jewelry), or unusual art value. Although n .. rly al I corals could conceivably be, and have In the past, been marketed as curios, only speclea with IIIIIjor potential for explOitation are acknowledged as cemmer cla"y Important. At least nine specl. of soft coral. are currently being harvested for use In IIIIIrlne aquaria. These are Lept29S!gla vlrgulata. Brlareum asbestlnum. Tele.to rllsel, Ranltla mullerl. Dlodogorgla nodull fera, Nlcella schmlttl. S.lftla exserta, LophogorgJa cardInal Is, and Lophogorgla~. Approximately 25 percent of this current harvest comes fran the FCZ while 75 percent Is taken fran state watel"'S according to members of the Councils' advisory panels. SpecIes which have had canmerclal value In the past are Plexaura homomal la (black sea rod), Clrrlpathes lutkenl (black coral), and Manlcina areclata (rose coral). As detailed In Appendix D. these species could continue to have value In pharmacology research, jewelry, and tropical fish busInesses, respectively. Oendrogyra cXI indrus (pillar coral) Is used in HaIti In the jewelry and turnlture businesses but Is uncanmon In U.S. watars (see Geister, 1972, tor ecology). 5-10 '.1.1.6 Protected Shallow-.at.,. Speclel Allde frQl state and federal 'a.1 and regulatlonl protecting corall In general, 14 spec/. have been Identified al worthy of special protection (Table 5-,). Antonius, et al. (1978) noted that pillar coral (Oendrogyra cyllndrul) has been reean .. nded for listing as an endangered specl. under the U.S. Endangered Specl. Act; no f01'l'lll1 action has yet been taken on that IIIOtlon (Roe, 1979, personal canmunlcatlon). A conference sponsored by the Atlantic Reef Caa.ltt .. on June 15, 1979, detenftlned the specl. to be threatened I n the manag .... nt ar .. but not endangered thrQlghout I ts range (det I ned by the Endangered Specl. Act as worldwide for Invertebrat.). Jaap (unpublished) produced a SUIlIlIllr-y document on syst ... tlcs, distribution, stratigraphy, and ecology of the pillar coral for the me.ting. The Florida Cemmltt .. on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals (a private group that suppll. Intor metlon to state agencl • .,. has listed as endangered thrQlgllout the Florida r .. f tract (In all unpr~ tected areas, I.e., outside Biscayne National Park and other ar48s) an addltl~nal 13 species. All of the corals listed as continental shelf fiShery resourcel In the Fishery Conlervatlon and Manag nt Act of 1976 that mey occur In the menag nt are. are found deepe,. than the 200 II (660 ft) contour. Table 5-,. Corals categorized as endangered by the Florida CQIII/IIltt .. on Ra,.e and Endangered Plants and An lmel s •• COIIIIIOn Name Elkhorn coral Staghorn coral Fused stagllo,.n coral Pi liar coral Large f I ow.r coral Flow.r coral L.ttuce coral Starlet coral aral n coral Bral n coral Brain coral Smel I star coral Large star coral Bra I n coral Scientific Name Acropora pal mata (Lamarck) Acropora cervicornis (Lamarck) Acropora prollfera (L.,..rck) Oendrogxra cylindrul Ehrenberg ~ angulola (Pallas) Eusmilia faltlglata (Pallal) Agarlcla agarlcltel(Llnnaeul) Siderastr .. sider .. (EI lIs and Solander) Olplorla cllvosa (Ellis and Solander) Olplorla labyrlnthlformls (LlnnalUs) Olelorla strlgosa (Oana) Montastra .. annularll (EI lIs and Solander) Montaltra .. cavernos. (LlnnalUs) M .. ndrln. meBndrltel (LlnnalUl) • Although this CClllmltt .. (FCREPA) Isa private group of scientists .nd conservationists, the lists they prepare do contrIbute ta efforts by the Flo,.lda G ..... nd Fr.h W.ter Fish C<IIIlIIlsslon (GFWFC) In theIr own Endange,.. Specl. Program. How.ver, .Ince the GFWFC .ddr .... only vertebr.te anlmels, the FCREPA lIst constltut. the only st.te lIsting of marIne Invertebrates, Including co,.al s. These specl •• re not neeessarli y rare or endangered .t th 1st 1M. Source: Layne, 1979, personal canmunlc.tion; Simon, 1979, personal canmunlcatlon). 5-11 5.t.2 c .. p.ater earal. As • .group, d.ep.at.,. cor.I. (found d.eper th.n 200 II or 660 ft) .,.. .-ong the most poorly und.rstoOd corals consld."ed In this pl.n. FI.,d.nd laboratory oba.Natlons of d.ep.at.r specl .. a"e lackl ng. Co.ll.ctltlg expeditions have be.n fair to adequate; the best available sources of data are the co"al SpeCIMns scattered at " ... arcn Institution. such as the Florida O.partnlent of Natural Resources ."'.rln. Lab, the SIIIlthsonlan In.tltutlon, the MUs.J1I of CCllpar .. tlve Zoology at HaNard, the University ofMJ Jls Ros.nstl.1 SdIool of Marine and AtnIosp".rlc SCiences, .nd T .... A&M University. Cairns (1979) h.s callpr:eh.nslv.ly revl .. ed the deep.at.r Scl.ractlnla but the d.ep •• ter Gorgonl. r",.'n rel.tlvely unstudied, e.pecl., Iy outsld. the Gulf of ", .. leo; Gla.mona (1978) hal surveyed octocorals In tne .estern Gulf. Th. work of C.lrns (1979) on deepw.ter scler.ctlnl.n coral zoogeogr.phy reve.led seven species to be endemic (I.e., IIIIIted) to the temperate region off the •• stern United St.t ... · FIve of those specl .. have. primarily w.rm temper.te distrIbution (Concentrotheca I.evlgat., Cyathocer.s sgul"e.', Thecops."""I. socl.lls, a.thyps."""I. tlntlnn.buluIII, and Jt. f.llosoc'."s', two .r. found In cold tem per.te waters (Ena"ops ... '. p"ofund. and 0.5IIIOslllill. Iymanl). Gener.lly, C.rlbbe.n w.ters have more deepw.te" specl .. th.n adJ.c.nt w.ters. Fol"ty-two specl .. of scl.ratlnlans ar. known In the Gulf of MexIco. In the w.rm tempe".te weste"n Atl.ntlc, 28 specl .. occur. Of those specl .. , 14 ."e trop I ca I and do not occur north of C.pe H.ttera., seven are end ... , c to the t8lllper.te region north of FlorId. and Cuba, and seven specl .. • r. mor. caamopollt.n. ~rth of Cape Hatteras, 12 specl .. have been r~rted, six of which also occur In •• ". tempe".te •• ters. DIstrIbution m.ps and tables of th.se cor.'s .re Included In C.lrns (1979). r Gi mon. (1978) studied the taxonCllY and distrIbutIon of octocor.ls In the Gulf of "'--leo, emphaslZlt~ the Tex.s continental sh.,f region but also covering w.ters deeper th.n 220 m (660 ft). arlef t~ono­ mlc descriptions are wrItten for 58 specl ... nd distributional maps are pr .. ented for 152 specl ... Gorgonlan palaeontology was .Iso dl scussed. In 11ght of the Inadequate data bese, sep.rate sections discussing the other IIIIIJor taxonanlc groupings of deepwater cor.ls .re nat .ttempted. Appendix E, however, p"ovldes • species list Including orders and families of the deep •• ter cor.l. fra. the management ar ••• 5.1.2.1 Olstrlbutlons WIthIn the ",anag nt .r .. there .r. at le •• t 183 specl .. of corals coll.cted frail deeper th.n 200 m (660 ft) (Appendix E). Although Info,...tlon from deepw.ter collections Is f.r frail complete, the areas of highest cor.' conc:entrrtlon .'ong the Atlantic coast appear to be betwe.n the 600 and 800 m (1,960 to 2,600 ft) contour. of the contln.ntal slope where deep •• ter banks .r. found (se. Table 5-1 and Section 6.2.1.3). Although. catplete listing of cor. I specl ... ssocl.ted .Ith such .tructur .. Is Impossible at pr .. elTt, .1' le .. t 23 specl of coral have be.n collected f"QIII 1'''- (s •• Appendix Fl, Including SOIM sPecl .. of potelTtl.I Call1lllrcial v.lue (se. Appendix 0). '.1.2.2 Potential Commercl.lly Important O .. p •• t.r Specl •• Due to the distance frail shore and the Inconv.nlenc. of collecting corals In wat.rs deepe,. than ZOO m (660 ft), prOjections of canllllrcial value must be based on use of slmll.r species .ls .. h.r.8 .special,y Hawall e Ei.ghtdeepw.t.r corals found off the Gulf of Mexico and south Atlantic U.S. coa.ts tllIYe been Id.n- / tlfled as having potential cammirclal value. The skeletons of each species ar. very hard and amenable to cutting .nd pOlishing for j.w.'ry. As described In Appendix 0, these corals ar.: the precious red 5-12 coral s Coral II u • .!!!!!!!. anet.£.. niobe; the balllbOo coral s Acane" a eburnea, Kerato I sis f I ex I b II Is, !5.. ornata, and Lepldlsls caryophyilla; the black coral Lelopatnes glaberrlma; and tne hydrocoral Olstlchopora follac ... In addition to these eight speeles, an additional se~n ha~ ~en noted In AppendIx E as haying so~ possIble c~clal market. Those se¥an specIes Include sIx gold corals (gorgonlans) and one hydrOCOf"al, all .Ith po'tent.!al ",'ue In je.elry rnenufac1'ure. None of tnese specIes are presently exploited due to the risky and expensl~ na'ture of deep.ater har~stlng. Collections by sub~rslble, as employed In 'the Ha.allan precIous coral Industry, ha~ not been applied to the .est.,..n Atlantic or Gulf of ~xlco stocks. '.1.2.3 ~rotec'ted O"p.a't.,.. Corals No deepwater spec I es he~ been II sted as endangered or threatened by the Endangered Specl es Act nor are any under consideration for Ils'tlng (Roe, 1979, personal communication). Of the se¥an deepwa'ter species recogniZed In AppendIx 0 as having c~"clal,pOt..,tlal, Coraillu. (precious red coral) and K.,..atolsls (bamboo coral) are lIsted as fishery resources In the Flsh.,..y ConserYatlon and Nanage~n't Act of 1976. '.2 Abundance and ~resent Condition '.2.1 Shallow-.at.,.. SpecIes Information concerning relatl¥e abundance of shallow-.ater corals must be gleaned from a large number of papers, rapol"'1's, and personal unpublished obser¥e'tlons of specifIc coral habItats and communitIes. Since these s'tudles/obserYatlons .ere almest al.ays conduc'ted at dIfferent tImes by dlfferen't In¥estl 'ga1'ors usIng dIfferent ~thods, the composIte da'ta base Incomplete and InconsIstent and does not pro ylde a 'thorough assessmen't of the presen't condition of the coral s'tock. Howe¥er, aYallable data do allow an o ... rvlew of the resourse. For purposes of discussIng relatl~ abundance of shal low-.at.,.. corals, the management unIt may be subdlylded In'to se~n regions baSed on general species compositIons (see Flgur .. 5-2 and 5-3). Each of these regions Is discussed Indlyl dually below. As an o¥ervlew of mlJorshallow-water coral communities sur¥eyed In the following, Figure 5-4 locates the mljor hard botta. and coral r .. f areas of the Gulf of MexIco and south AtlantIc. 5.2.1.1 North Carolina to Cap! Cana~al The coral fauna along the edge of the continental shelf from Cape Hatt.,..as, ~h Carolina, to Cape Cana ... ral, FlorIda, r ... lns Imperfectly known. Studl .. by MenzIes, et al. (1966) and MacIntyre and Mil limen (1970) IndIcate that ~Ielstocene algal accumulatIons account for the ledges, small terraces, and slIght rIses of the continental' mlrgln off North and South CarolIna, while oolitIc deposIts predomi nate In the mere southerly sector • .2,. I4rlcosa Is present on the Inner and mId-shelf (3 to 40 m) as small dIscrete colonies «30 cm dlame'ter, usually <15 cm), and on the outer shelf and upper slope to depths of 1'2 m eIther as Indlyldual colonIes (1 to 2 m dIameter), thickets, or banks. Distribution Is unknown from Cape Cana~ral tnrough north Florida except mention by MaCintyre and MIlliman (1970) of large clusters off nol"'1'h Florida. It seems possible that further study will re~al a patchy distribution of Ocullna communities elsewhere In this region. Corals on the outer contlnen'tal shelf proper are characterized by patches of low relief hard bot'toms also referred to,as "II ... bottoms" (S'truhsaker, 1969). Hard-bot'tom communities throughout this shelf ar .. ha~ been reviewed by Contlnen'tal Shelf Assoclat .. (1979). NOAA's Office of Coastal Zone I I 1. . North Carolina to Central Florida 2. Central Florida to Southeast Florida 3. Southeast Florida 4. South Florida (Florida Keys) 5. Northeastern Gulf of Mexico N 6. Northern Gulf of Mexico r OI Nortre~.~::: ... ~.U.}f of Mexico P.l/JS] ... - ':y r-. ....... \" L . -I .~ ~- - \ l ++/-':rfJ;;tliWfftm~· fi¥iWf'iiWtJl41!~ffWJ0~ .. ,\··,.{ .•. , --~,. \. . -Hfffit:.n ....•. ::.== ............... l:.:.: ... :.:.>.;-:.:t.:.fl.;-:.:.~-.}JL}i?Jt~tiW--\· "\ \~ \ .---\ ~ ' ~- r' '.~ 1 \.. r- •. ....... - \ . . , ,. \ 1, • • .. , ~ . ,., r \ -t ~ .:....-- ..... \ . ---\. ·t· \\ . \ , \ \ . \. -,.,,;., ....•.. , .. ,,,: ::'" ... ". ,," ; . \. . \..J ,'''' .' ... "". "'''':'. ::-.c> ....... . ,-, .... ,."." .,?\ .:;~. " -.!-dI FIGURE 5-2. less than 200 m or 660 ft.) coral regions discussed in Section 5.ii. .-. • I!! < Q a: o l ~ ~ .. • III ... • c • C't • i C't 5-15 € il 0 • 2 6-! ~c$-. 0) ¥ ¥o J Vi I .... 0\ 30" 28" 2b· 118" H" .... 82 211 /-, " , ." . ASI fUlWlA OMIOlH UHIIS elA ..... 1 UHII wE51 fUlWlA QARqtH 5 .Itl5()N 80" 88· I ........ flOflUA. \IIIIOOU GEOROIA / 'CIIIAY 5 .,i, I I I q I \ \ " " , , , , ) ' I I • :' / OIIaCM// .... / / ,,/ , C1 CAMAWAAI. \.!B!U!!. I \ " foill NACI S,UMI • , I , , \ !.. £' \ ~hlMOO \ MY~ .... 'fL&uoA IOfIfUQA5 ...- ." 1IlY5 .. -... ..... lCly M5r 14· 80" .:. .,. w 32 JOO 2 .. 28" FIGUR[ 5-~. Distribution of hard banks and prominent hard bottoms in the Gulf of Mexico and south Atlantic regions. Hatched line denotes edge of the continental shelf at 200m (660 ft.). Maneg.-nt (1979d) cl ted reports th.t thr .. to 30 p.rcent of the sh., f reg Ion Is co ... red by "II ... bot~. h.blt.ts. Th .... r ... ar. Inhabited by traplcal and subtropical flsh.s. coral lin. alga •• spong.s. hydrolds. and ... rlousspecl .. of oth" In~rt.br'at .. and coral. They ha ... been d.scrlbed at depths of 20 to 40 II (66 to 132 ft) frOll Onslow Bay, North C.rol/na, by Maclntyr. and PI/k.y (1969) and Huntsman and Maclntyr. (1971). Flgur. 5-5 d.plcts the distribution of the stump coral, Solenastr .. hyad.s (Dana), and the starl.t coral, Sld .. astr .. sid .... (Ellis and Soland.r). In the bay. Four oth.r ~pecl" of scl.ractlnlans w.r. noted: Balanophyilia florldana Pourtal.s; Phyllangla alMl'lcana Milne-Edwards & HaIM; Astrangla~Agasslz (.~. astr.lforlllis M.-E. & H.); and the 8'1. coral, Ocullna arbuseula V.rrili. Additional scl.ractlnlan records for the North CarolIna continental sh.,f Includ. a number of small. mostly solitary specl.s: Rhizosmilia maculata (reported as Bathycyathus maculatus). Oasmoslllilia Iymanl; Rhlzotrochus fregilis (reported'as Monomyc.s tragllls); Paracyathus d.flllpll; an~ Cladocora sp. (C.rame-VI ... s and Gray, 1966). R.ports from South Carolina and Georgia wat .. s (Powl.s and Bar.ns, 1979; Reed,' 1978, persona' communication, r .. pectl ... ,y) Indlcat. that the cor. I faun. Is larg.'Y the sa .. as off North Carolina, exc.pt that cor.' patch.s ar ..... n III)re spars.'y distributed (Sarans, 1978, personal cQllllUftlcatlon). On. particularly Inter .. tlng hard bottom com~nlty known as Gray's R .. f occurs approx'mat.,y 33 kll (18 nm) .ast of Sap.'o Island, Georgia (Flgur. 5-4; Section 6.3). This compl.x rises from a d.pth of 22 m (72 ft) to a cr.st at 18 m (59 ft). It Is .pproxlmat.,y 6 kll (3.2 nil) long .nd 2 km (1 nil) wid •• Th. g.ology of Gr.y's R •• f has be.n stUdied by Hunt (1974), but nothIng has been published reg.rdlng Its cor. I fauna. Although the ar.a Is not a true coral r .. f (s .. Tabl. 5-1), • nu~r of corals and th.'r assocl.tes .r. found th.r •• Port.r (1978, p.rsona' COMmUnication) noted th.t the blomess Is dominated primarily by a larg. pink ascldlan (probably Eudlstoaa sP.), secondly by the gorgonlan Leptogorgla sp. (probably.!:.. vlrgulata), and thirdly by scl.ractlnlans, Ocullna ... rlcosa Id.ntlfled by J. K. Reed and ey. coral. Ocullnaarbuscula. It confirmed, this Id.ntlflcatlon .xt.nds the rang. of ~. arbuscula from Charl.ston to Sa ... nnah (McClosk.y, 1970). Oth .. specl.s noted by Port .. Inc Iud. stump coral (Solenastr .. hyad.s), star coral (Montastra .. annularls, unca.mon), Cladocor. arbuseula. Astrangla (astr.,form's • ~), and Phyllangla alMl'lcana. Bay.r (1961) stated that the sh.'f.octocora' fauna frOll the .ast coast of Florld.'north of Cape C.n .... r., Is Indlstlngulshabl. frOll the fauna from Georgia and the Carolln.s. Reports frOll North Carolina (Menzl .. , .t al., 1966; Crame-VI ... s and Gray, 1966), South Carol In. (Powl.s and B.r.ns, 1979), and Georgia (Reed, 1978, person. I cOll~nlcatlon) appear to confirm this conclusion for both octocorals and sCI.ractlnlans (Appendlc.s A and C). 5.2.1.2 Central Florid. to South FlOrida (Cap. Cana...,.al to Palm B.ach) This sh.,f region (Flgur. 5-2) repr ... nts a transitional zan. for coral fauna and d.s.r ... s special consld.ratlon. Th. sh.,f edS- contains a conspicuous band of plnnacl.s, bench.s, lII)unds, and troughs (h.r. co".ctl ... ,y r.f.rred to as h.rd bottoms) which ar. often capped by the I~ry tr .. cor.', Oculln .... rlcosa L.sueur. Although the species occurs at least as f.r north as Cap. H.ttera., North Caro'.'n. (R.ed, 1980b), Its structur.' d .... ,opmant Is gr .. t .. t In this region. thlck.ts 1-2 m (~6 ft) hIgh .r. found on plnnacl •• with up to 25 m r.,I.f (A ... nt, .t al., 1977; R.ed, .t al., In pr ... ). A major portion of the sh.,f edS- fs litter" with Ocullna d.brls (Maclntyr •• nd Mllllllln, 1970). The Oculln. cOllllllllnlty harbors. rIch IAtrt.brat. and In ... rt.brat. faun. which Includ.s oth.r scl.rac tlnlans (Astrangl. astr.lforllls, Balanophyilia florldana. Cladocora d.bllls, Paracyanthu. pu'ch.,lus, and Coenocyathus .pecl .. ) and octocorals (Telesto n.II ... , and Tltanldeum frauenf.ldll) (AlAtnt, et al., 1977). Two hundred species of molluscs, 47 specl.s ot amphlpod crustac •• ns, 21 species of echi noderms. and 50 species of decapod 'crustac.ans ha ... been found directly assocIated with Ocullna ... rl ~ (R.ed, et al., In press). 5-17 Although shel f-edg. Ocullna Call1llUn I ties se .. not to pers I st south of Jupl ter, F lorida, the species Is found on coqulnold rock ledges scattered ove .. the shal low shelf south to St. Lucie Inlet and Stuart, Florida (27- lorN) where Ocullna Is associated with decidedly Carolinian octocorals such as Lophogorgle and Leptogorsla sPP. In spite of the Antll lean ecological character of other groups .hlen persist north to Cape Canaveral (Avent, et al., 1977; arlggs, 1974), the seleractlnlan and octo corallian fauna becane Ant II lean only south of St. Lucie Inlet (In a similar fashion to the ~ollusea studied by Work, 1969). The coqulnold ledges here possess the,s .... specIes noted above, but mixed .Ith tropical genera such as the Olplorla (brain coral). lsophyilia (cactus coral), Montastra .. (star cora", and tile octocorals Eunlc .. , Pseudopterogorgla, and Gorgonla (Reed, 1979, personal call1llUn I cat Ion). 5.2.1.3 Southeast Florida Coast (Palm a .. ch to Fowey Rocks) South of 27· north latitude to near ~Iaml, the continental shelf narrows to 3 to 5 km (1.6 to 2.7 nm) and the wal"'lll waters of the Florida current becane the most dominant hydrographic featlre (Lee and McGuire, 1972). Thus, In the vicinity of Palm aeach, Florida, Carolinian corels are replaced by a diverse hard-bOttom community, tropical In character. zoogeographically similar to that of the Florida Keys, but less .ell developed than the majority of the Florida r .. f tract. The hard-bottom community found In this region Is dominated by gorgonlan coralso The antlpatharlan black coral Clrrlpathes lutkenl Is prominent below a depth of 22 m (72 ft) but the seleractlnlans are less abundant at the northern end (Wheaton-Smith and Jaep, 1976) and In the vicInity of ~Iaml (Courtenay, et al., 1975) than In the central Florida coastal region (Goldberg. 1973a,b). The underlying substrate Is a Holocene elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata. and staghern coral. !,. cervicornis, relic r .. f which lies 15 to 30 m (50 to 100 ft) below present se. level. The reef apperently has not been active for the last 7,000 ye.rs (Lighty, et al •• 1977). Presently, the domi nant hennatypes are the large star coral Montastraea cavernosa, the 5II1II11 star coral.!. annularls, the lettuce coral Agarlcla I ... rckl, and the brain coral Olplerla cllvosa. Other stony corals known frail the southeast Florida coast are summariZed In Appendix C. The deeper zones of this community (20 to 301ft; 66 to 100 ft) are characterized ~y the presence of the scleraxonlan gorgonlan JclllgOl'sla schr ...... 1 as described by Goldberg (1973a). Wheaton-Smith and Jeep (1976) and Courtenay, et a'. (197" have confll"'llled the existence of the same zonation off Pelm aeach and Miami aeach, respectively. Other octo cora I IIans from this area are summarized In Appendix A. 5.2.1.4 Florida Keys (Fowey Rocks to the Ory Tortugas) With the exception of reefs of aemuda and the northern aahamas, the Florida Keys represent the northerMOst 11,.lt of coral reefs In the .estern Atlantic. "'any well developed patch and oute .. bank reefs, such as Carysfort Reef and Key Largo Ory Rocks, oCQ,lrshor.,ard of the 18-111 (6o-ft) Isobath and are dominated by Acropora palmata (elkhorn) and Millepora comelanata (encrusting fire coral) at the crest. followed by!,. cervicornis (staghorn), Montastra .. annularls (small star coral >. and.!. cavernosa (large star coral), In successlvel·y deeper zones (Shinn, 1963). There Is little specific InfOnUltlon on the.dlstrlbutlon and abundance· of corals on these r .. fs In spite of the'r position as the northern most Acropora reefs In the western Atlantlc~ The outer bank r .. fs of Biscayne National Park to the north have been described by Voss, et al. (1969) but quantitative data.on distributIon and abundance of corals on a single reef were not Included. Ongoing researen at the Park should fll I this data gap (Jeep and Wheaton Lowry, In preparation; Tllmant, 1979, personal communication). , The only outer r .. f syst .. presently described In detail Is Lace Key Reef, In the lower Florida Keys (Antonius, .t al., 1978). Hence, although Loce Key Is only one of many outer bank r .. fs, most of this ,/ discussion Is limited to this representative area. The reef crest at Loce Key Is dominated by 5-HI 35 KEY • lo·or~TtI I .. IKTU' . -• 78 77 .... • FIGURE 5-5. Areas of tropical reef corals in Onslow Bay, North Carolina (after Huntsman & Macintyre, 1971). 5-19 "'Illeporl so-ellnl~1 Cencru.tlng fIre coral); Acroporl cervicornis (steghorn) Is not prevalent. The cr .. t Is transe~ed by valleys, SOMe of which ex~end seaward as a systam of spurs and grooves (5 & G) perpendicular to the Key.' generll cOl.tllne. The S & G system at Loo. Key Is roughly 800 m (2,600 ft) long, 300. (990 ft) wide, and .Iope. sharply fro. the surface to a sand bottc. at 9 to II m (29 to .35 f~). The spur, are canpo.ed of a fr ...... ork of ~. palmatl (elkhorn) capped by colon'es of 'iery large, 'Ivlng Montlstra .. annularl. (smal I star coral), Olplorll strlgosa (brain coral). and COlpophyllla natans (moon coral). Montlstra .. cavernosa ('arge star coral) becomes dominant at the deeper ends of the spurs. Mon~astr ... spp. and Acropora p.lma~1 are numerically dominant on the spurs, accountIng for 54 percent of the sclera~Inlan •• The gorgonlan fauna are domInated primarily by Pseudopterogorgl • ..erlc.n. and Gorgonl. ventallna which caaprlse 19 percent of the fauna. Secondary do.ln.nts are PleXlurl fl.exuo ... Pseudop~erogorgla acero ... ,",urlce. atlantic., and ErythrOpodlUIII carlbaeorum which account for an addltlon.1 18 percent of the gorgonlans foun~ In this zone. The end of the spur and grOO¥. zone at Loo. Key Is marked by a sandy plain at iO to 12 m (.3.3 to 40 ft), which grades Into a deeper reef zone, particularly to.ard the .est. A second tIer of deep spurs and grOO¥es continues to a depth of .30 to 35 m (100 to 115 ft). Octocorals such lIS the rough sea plume (,",urlceopsls flavlda; eleven percent of deep reef gorgonlan.) are cammon but are rtplaced by Psuedopterogorgla blplnnata (the blplnnate sea feather) and Iciligorgla schr ... 1 (13 percent) wIth Incr .. slng depth. The scler~in'ans of the deep reef are simIlar In compo.ltlon to the shal lower zones but contain a relatively greater abundance of branching fonft. such as Eusmilia fastlglata (star or flo •• r coral), Porites porites, and "'adracls sPP. Cflnger coral). The larger scler~lnlans of the deep r .. f are Agarlcla (lettuce coral) and "'ycetophyilla. The zone landward of the reef crest at Loo. Key Is the reef fla~ zone. Coral diversity there Is limited and Indl'ilduals present are usually smell and encrusting. OoInlnant specl .. Include the mustard hll I coral Porites astreoldes (27 percent of r .. f flat Scleractinia), the brain coral Olplorla cllvosa (17 percent), the fire coral "'I I lepora squarrosa (14 percent), and the starlet coral Siderastrea slderea (II percent). Gorgonians are the most conspicuous element here and consls~ prin cipal Iy of two species, Gorgonla ventallna (cammen sea fan; 27 percent) and P~erogorgla citrin. (yellow sea whip; 4.3 percent)o AntonIus, et al. (1978) also descrIbed the patch r .. f zone closest to Loce Key. This area contains the same sclera~lnlan species as descrIbed for the reef flat, except that an Increased abundance of Acropora cervicornis Is noted. T.enty-slx species of gorgonlans were found In this zone, but only one species. Pseudoplexaurl flagello .. (flagel late false Plexaura; nine percent), accounted for more than six percent of the Individual •• Patch r .. fs of the FlorIda Key. heve received the most comprehensive treatment as far as ecology and systematics of corals In the ... nag .... nt area are concerned. Comparisons between reefs and ar .. s, however, are callpllcated by env I ro""ental variables which fluctuate with the locetlon of the patch. Wave and current expo.ure, exposure to Florida eay water the".,hal Ine and turbIdIty fluctuations, dIstance frail shore, and depth al I playa role In quantltltlve and qualitative coral development. Generally, patch reef. found In the lagoon between the outer re.fs and the Florid. Keys mey Include star corals Montestr ... spp., fire corals ""I lepora sPp., regular finger coral Porites porites (f.. fureata or!.. dlvarlcatl), mustard hIli corll!.. astreoldes, starlet corll Siderestr .. sPP., brain eorll Dlplorll cllvosa, and staghorn Acroporl cervicornis. Acropora pllmatl (elkhorn) Is almostalw.ys absent. Antonius, et al. (1978) found that five species composed 50 percent of the stony corals found on the patch r .. fs at Loo. Key; "'Illepora canpl.na~l. the star corals Olchocaenla stellarls, Siderlstr •• slderea, and ~ntastra .. annularls accounted for eight to ten percent each, while staghorn coral Acroporl cervicornis dominated with 15 percent of the total. j Inshore waters In the Immadlate vIcinity of the Keys are dominated by hardy corals (Including the 5-20 brain COl"al Olplorla cllvo ... !!ti!. fraqUIII. Porites porItes. f.. astreoldes. Slderastrea radIans. S. sIder .. , rose coral Manlclna areolata. and Cladocora arbuscula), whIch appear to have a greater toleranee to sIlt, thel"lllOhallne change., and unconsolidated bottom (Vaughan. 1919; KisslIng, 1965). Voss and Voss (19~5) have descrIbed such an .nvlronment In the vicinity of SOldier Key. the north.rn most of the FlorIda K.ys, as have Turmel and Swanson (1976) at ,RodrIguez Bank, near Tavernl.r, Florida. The dominant scleractlnlan In both locatIons 15 Porlt.s porlte. (Porlte. dlvarlcata), found In a distinct seaward band associated wIth thecoral,lIne alga Gonlollthon sp. and turtle grass Thalassla testUdlnum. Quantitative InformatIon ,dealing with distribution and abundance of gorgonlans Is available for several back rHf areas In the Florida Keys. Opresko (1973)' has analyzed gorgonlan data for Boca Chlta Pass, Soldier K.y, and Red R •• f (Tabl. 5-6 and Section 5.4). Th. first two locations lie on the s.award sid. of Biscayn. Bay and are subject to fluctuations In salinity, temperatu,.., and turbIdity. Boca Chlta Pass Is the least oceanic In cha,.act.,. and not surp,.lslngly Possesses the lowest dlve ... lty and d.nslty of gorgonlans. Red RHf Is a lagoonal patch ,.Hf located on,~a"got Fish Shoal, approximately 4 km (2 nm) .ast of Elliott Key and about 3 km (1.6 nm) w.st of the out.,. ,. .. f a,.c (Long R.ef) (Flgur. 5-6); this location displayed the gr.atest dlv.rslty and d.nslty of the a,..as studied by Opresko (Table 5-6). Comparative Information Is available for the gorgonlan fauna on other lagoonal patch r .. fs. Bagby (1978) has studied th,. •• sites off Key Largo, Flo,.lda, chosen to p,.ovlde a vi .. of the Influenee of IncreaSing oceanic conditions. Th. patches, her.aft.,. ,.efer,.ed to as Five, S.v.n and Nine Kllomet.,. R.efs. ar. named for their respective dlstanc.s from K.y La,.go, Florida. Nine Kllomet." Reef Is Imma diat.ly sho,.ewa,.d of the oute" r.ef a,.c just south of Molasses R.ef (Flgu,.e 5-6). Tabl. 5-6 compa,.es distribution and abundance reco,.ds of gorgonlans from both Op,.esko (1973) and Bagby (1978). It Is appar.nt that Pseudopte"ogorgla ame,.lcana (slimy sea plume) and~. acerosa (po,.ous false PI.xau,.a) are the most wldesp,.ead specl .. , being found at every station. In ag,. ..... nt with the conclusions of Op,..sko (1973). 1:. ac.rosa I s most' common Inshore. wh" e~. amer I cana Is mo,.e dom I nant at offshor. patch ,.eef stations. Equally wldespreed, but nume,.lcal Iy less dominant, a,.e the species PI.xaurella dlchotome (double-fo,.ked Plexau"ella) and Plexau,.a flexuosa (sea' rod). The forme,. Is p,.es.nt at al I stations but Is abundant only at Sold/e" K.y and Five KIICllllete" Reef. Two specl .. , Eunlcea succlnea (amber Eunlc .. ) and Pterogorq/a c/t,.lna (yel low sea whip), a,.e distributed in abundance at both Soldl.,. K.y and Nine KIICllllete" Re.f, but not In Intermediate areas. Pseudoplexaura po,.osa was dominant on Five Kllomete,. R.ef and Plexaura hOlllOllNllla (black s.a rod) was of conside,.able importanee on Red R.ef, but neither was p,.a.lnent els .. ~.,.e In the a,..as studIed. Species with patchy 0,. widespread dlst,.lbutlons a,.. apparently the ,.ule ,.ath.r than the exception. Goldberg (1973a) noted that offsho,.e patch r .. fs n.a,. the 9 m (30 ft) ISObath off the southeast Flo"lda coast could be dominated by elthe,. Pseudopt."ogorqla ame"lcana or 1:. ace,.osa. PI.xaura flexuosa was equally abundant along with Eunlc.a calyculata (warty Eunlcea) and ~urlc .. muricata (spiny ~urlcea). Reefs at 14-to 20-m (46-to 66-ft) depthS off Palm Beach a,.e dominated by Plexau,.a flexuosa and Pte"ogo"gla cltrlna (Wh.aton-Smlth, 1976). Plexau,.a flexuosa and Pseudopte"ogorgla ame,.lcana dominated the shal low ,. .. fs at Long Key, Dry Tortugas (Wheaton Low,.y, In p,.epa,.ation). Thus, any 0,. al I of these species can be found prominently on Insho,.e 0,. offsho,.. ,. .. fs, In shallow wat.,. 0,. on oute" reefs at depths up to 20 m (66 ft). Thel,. ,.elatlv. abundance on a glv.n ".ef must therefo,.e be Interpreted with caution. Shallow patch ,..efs nea,. the oute" reef t,.act display a numbe" of clea,.-wate,. Indlcato,. species. Gor90nla ventalln. (CaBmaft se. fan), ~urlceopsls flavlda (rough s.a plume), Brlar.um asbestlnum (corky sea flng.,.), and Pseudopt."ogorgla blplnnata al I fal I In this category, In dec,.easlng o,.d." of con slst.ncy (Opresko, 1973; aagby, 1978). Howeve,., only the sea fan G. v.ntallna showed any co,.,.elation betwe.n abundance'and ,.e.f position. At Red R •• f and Five Kllomete,. Reef, this specIes accounted 5-21 VI I N N TABLE 5-6. Comparative dominance diversity of Gorgonacea in shoal waters of the Florida KeY~G A -after Opresko (1973). B - after Dagby (1978). A. SOLDIII III • 0 C A CHI 'A , ASS 1£0 1((' mcns I Of...,. QRUJlIJ I SPECIES I Of POP. ClIUAJlVE I SPECIES lor ..... (lillie •• succi .... 41.1 41.1 'SIII ... ter!l!!lI. 45.1 45.1 Irl ...... 21.4 , sucd .... !£!!!!!. .iliesll .... 'te~rlli. Jl.J 11.5 ~,,,,,'a ... 12.6 51.1 PI ... ur. i •. J !...k..!!!. ...... 11. rs.udopt.r!l!!S'· 4.7 IJ~2 .... Ic.- 9.9 61.6 Psrt:zt ... JP". n.o !f!!!!! "'""'iI1iit Ie. 2 ..... 'I ••• urell. ..5 17.1 'lel'OllOf'll. 9.9 77.5 (rlt"r~~IIII .. 12.2 "ehol ~ .,. ( ... leH J.J '1.0 .... Ie •• 1.2 14.7 ,Ie .. ur. 1.' e.beul.tI elO!!11t1 hexuo .. CoIORles SIIIPIId: 70J COIORI.s Slllpled: III CoIOR'n Slllpled: ,. .... of Specl •• : 16 lID. of Specl.s : 10 .... 0' Sfecle. : 21 CoIORI.s,., II.J ColOR I es'" 6.9 CoI I.I'-' 21 •• ClRUflll I ,I.. •• 1 .1.& 10.9 iI.1 BW: (' L A I 6 0 , A , CHI ( ( , (5aI) I (I l A I 6 0 , A , CHI ( ( , (7~' I (I l A I 6 0 , A , CHI ( ( f , .. , [IES I Of .... CtIIl.ATlVE I mCiES IOf POP. aJIILATlWE I SPECIES 10f .... CIIIIlATI'( I 'seuclDpl ••• ur. 1l.2 1l.2 ",rte;mts 21.) Z1.J (Uille •• succi ... 42.6 42.' IIOros. hlV -..oi 'ONS' Ps.~terol!rlli. 12.0 26.0 'seudDl!ter!l!rsI. 26.9 54.2 ~I. 12.1 55.4 re .... .. 21 ..... 11 ... 11 .. Irl.re.- 1.1 )v. ~. ric ... U.S 61.1 ,se::rtter ....... I. 11.2 M.' iiIiiit I RIll reIN PI ••• ur. 1.5 42.) Gor!itl. 6 •• 14.2 ... rlez" . 10.6 11 •• fI •• uoli ••• 11 .. n." . PI ••• ureli. 1.1 49.4 Irt.re .. ' •• 2 11.4 'leimft,l. '.1 16.9 aldiOt .iliis I I ... ~. ..... leeo~1s 7 •• 56.5 n.,,1 CoIORles S...,I : "' Colonl •• Slllpled: lUI Colonies Salpled: 6)4 lID. 0' Species n 110. of Species 25 .... of Species 20 c:Olonles,.2 26.4 Colonles,-' ll.' Colonles/ll2 16.1 )0 It 0 30 .00 ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ r- -tI'O 1 .. 0.., .rn l ,., .... , If, ,,,' ..... ,.11 ~ .. ..,."." . HI. II" .. .. I. II ~ ..... '" )0 .. '"''''''. ;0=.0 " Atll ..... \" .. ' .. uu 30 30 U". . \ o '0 t' -. • , , " • . \. . .', . : . ".,. "" , ' \ 20 30 .0 ., ..... ". • a 50 JO h' -..... '''''' ' ..... J t :;";::: 1. oj Ll·I ...... ' ' .... ... ~.~.! I' !,~(j:c .. ,.'''' $'~' . • 1It # .... J~,. . /"" lll" #" •• -'f, ..... 1 .' .".. ., ;~ .. , ..... ... , I , ,'" .... 1.':-.. ' ~ I ," ~ .. N JO 15 0 )0 '00 FIGURE 5-6. The Florida Keys with localities mentioned in the text. Arrows indicate major passes for bay water exchange (after Shinn et !l., 1977) • 5-23 foro 2.7 to 4.1 pe,.cerrt of the total fauna. At S.v.n Kllanete,. R •• f thl.s flgu,.e IncreaSed to 6.4 per cent. and at Nln. Kllo.et.,. R •• f It Inc,..ased again to 12.8 percents 5.2.1.5 No,.fh .. st.,.n Gulf of ~.Ico ThIs region Incluij.s the water-s off th. west coast of Flo,.lda f,.om th. Eve"glad.s nor"fh to Cap. San BIas on th. Florida Panhandl. (Flgu,.. 5-2). F,.om th. sfandpol'nt of coral comlllUnltl •• the best .known and most Impor"fant a,.ea In this "eglon Is a 1,536 km2 038 nm2) harod bottom nor"fhw.st of Tampa known as tne FlorIda ~Iddl. Grounds (Flgu,.. 5-4). Th. Flo,.lda ~Iddl. Grounds Is cha,.act.rIZed by st.-p-profil. Ilmesl'on. esca,.pments and knolls rising 10 to 13 m 03 to 43 ft) abOol. th. Su,.,.oundlng sand and sand sh., I substrat •• with ov.,.al I d.pths varying from 26 to 48 m (85 to 157 ft) (Smith. 1976). B,.OQks (1962) attributed the r.ll.f to und.rlvlng PI.lstocen. ,.ellc re.fs which flourished during the last inter-glacial epocti. At.pres.nt, live co,.als contribute little to the conflgu,.atlon of the area (SmIth. 1976). so that it Is best to use the tenn hard bottom rather than co,.al re.f to desc,.lbe It. This point Is und.r-sco"ed by the absence of the hennatypic sta" and brain co,.als Montast,.a.a and Dlplo,.la (Smith. et al •• 1975) characferlstlc of the Flow.,. Ga"d.n Reefs d.sc,.lbed In Secflon 5.2.2.7 below. Th. domlnanf sel.,.actlnlans In the Florida ~Iddl. G,.ounds Includ. Mad,.acls decacfls. Po,.ltes dlva,.lcata, Dichacaenia sf.'la,.ls, fl. stokes I I, and Scolymla lac.,.a. Octoco,.als, a ,..'atlvely mlno,. compon.nt of oth.,. Gulf ,. .. fs consld.,.ed below, a,.. p,.omln.nt on the ~Iddl. G,.ounds; dominant fonns lnclud. Mu,.lcH .'ongata (o,.ang. Mu,.lcH), Mu,.lc.a ~ (d.llcat. Mu,.lc.a), Eunlc .. calyculata (war"fy Eunlc.a), and Ple.au,.a fl •• uosa (s.a ,.od) (G,.lmm and Hopkins, 1977). AddItions to the latt.,. pap.,. hay. be.n mad. by Wh.aton Lowry (In p,.epa,.ation) and a,.. Included In Appendl. A. It Is of Int.,.est " note that several gen.ra of oaocorals (Plexaura, Eunlc.a, Ps.udopt.rogo,.gla, .tc.) usually considered typical of tropical areas occu,. this far nor"fh. A species zonation pattern exists on the Florida Middle Grounds with overlap betw •• n adjacent zones. Grimm and Hopkins (1977) d.sc,.lb. a Mu,.lcea-Dlchocaenla-Po,.ltes zone at 26 to 28 m (85 to 92 ft). From 28 to 30 m (92 to 100 ft) the dominant fonns a,.e Dichacaenia (.y. co,.al) and Mad,.acls. Millepora (fire coral) dominates f,.om 30 to 31 m (100 to 103 ft) but becom.s codomlnant with Mad,.acls f,.om 31 to 36 m (103 to 118 ft). A second shelf region with notabl. co,.al communities Is bounded by the wat.r-s off Tampa Bay on the nor"fh and Sanibel Island on the south. and has be.n Investigated and repor"fed by the Flo,.lda Depar"fment of Natural Resou,.c.s In thel,. M8III01,.s.2.t...1!!. Hou"glass Cruis.s. Th. so-called "Hou"glass "eglon" CFlgu,.. 5-4) consists of a va,.lety of bottom types. ~ocky bottom OCCU,.s at the 18 m (59 ft) contou" wh.,.. spong.s, aleyona,.lans, and the scleractinlans Sol.nast,. .. hyad.s (stump coral) and Cladaco,.a a,.buscula a,.e especIally pr-a.Jnerrt (Joyc. and WII Iiams, 1969). Smith (1976) noted addItional "patch ,. .. fs" (ha,.d bottoMs according to the d.flnitlons In Tabl. 5-1) which occu,. off Sa,.asota, Flo,.lda. Cal,.ns (1977b) publIshed an analysis of the ah.nftatyplc stony co,.als of the Hou"glass sampl.s; Jaep is curr.rrtly pr-epa,.lng a ,.eport on the oth.r scle,.actlnlana .. Whll. It Is appar.nt that the distribution of corals In this region Is Ir"egular, a considerabl. dlv.r-slty of scl.raetlnlans and oaoco,.alilans occur h.,.e and a,.. listed among those recorded f,.om the .ast.rn Gulf of M.xlco (se. Appendices A and C). Domlnanf species we,.. Sld.,.ast,.ea radians, Cladacora a,.buscula, Solenast,..a hyad.s. Phyllangla ame,.lcana, Ocullna dlffusa, and Ocul ina tenella; tw.lve oth." species we,.e ,.a,.e (Jaap. 1979, p.,.sonal commun Icat Ion). AS In the Flo,.'da Middle G,.ounds the Hourglass region oaocoral fauna Includ. Ca,.ollnlan and w.st Indian species. This Leptogorgla/Lophogo,.gia assemblage Is found in some abundanc. to the vicinity of Naples, F'o,.,da. (Wheaton Low,.y, in preparation) and pe,.slsts spo,.adlcal Iy to Cap. Sabl •• Flo,.lda eTabb and Mannl~ 1961). 5-24 In addition to the Florid. Nlddle Grounds and Hourglass areas, the eastern Gulf region also Includes abundant hard botto. ca.munltles (Causey, 1979, personal communication'. WOOdward-Clyde Consultants (1979' descrIbed the bIologIcal assocIatIons of these areas, In which Ocullna robusta Is particularly abundant. .. 5.2.1.5 Northern Gulf of MexIco This region Is bounded on the east by Cape San Bias, Florida, and on the west by the MIssissippi aelta (Figure 5-2). The shal low nearshore zone In this area appears to be a transition zone between hard bottom communIties to the east and southeast and localized hard-bank communitIes to the west. The area Is Influenced by the MIssiSSippI River outflow. Although ~ corals IManlclna areolata rose coral; 34 m (112 ft) depth; Jaap, 1979, personal communication' and Inshore hard bottoms have been reported 3 to 11 kin (1.5 to 5.9 nnt' offshore between Pan .. a City, Florida, and the Choct .. atchee Bay entrance (Brooks, 1974), most coral line areas are restricted to the outer edge' of the continental shelf In this region. The shelf edge lying in the area between the MlsslsslPDI Oelta and northwest FlorIda contains a nu""r of discontinuous mounds, hll Is, and pinnacles at depths of 80 to 158 nt (252 to 550 ft). Ludwick and Walton (1957) studied a section of these pranlnences off Nobl Ie, Alabante, (depth, 80 to 110 m or 252 to 350 ft; mean temperature, 18.3·C or 53·F) whIch .ere found to be PleIstocene rock composed chiefly of calcareous algae. Their relief averaged 9 nt (30 ft) above the surrounding terrain, and although no evidence of modern reef construction was found, a nu""~ of scleractlnlans and octocorals (In addition to the antlpatharlan Clrrlpathes sp.) .ere obtained by dredge and grab (Table 5-7). Tabl. 5-7. Shelf-edge corals fran the northern Gulf of Mexico. (Atter Lud.lck and Walton, 1957) Octacora I I I a N,dal,. accidental 15 Gray NeospongodeS agasslzl Oelehmann *Nlcell. guadalupensls O. & N. R"si. panlculata O. & N. Eliiselia sp. (funlcullna?) *Thesea ~ Oeleh n" VI I logorgla nlgreseen. D. & N. • '"d'cates most cQlllll)nly encountered specIes. 1 Probeb Iy O. robust. 2 Perhaps!!. d~ctls or .! ... perula Scleractinia *Ocullna varlcosa Lesueur (reported as O. dlstlcha,l *Nadracls mlr.i;'lls O. & M.2 *Bathycyathus sP. Anomocora fecunda Pourtales Balanophyilia sp. Oeltocyathus agasslzl Pourtales Oesmophyiliunt cailletl O. & M. AdditIonal specl .. of Octocorailla fran this regIon are lIsted In AppendIx A from Bayer (1951) and Glammana (1978), but wIth no IndIcation of whether they are associated with hard-bottom communities. Cairns (1977a) had publlshld a field guide and taxonomic key to the canntOner octocorals of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and Florida. S.2.1.7 North.estern Gulf of Mexico 5-2' " \ The principal communltl .. In the northwestern Gulf of Mexico (west of the Mississippi River Delta) are localized on the hard banks occurring on the shelf (s.e Figure 5-4). Numerous otner banks are beIng dIscovered as topographic; s.'hldl .. continue on the Gulf shelf. These banks usually originate in waters 40- to 100-m (131- to 330-ft) deep and Include filamentous and leafy algae (Bright, 1977; Glammona, 1978). Bright (1977) had grouped these banks Into thr .. categories based on their biota and depth of origIn, as described In Table 5-8 and Flgur .. 5-4 and 5-7. Only East and West Flower Garden Banks In group 3 peak at depths less than 25 m (82 ft), the other banks peak at ·58 to 70 m (190 to 230 ttl. Biota on these banks fal I Into at least six biotic zones. combinations of which are found on different banks (Bright, 1977). Table 5-8. Classification ot Gult of Mexico banks based on depth ot origin. (After Bright, 1977). Group 1 - Origin between 50 and 60 m (163 to 196 ttl contours Stetson Bank Sonnier Bank (Thr .. Hickey Rock) Clayplle Bank 32 Fathalft Bank Group 2 - Origin between 60 and 80 III (196 to 262 tt) contours MysteriOUS Bank Blackflsh Ridge Big Adalll Rock Sma I I Adalll Rock Ore ... Bank Southern Bank Hospl tal Bank North Hospital Bank Aransas Bank South Baker Bank Baker Bank 29 Fathom Bank Fishnet Bank Group 3 - Origin between 100 and 200 III (330 to 660 ft) contours East Flower Garden Bank West Flower Garden Bank Bright Bank Bouma Bank Ewi ng Bank Parker Bank 18 Fathan Bank 28 F a them Bank Two banks (Stetson and Sonnier) In the first group (those originating between the 50 to 60 m 1163 to 195 ftl contour) are dominated by the fire coral Millepora alclcornls and various sponges (GiamntOn~, 1978; Bright, 1977). Stet !On Bank, In particular, has been described In some detail by Bright and DuBois (1974) (Figure 5-8). This bank occupies about 4 ha (10 acres) of bottOlll compoSed primarily ot a soft claystone which rises tra. a lIIud bottom at roughly 49 III (161 ttl to a peak at about 20 III (66 ft). A wide variety of benthic organiSllls are comlllOn on the bank, Including the sponge " Neoflbularla sP. and the rock-boring bivalve Jouannetla qulilingi. Few scleractlnlan and no gorgonlan corals are found at Stetson Bank. Stephaneecenla mlchellnll (also reported as JL. Intersepta by some researchers) occurs with occasional encrustations of Madracls decactls (Bright and DuBois, 1974). Edwards (1971) reported the presence ot Siderastree sp. (starlet coral), and the star coral Montastraea annularls, brain coral Dlplorla strlgosa. and Madracls asperul~ on Stetson Bank, but these were not encountered by the former authors despIte extensive SCUBA and suo mersible operations. E. A. Shinn (personal communication) reports Millepora sp. as having been fairly comlllOn there In 1973. 5-26 Ul • N ...., 'ja· fj 7° '}f',. 9!:l° '-' "'.,- "'c 30Y • j I I I , ( • iii 29", .129" ~tl" 27·· 10 • ~f ...... t" ........ 'AS • ,-" ttOSI'll&L NO""'" eSOU'''. ... ! • I -, { ..... U(. •• • .. ·o. . ... ac: ...... MMiI ...... \ l : t' .... .,. ,rJJ· ..... .C&. .. ' .. ILI ..... II 'A'ItON II". .~III~ .... • it ,.,"'* IIoIIM , lI'~U ~~:'Il.~ stIU.... t .... 1 ••• ,HUM ...... ~.. ( .. ",0.. "'-- ,--,,~" 20 ,100 '01 I 50 IMileS la..,a" '411( (S . a) " ... '----'-J' 'IS,.., - . '-' ~ . ,tie 27" FIGURE 5-7. '~jor Texas-louisiana outer continenta1 she1f fishing banks (Bright and Rezak. 1978). ~ .. . .' •• .n '" .. . II .. \ .n • .., .n 5-28 ,/ Anotll.r bank wltllin Group 1 Is the Sonnier BanK (fo"..rly known as til. Th,. .. Hlck.y Rode). Tills bante Is a ~Id-shelf structu,.. caaposed of slltston. outcrops. Til. peak at 20 to 21 m (66 to 69 ft) Is almost entlr.'y .ncrusted wltll MIII.pora sp. (fir. co,.al) wlllcll persIsts to 40 ~ (132 ft) along wltll the spong.s Neat/bula,.la nOlltenger. and Irclnla sp. Althougll a specimen of Aga,.lcla sP. (Iettuc. coral) was recO¥,red at 52 ~,(170 ft), til. only caaman scl.,.actlnlan was Stepllanocoenla sp. at 36 to 41 m (118 to 135 ttl (Figure 5-9). Th. bas. of Sonnle,. lies at about 52 m (170 ttl, wll.,.e rubble gIves way to a ~d bottom at 58 m (190 ttl. Th. antlpatlla,.lan black corals Clrrlpath.s sp. and Antlpath.s sp. w.,.e noted trom 47 to 58 m (153 to 190 ftl adjac.nt to the bank but not on It. Bright (1978) considers the structur., environ ment, and bIota of Sonnl~ to be simIlar to Stetson Bank (descrl~ above). The second group of banks, of wllich Southern Bank (Flgur. 5-10) Is typical, dOes not rise as close to the surtac. as most banks and Is charact.rlZed prImarily by antlpatllarlans of the genus Clrrlpath.s. Also present ar. scatt.red encrustatIons ot coral lin. alga. and go"gonlans of the gen.ra Hypnogorgla (Murlc .. 7) and Th.s .. (BrIght and Rezak, 1976). It Is worth noting that nearby Dr ... BanK (also In group 2) has a mol'. dIvers. octocoral tauna when compared wltll the r .. t of the South Texas BankS. B.bryce cln.r .. oelehmann, Scleracl s guadal upensls ouchassal ng and Mlch.lottl, Th.s .. 1!l!!!. o.lchmann and.!.. earvlflora ar. al I known trom her. at depths of 6.3 to 8.3 III (207 to 271 ft) (GI-.,na, 1978). In addItIon, Murlc .. p.ndula Verrll I has been tak.n on Bak.r and Aransas Banks (60 to 62 III; 196 to 203 ttl, Nlcella tlag.llum (Studer) Is known tram HospItal Rock (depth unspecIfIed), and Placogorgla tenuls V.rrll I has be.n recO¥.red trom South Bak.r Bank at 76 ~ (250 ttl (31~na, 1978). AddItIonal 'Octocoral IIa trom thIs regIon ar. listed In AppendIx A. Scleractlnlan corals, whll. not abundant, are represented by populatIons of Agarlcla sp. (I.ttuc. coral), Madracls brueggemannl. and an unld.ntltled solItary specIes (Brlgllt and R.zak, 1976). CaIrns (1978) lists several addItIonal allennatyplc corals trom the sll.lf banks ot tills regIon (5 •• AppendIx C). The pllyslcal condItions wlllcll charact.rlz. these hard banks ar. not conduclv. to the d.v.lop..-nt of coral communItIes. The South Texas Banks, In partIcular, ar. subj.cted to frequent Intrusions of coastal wat.r masses with theIr attendant th.nnehallne fluctuatIons. Bright and R.zak (1976), for exampl., stat. that bottom temp.ratures can vary from 12 to 16·C (53 to 61·F) and, sallnltl .. can Chang. abruptly. In addItIon, the upper levels of the bantes ar. subjected to perIodIcal InundatIon by turbId water layers whIch ov.r". til. predamlnantly soft bottom of the Texas-LouIsIana out.r contInen tal sh.lt (BrIght, 1977). TIl. communIty characterIZed as the "antlpatharlan zon .. Is apparently adapted to these condItIons although the tops of the banks, whIch ar. frequently ab0¥8 th. neph.lold lay.r, are blotical Iy mol'. dIvers. than the lower parts ot th. banks (BrIght, 1977). Til. tlllrd group of Gult bankl classltled by Brlgllt (1977) ar. the outer sh.lf structur .. orIgInatIng at d.ptlls of 100 to 200 III (.330 to 660 ttl. These ar. typifIed by til. East and w.st Flow.r Garden Sanks .. c.pt tor th. larg. number and dlv.rslty of scl.ractlnlans wllich ar. found In abundance only In tll.lr shallow.st zones. Loc:.ted In cl.ar, oceanic waters ov.r 200 Icm (108 111ft) sout"'soutllw.st of Galveston, Texas, these two banks bear the most compl.t. and complex coral communltl .. on the north •• st.rn Gulf of M.xlco contInental sh.lf. Zonation patt.rns at the banks r .... bl.s patt.rns obs.rv.d In til. Florida r .. f tract but begins at much great.,. depth .. GeologIcally, the Flower Gard.n Banks are salt-dame structur.s whIch have be.n colonIzed by coral lIn. algae and r •• f-bulldlng corals (Levert and Ferguson, 1969). Becaus. at least some of the r."ef has be.n contrIbuted by hermatypIc corals, It seems approprlat. to ret.r to these salt-dame structures as a specIal varl.ty ot coral r •• f. Accordingly, Bright and Pequegnat (1974) classIfy th. Flow.r Gardens as a submerged reef-bank with coral promInences crestIng at a depth of approxlmat.ly 20 m (66 ft). w.st Flow.r Gard.n Bank Is composed of large. clos.ly spaced coral h.lds up to.3 m (10 ft) or mol'. In 5-29 FIGURE 5-9. SONNIER BANK e ••• d Q" 00 • ., •• "0". ",.d. "0'" '"' T .... A a II , .... ,CII lUo .... '.i6re O'APMUS (after Bright, 1978). "~"r .:' g,G-J ~ A,.V ,:'~. ~:.-~'"~ 8 i.tJ ~-:"~ :;: '"'''0''' CII," "::0,.,'.,,,.. 1III"ow. ~ .",.,.... OII'CPO'I , ... """' '.rec,.... a "'c'u."", ,or. iii". ."" '"~~ .. rlDO",.t '9 !!!!!!!! I •. ( ....... , .. M,It.por. ('i,. c.,II' ..... $1.,".110, •• "" - (c.,." .. .... se'o"."c".' "1.,,,., .. 11.' wor ... ' C"",.,II •• (1'110'''' c.,." AII"p.,II" '" (1'110'"' cor." ., Co .... 'u.,. Y 'c,,".,.1 • SpO"d"UI GftI.' 1I1 (A ,." IlIor", .,.,., • 0'0 ...... (a'.'1 u',II,,,1 .. 110"'CIIO," (II. CUCu ... .." I Diu ..... " •• II,.root 5-30 dJ , " A,.G-J ~ .'" ~.. Mo •• ,.,, '!.!S!!!! ~ '''OCI 1Mft1" ~ HOICtcanl"". 0., .......... ~ ,St ••• """'111' ~ HOI!C!"'''''' ~ ~(Q II." .. IfiIll' .-<C ~ lCanlllll' ,I.ru ~ ", " .1ItI/,iiiii T!!tt"M" 1t1'1K!I!¥!t (I' ...... ' Ho!!C!I!tt!!! ... (S ... ",.,'illtl ~ CII' .... ' .... utI,,,!!!!!!! (I, •• " CII,o ... ,.1 . ~ .. (C" ..... ,., 20 I" l I .. '~ ~ 30 I ~ 0 ,.. ~ ." ~ I l: ~ 40 i L .. r ! ~ '0 ~ • C'!j!IOCUI ~ (C,HI ....... , C~.'IIIOOft """.".1 i~'.fI,,,,", CQ""',p". ~ (SII.'IIII.' DUff." ~ ,1I,CI.,o,.c. ·~(9'0.'''' .- Lul,.nUI ',,",DIC".n.1 iii;i'Ii;" .... , ~ ,,110m ..... ,. or.""1 (v ..... , .... ,por' ...... Dllte"'''.1 ~ 'S;;W;-II~ ~1MiII!u ~ (S ...... ...., ... , .- [P'''''''''III 1411.'''1 '1 '''.1 III"" ~ Ou"OW'fI, "III C / . J . -co ,.... C'I 5-31 ) dl t.r. The r .. ultant topography Is quit. rough with much grewth In the fonn of ledges and overhangs (Bright and Pequegn.t, 1974). The prlnclp.1 growth zan. of the r •• t, found ov.r an area of 40 h. (100 a) at a depth at 24 to 49 III (78 to 160 ttl, Is dominated by Mentastr ••• annularls (smal I st.r cor.I), Dlpierl. strlgosa (br.ln coral), Mentastra .. cav.rnos. (I.rg. star cor.I), Colpophyili. n.tans (moon coral), and Perlt.s .streold.s (mustard hll I cor.I), In th.t ord.r of abundance. Bright and pequegnat (1974) ref.r to this as a "Olploria-Montastr •• a-Porites Zon ... (Flgur. 5-11). Th. acroporlds, the dominant h.nnatypes In oth.r cor.1 r .. fs In the south.rn Gulf and Caribbean, are entlr.ly abs.nt frem the FI~.r Gard.n Re.fs and oth.r localltl .. In the ~ulf north of Veracruz, ~.xlco (Moor., 1958). Th. r.asons for the abs.nce of this and oth.r groups ot h.nnatyplc corals may I nc Iud. greater peak d.pths, the season.' t8lllper.tur. rang. betwe.n 20 to lO·C (68 to 86·F) (Bright .nd pequegn.t, 1974), or recruitment difficulties presented by the gr •• t distance betwe.n the Flow.r G.rd.n B.nks and oth.r cor. I g.n. pools ot south Florida and the south.rn Gulf. East Flow.r G.rd.n Reef Is somewh.t slIIIIller (28 h. or 70 a) th.n w.st Flewer G.rden, and has. sl",llar p.tt.rn of zon.tlon (Flgur. 5-12). In .ddltlon to the Olplorla-Montastraee-Porltes zon., how.v.r, tne eastern bank also possesses a biotic zone of M.dr.cls mirabilis and a zon.ot fleshy .Igae on tne uppel'1llOst peaks (Bright, 1977). Th. deeper portions of both banks contain .n algal-sponge zone (dCIIIln.ted by co ... aliine .Iga.) tollcwed by a deep.r (70", or 210 ft) a"tlp.th.rlan zone sl",ll.r to, but d.eper th.n, that tound on the south T.xas tlshlng banks d.scrlbed above In group 2 (Bright, 1977). On the Flew.r Gardens, gorgonlan corals of the type Ch.racterlstlc ot west Indian r .. fs ar. nat pr ... nt on the r'" cap (Bright .nd Pequegn.t, 1974). GI.nlllOn. (1978) lists. number ot deepw.t.r gorgonl.n specl .. tak.n I.rgely belew the zone of actlv. r .. f grewth (Tabl. 5-9). Table 5-9. Gargonac •• trem West Flower Garden and 28 Fathom Banks. Family Gorgonld •• Leptogorgl. vlrgul.t. (Lam.rck) Lophogergla punic •• (M.-E. & H.) Family Eillseilld •• Ellls.ll •• tl.ntlca Toeplltz !.. barbadensls (0. & M.) Nlc.lla Ican. Toeplltz Rllsea panlculat. (0. & M.) F lly Par uric. Ida. Callacls nutans (0. & M.) Trachy..,r I Cft l!.!!!!. 0 I chlllllnn Scleracls guadalupensls (D. & M.) Depth In m (ft) 82 (270) 1 100 (30) 10()-115 (33()-l75) 100 (30) 100 (llO) 100 OJO) 105 (345' 35-50 (115-1.65) Grammen. (1978) lists tour additional species trem n •• rby 28 Fathom Sank tak.n at to()-106 '" 03()-l48 tt): Nldalla occidental Is Gray a.b ... yce cln.r •• Oelchmann Siphonogorgi. ag.sslzil (Oelchlllllnn) Nlcella tlagellum (Stud .... ) Source: Bright and Pequegn.t, 1978 .. 5-l2 ·n I ...J (.oJ FIGURE 5-11. DIPLOIUA. MONTA5TllaA. POIUTE5 ZONE ALGAL,UONG. ZONI ,.- I C:IIINOIO U"IIiIG coaAL au, TIIANSITION ZONE WEST FLO'VER GARDEN BANK 'O'I.?" "I 'Ju/~ ~/1foo/""" •• ,. ...... 0 ...................... .. 0''"") .. v ..... (OIAI 111..01 :r .' 00 WOIIoI /.'"'l\ DaOWHlO 11111 Or. ... NC .. OOoG 'UN ""*" e .... C"!OIOOI l6.' .... Nell""" SIONGI • O.AO'MOO II .. UlC-a 0 , ... ,n ... HI .. l'iP II .. W""I ~y IIJ2W.l!.. ,.. COlaK.lw '"""0 IIA ... .A. 11000111 "OWN IIONGII e,t;.-. CllIoIOlll AlGAI...oouaaa a ...... ok .... IIOG ......... ~'., '. t" COIAI ..... a ....... ;.!"t. IIIUIiU ,lilt 11K .. 'A' ."ND &1&. ~ ~~ IIQtIUI&JI .oj) IlAAiACil e .... ,""' ~ 1.1I1IIQ1.~dUI 1 ..., WAUl ......... ",,, COl", AfTER BRIGHT AND PEQUEGNAT li7 .. DEPTH IN fEET (MeTERS I 110',,3. ., .1Il00, .. .., ~, """'I ·l~· " ..... , .. c-: " . ... . . . . -co ,..., 0\ .. .fJ \ SIIJJ.3" NI .u,dO 5-34 . .... & ~ " ;,'.' ,',' .J / Several other topographic highs on the Louisiana continental shelf also fal I In this third group: Bright, Sou .. , Ewing, Parker (not figured), and 18 Fathom Banks (Figures 5-13, 5-14, 5-15, and 5-16) (Bright, 1978). AI I five are shelf-edge features supporting a community structured largely by popula tions of coral line algae. All possess features of zonation, generally similar to those seen at Flower Garden Banks (except for the noted lack of sCleractlnian diversity and number). The algal sponge zone (corat line algae - Neoflbularla sp.) at 50 to 70 m (165 to 230 ft), Is deyeloped on al I five banks, usually associated with Madracls sp. fol lowed by an antipatharian zone at 70 to 80 ~ (230 to 263 ft) (Clrrlpathes sP. and Antlpathes sP.). In addition to these zones, 18 Fathom 9ank is capped with a zone composed of the scleractlnlans Montastraea cavernosa, Stephanocoenla sp., and Agarlcla sp., plus the hydrozoan Millepora sp. (Figure 5-16). This coral zone, the only one of its kind In the banks described here, Is found In patches between 43 to 47 m (140 to 154 ft). It is worth noting that lettuce coral"Agarlcla sp. is also found on Bright and B,,)uma Banks, 1!. cavernosa Is known trom Bright Bank, and the solitary coral Oxysmilia sp. Is reported tram both 18 Fathom and Ewing Sanks (Brl ght, 1978). Octocoral Ilans are only preliminarily described tor these regions, but 18 FathoM Sank Is reported to have four species: Bebryce Cinerea, Nlcella tlagellum, Nldalla sp., and dense populations of a whiplike Elllsella sp. at 62 to 73 m (203 to 240 ft) (aright, 1978). Nlcella schmlttl and Nldalla occ I denta I Is are reported from Ew I ng aank. A tlnal Gult bank not tlttlng the above biotic classification Is Sackett Bank (Bright, 1978). The area In which this bank Is located Is chronically beset with stresses associated with variations In turbidity and salinity due to Its proxi~ity to the Mississippi River. It Is not occupied by extenslye coral or coral line algae communities, except that at 70 to 80 m (230 to 263 ft), the Clrrlpathes zone becomes deyeloped (Figure 5-17). At 80 to 88 ~ (263 to 288 ttl, Antlpathes sp., Nldalla occidental Is, and unidentified paramurlceld, and the solitary scleractlnlan Oxysmilia sp. are al I found, but disap pear below 90 m (225 ft) ,due to the deyelopment at a mud surface. 5.2.2 Deepwater Corals As noted In Section 5.1.2, Information concerning deepwater corals Is exceedingly sparse. In most Instances, the intormatlon Is too Incomplete to make assessments as to the abundance of the stockS. With respect to the co~dltlon of the stock (I.e., mortality versus replacement rates) and overal I stock stability, It Is not possible to make an Informed assessment. In one sense of the word "condition". however, the lack of exploitation and other dalllllging development activities In deepwater areas (except for 11~lted collection and damage by research dredging) inters that the stocks should be In a pristine state. For the Gulf of Mexico, the two prinCipal studies of deepwater corals are, Giammana (1978), Cairns (1978). additionally, Moore and Suilis (1960) published a short note on these corals. Cairns described the zoogeography of scleractlnlans throughout the management area; Glammona reviewed available infor mation on Octocoral IIa In the Gulf of Mexico (.~ppendlx E relates his distributional intormatlon to . habitat types); and Moore and Suilis (1960) reported a "deepwater coral reef" between 420 to 510 m (1,350 to 1,700 ft) on the continental slope 70 km (37.8 nm) east of the mouth of the Mississippi River. In the first such area reported from the Gulf (other areas ~entioned below have been reported In the Atlantic), a single trawl prOduced about 100 kg (220 Ibs) of corals, Including Lophelia pro Ilfera (Pallas) and Caryophyilia sp. (Moore and BulliS, 1960). In the Atlantic, similar structures have been reported along the margins of the S· Jlts of Florida off Miami, Palm Beach, and points farther north (Squires, 1963; Neulllllnn and aal I, 1970). One such mound observed from a submersible In 825 m (2,700 tt) of water on the Miami Escarpment was described by Neumann and Sail ·(1970) as "smell mounds of ~uddy sand capped by thickets of branching, deepwater ahermatypic corals." The uncollected species were possibly of the genera Lophella, Madrepora. and 5-35 U1 I W 0'1 FIGURE 5-13. BRIGHT BANK '" 8 ......... ..., •• h ....... I, .. •• , •••• A ........ "a .......... ,. OIAPHUS (after .Bright. 1973). ( ,.," .... ! ~ • .~~ I I '1 .. .. r '! .. .~ .. .. " .. ,. '. ' .... ; -;-..•.. '~Vi'::\ ":.::, Y;.'.: !~ .. :." :·.~./7.:;',J :~::.: / .. '\ . ...... g- .: . • '/',:'.. . ..... t 't'.~ >"~'y''''- .. ' .. - . ~ r I , . ..... .' '( " oil I .. 1: '" I I / . I Ie, I ~ I~ ~ ~.,. ' .•. :~'l' ...... \~'t­ ,,>'~~ . , . ~ '- :~, '0(; , " , " I A..~ .. ,. '';' .' "> r c. ~puna" .. , am.",onul tA", .. .cu ,a.II'1I1' 0,1 •• " '-'1.', "'.' ,. .... , ....... , ... Anl.t'0U, •• ""o,n, """.,,, , L.fI."gl"., .I\~ ~ :.::-:'0'. , ...... f (oClII .. ", C4I'tall J •• 'ftl , ............. ' •• , I "G.n, ,0 •• U ...... 0111""-.' "'''u,oll 1'- St." •••• , l,hAI IIInlnU'''1 . . :, •. -"VI' ........ ....... gl ....... , .... 1'11 •• ,'.0 ",.111'1010 'C •••. nu .. , "v. ,u.o" 8 ,."(" .hu ... ., Ay.u.~ .. 11 .... ,.on., .• , I., I Glllm"n, '" I,.,n,., (un.""II" ' ... ,m,., II' ... 't' ..., • .. II.a,.1 lItO" .. 0. ••••• e.'ld·· .. " .... , SIr,·,··I!" • .,,,,h.' C •• I.u'" I"~~'I" . P •• ,,",y. G"'" IS,ln, 1",., •• , S'lnu'I"'''ul .111&.81A'1 I.'lta. [IuD. ... Hola,."h .. , t~4 .. ·".UI'''' G. L ....... ., ~'~"I. ......... 'Qu ••• II." •. ,.,,,, .. ~ ~.ft''!'~''~''l' 1I".!ft~ . .., .S ......... "",-""" ,. C.,,'''''~~!~' •••••• ,, .S ......... """.,. ~. 0.,0,.' ....... . .'. ' •• U •••• C"II ~1II.o., ••• ,,,.,1., .. ,1 • "ello.'O.' ••• ".,,,, .... L ... ' .... '.M'~""'''III 'R ........ ,..,. ,til "0"""1 , •• " ".uD," ... ,."."U'0I1 " .. ,. .... DUIiO • I~ ••• hi., .... , ~'>I ~O 60 <> ... .. .. 10 z 10 '10 ~1- ~;;~':";:;:u~:'." ~ O!iII"!Ihll ~''''''I ~.o.. •••• ,. ..... .- • ,.~~ ~ICI~I"'.'~~ " .... 1 ..... , ... i . t ~ .. c;,M.~.tJ" t!~'~II.!¥' ,,, •• , .,,11., '" "'." t P, •• C ....... .. f •• ,.,e' ~~ ... 80.'~~ ,..,~ ... II .. , .S.G".II AO.'.' .. . ~ :~:;::.; .... ~·,:.::= ... ;:o:;::7·i ,1> 1£ ''''.RII'1ii .'0 ........ 01.41 if"""" . ......... p." ... !' Me( "".~' IS,o .... toeu •••• .. .,.,. (p.".,,, ........ , •• a.,u" • ... ,H .. eII .. ,III" U1 I A.N / ... , FIQURE 5-14. BOUMA BANK E ......... ~ 601" ... efry: .... , ..... .. ALGA i. ':''8 ;;;O':'I~~" " ... "f:. 70 r- 'rG'" HARD 80 ... 't: .?'O ... I ""0" 'r.4 0.. UI o 80 ~J Cirripathes 4A4.algal nodules 4N1"'!/l ~ '4 "'IfIUiIAN living coralline algol reefs above 72 m depth .. drowned coralline algol reefs below 80 m depth ~ siltstone outcrop - a'gal detritus ,,:"::'.':' coalSe carbonate sand fine carbonate sand, silt and mud , .: gas seep ., BASIN ZONE SOFT BOTTOM ".\ 11 " ~ FIGURE 5-15. . EWING BANK ....... 'tLf.U IP' t · ... I1 .... l.ofy olga. w, • ....... Bosl!e' S'orl.CondylocliS and Spondylus.... ,.'pI" Bryoloon ........ tII.·' ... ... 55 Mkoe reb J: i 60 . ..q~ "lQ ~ 65 70 E 75 :I: t ~ l&.i 80 o 85 90 ALGAL SPONGE ~; Cirripathe. carbon9te sand ,', ,,// silt and mud crinoids 'F 1 t ....... I ............. ,~... 4",,, /A).ct ~O~)-~.ct~ ~ 1'.ct4' ~ '. ~ ~ s;" ~O .J..' ........ coralline algal ree' structures ~~. ~ 95 ~ coralline algal nodules (' - leafy algal detritus 100 ] 'b" •• o." Nephelold Layers '" '.'/'/// sr~1..0 . CIDARIS ZONE FIGURE 5-16. 18 FATHOM 9al.d Ol't oo •• , ... o"onl ""ad' "0'" 'fl. BANK • :I""'~'.:.! '01. 10'1' ~:" ·6'!.!.1!.ll!J. , :a'QII .. "~:::':~:"I ., '411C1' '''12", A,.rlc." : r~ aat"'" "~rarl """"'''''' ~'ar' J !: '1" a I '" .",' I :7~ ... § .... d ... e· ..... ·~ S"o",. tOOII'II'I' .10 '00,,,1 Q· .... 'Q".c'·aa. "011""'/ (I"aeOlt'"ICI,. ~ '1", 1I,,'aft''''OI ~,:. '., :;;;;t:'i" J .. "':..:..:.!=....!c.l!!.!'!! !I"" : ... , .... ' e ~."C"".II'~. ,,,o.rou 'ft"tA, 0' ~ ~;:::::I·'U .... :';.:':::::,' II'nc.,r,."" "' ... e.".,,1 ,s;;;;;;;;.;" I • .. • • ".,.""" 'I Uti ~i·..!!! .aolt", : ,p •• "t, .a". ~o '12" :·94 ..... !IGCI '.'Cft.,. I """"t .••• ' •• ,,,, ... ,111 Soor-a,'",1 '''''''C,II"I ;;:.;:c;; .;;;:-;-;;;." CI~1!.1!t!.. 501"" iHI."" e,,,, .. ,:,.,,,,,. ~- .. , .... 50"."111'" 'r't'.,' .,,' ":.!.!.L!!!!!::~! ,-.t ." .•••. I ;'''''0'", '!I!, .:,.., .•.. "', •• ~; :: ~~ CiOfl,'ClIfII ,~~~::!!! 3C11"CllCOi.I' •.. ~ .~ .. .~ :~"'fI" •• tlf '.!.!:!.!!! 5"'1'1"CI" 0.."", £il lI"""'.III' :I!!i!!!!0!!:.! " • .,c. ",,,'I ~!!!!!! :!.!!~ 4'o, .. ,1 EtI .... ••JII .. III .... !!..""..:.! "1.1' "0"' .... " .", "1" , " .. , ... . ~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, c~ ..... ' .. '"'''' 60 ·70 g ... ·dO : l i . 90 '00 ~ Z <t m f f LU ~ U <t CJ) ..... -I I.t) 1.1.1 0:: ~ c.:l -LI.. e S e co . ." co e . 0: g ~ : .. " 0: co .. : " III ;J'I ~ :z: ... C Q · ! • e .. ~ '" w ; • · ! ~ ~ c · : · • -e:) ..... Q\ OE""'N ( ....... J o '" 4: ' ... .!- ':J.,. ~ .. ,' ~. '-, \ \ \ i' .,........ , ( . . J" ., ."\:~'"' ..~~ . .. " " .. \ 5-40 \ \ \ .' i: ~-;- ; ;:! :. c .' ••• 01 ~. C jl a. 0 o .: ~, .. 4. i ~E Ii. . ~;~ ~.~ :' . , \ ,. ... c: : . .. a ; • c: ... co .. " e 0: co e ;:; c: '5 " e " 0 ~ . l: . a • ." .. 0: 0 .. ~ e .; 0: :: 1 .. • co '5 .. '" . ~ ;; Q, !' ;; c: co' !I ".-. ~ . ' ~: " ",-z·.: " •• <i ~~~ ,', .1. .;. ; .' ~-c A .. 0 c ~ ...... ;; I !,; "" f • . .. ~ e '" ~ co c ~ i . ... 0 ~ .: e ; • ~ ~ . .. ~: .0 ... 0 ... "' ~ ~ ~ .... 0 • ." ...c "0 uo! " e . .. " Q , 0: iE '; . " 05 ;; ;; " w .: . E ;; :.~ • co 0': \, / Oendrophyllla. CaIrns (1979, personal communIcatIon) revl .. ed unworked collectIons at the Smithsonian Institution and hu hypothesIzed that deepwater banks may possibly occur comlll:)nly along the Atlantic continental slope within the cOf"al manag .. nt arN -- particularly around the 600 to 800 m (1,980 to 2,640 ft) depth contour. It this Is true, associated d.epwat.r corals Including Enal lopsammla C.hlch Cairns be II eves "to be the Oendrophy" la reported by earll.r Investigators) and Loph.lla may be I"'elati vely abundant in many localized al"'eas. Also id.ntltled within the Atlantic cOl"'al management area ar. "bump areas" (Stetson, et al., 1962. Squires, 1963) located In a breed ar.a about 370 km (200 nm) south.ast of Charleston, South Carolina, In 720 to 970 m (2,350 to l,200 ft) of water. Here, a 5,145 ~ (1,130 nm2) .area contains thousands of "bulllps" (hullllllOcks of'low relIef) hypothesiZed to repres.nt acculllulations of coral material. As in the Straits of Florida, the corals wer. predominantly the branching corals Lophella prol Ifera and Enallopsallllllia profunda. In bOth the Gulf and Atlantic portions of the management area, solitary corals may also occur along the shelf flank, slope, and plain. Although solitary d.epwater cor~ls have occasionally be.n collected from a single trawl in numbers exc.edlng several hundred Individuals, such collections are rare and fit no dlscernable pattern. 5.l Ecological RelationShips Most coral assemblages are so cOlllplex that holistic approaches to cOllllllunlty metabolism are useful pri marily for the purpose ot camparlson with similar measurements made elsewh.r •• Therefore, IIIOSt of the att.ntlon on coral r.ef systems has focused on metabolism and Int.ractlons of component parts. Lewis (1977) has reviewed the campon.nts which contl"'lbut. to the wei I known high production rates on coral reefs. Although summarized here, suppl.mental Information on ecological relationships Is Includ.d In Appendices G and H. 5.3.1 Coral Ecosystems as a Special Resource The Importance of coral ecosystems and associ ated habl tats has be.n w.11 documented by numerous studies, reviews, and symposia (e.g., Jones and Endean, 1973, 1976; Srlght and Pequegnat, 1974; Taylor, 1977; Bright, Jaep, and Cashman, 1981). Many ot those documents emphasIze the camplex struc tur.ot coral ecosystems, the Importance of coral for habitat, the sedentary lifestyle and its Impli cations, the wide geographIc and bathymetric distributions, and the many behavioral, physiological, .cologlcal, and physIcal assocl.tlons that camblne to yield an exceedIngly Intricate functional unit. The Fishery Conservation and Management Act recognizes these values and lIsted s.v.ral corals as con tln.ntal sh.lf fIshery resourc .. subject to excluslv. U.S. use beyond the FCZ. Ecosystems which Includ. coral (solitary corals, hard bOttoms 01'" banks, Iithoh.nns, and coral re.fs; s .. below, Section 6.2.1) often repr ... nt unique arrays of plants and animals In a balanced, highly prOductlv. systam. Th. key to many of these systems. If th.re can be one IIIOSt Important link, Is often coral ItS.lt, since the corals provide habitat and/or toOd tor IIIOSt ot the other members of the .cosystem. Connell (1973) and Grassle (1973) have studied aspects ot population ecology and di .... rsity within coral reefs (s.e below, S.ctlon 6.2.1). IndIvidual biotic compon.nts heve also been studied among them, mIcrobes (OISaIYO, 1973), algae (Cribb, 1973), holothurians (Bakus, 1973), shrimps and prawns (Bruce, 1976), .cnlnodenns (Clark, 1976), fishes (Goldman and TalbOt, 1976), and oth.rs. The r .. ultant coral community Is exceedIngly campl.x and productive. Helfrich and Townsley (1965), 8dum (1971), OiSalvo (1973), Sorokln (197lcl, and oth.rs have attempted to quantity and qualify the produc tivity ot corals ~nd their associated biota (e.g., microorganisms) compared to other marine and terr .. trlal communltl ... 5-41 Because of thel .. vast specIes dlv.rslty, trophic caftpl.xlty, and productivity, mature coral can rnunltl. possess nu,. .. ous chanl.s that enabl. th. to .... 1st n01"lll81 disturbances, especIally those bIological In n8tur. (End •• n, 1976). As classIfied by Sand.rs (1968), coral ~.efs may be tenned bIologically 8CCQllftI)dated cca .. nltles .Ith InterspecIfic: canpetltlon and predation jo .. d.termlnants of stability. Shal low r .. f ar .. s (1.55 than 2 m or S tt) may be more approp"'ately tenned physically controlled. Numerous othe .. factors also play major rol •• In coral h.alth (s •• below, S.ctlon 6.2.2.1 and 6.2.2.2). It Is many of those other factors that pot.ntlal Iy threaten the contlnu.d viability of dOMStlc corals. Th. specIal nature of corals as a flsh.ry Is furth." highlighted by th.'r sed.ntary attached exlst.nce, .hlch sepa .. ates them fraft the subj.cts of many oth." flsh.ry plans. ~ .. otectlon via escape or camouflag. Is limited by 1'1'1. d.slgn of coral sk.,.tons and polyps. Although SOMe p .. otectlon Is afforded by polyp .Ithdrawl, strict energy budgets r .. trlct the use of such behavior. Hence, In the midst of pe .. slstent adversity, Ce.g., water pollution, cold telperatures, secHmentatlon), corals .ppear precariously susceptible. Part of 1'1'1. unlquen.ss of the corals cov.red by this FMP Is th., .. position at the northernmost limits of most herm.typlc corals In U.S ••• te .. s. Although the Sol.n.st .... (stump coral) and Slderastr .. (s1'arlet coral) occur off North Caroll na wh.re bottom t""pe .. atures reach IO.S·C or 'O·F (Macl ntyre and PilKey, 1969), the majorIty of hermatypic corals and coral r .. f growth Is lImited to south of Fowey Rocks, FlorIda, wher. the t""perature mInimum has been recorded .s I'.S·C 0" SO·F (V.ughan, 1918). Pa1'ch reef, hard bottom, and solitary corals do occur north of Fow.y Rocks and off •• st FlorIda, but not to the extent s.en oft the FlorIda Keys, north.ast of Key Largo, 0 .. southw.st of BIg Pin. Key (FIgure 6-2). Most corals Inhabiting ou .. nation's contln.ntal FCZ, especially the hel"lll8typlc SpeC" which are less telperature tol.rant, are.t the v.ry limit of th.l .. geographical rang •• 5.3.2 Value as HabItat ~erhaps the most valuable contribution mad. by co .. als to the marine envIronment Is as habitat for numerous assocIated organIsms. A~ described by Jones and End.an- (1973, 1975), AntoniuS, .1' al. (1978), and many other researc::tlers. a coral assemblage within the management area may support rich populations of Invertebrates (corals, sponges, tunlc.tes, echlnodenns, crabs, lobaters, g.strq)OdS, etc.), ver tebrat .. (primarily fish but possibly turtles. birds, and ma,,'n. mammals), and plants (coral lin. algae, fleshy algae, e.lgrass, turtlegrass, etc.). W.,ls (1957) .... ph.slzed tills habitat valu. In defining a coral r .. f as " ••• fauna and flor •••• (thatl ••• provld. the ecological niches essential to the existence of al I oth.r reef dwel ling animals and plants." Undoubtedly coral Is a primary pro vld.r of nlch.s. As two examples, consld.r the utilization by r .. f tlsh and spiny loblt .... of coral r .. fs or ha,.d bottCIII zon ... Th. Flo,..lda S.a Grant Col leg. (1979) "eported an an~al caft ... rclal catch of ,.. .. f fish In the Gulf of MexIco of about 19 mil lion pounds (8,482 metric tons); C.ntaur Associates, Inc. (1979) d.v.'oped a maximum sustalnabl. yl.ld of 7.3 mil lion pounds (3,2'9 metric: tons) for spiny lo .. ters for U.S. Gulf and south Atlantic waters. Whll. 1'1'1. total catch cannot be attributed to the pr •• nce of coral reefs, the r .. fs do serve as an Important source of habl tat for these species. The habitat dlv.rslty .Ithln a coral cOlllll.lnlty Is usually proportional to eco.yst .. dlv.rslty. CClllP'.X reef syst .. s usually praotld. greate .. types and quantities of habitat than the mor. uni dimensional ha,.d bottoms. Of considerable slgnlflcanc. In assessing valu. as habitat a,.. the living and nonliving components of th.8Co.ySt ... Corals and associated benthos, e.g., spong.s, tun/cates, and alga., cont,.'bute most of the living habitat. Dead corals, perhaps parts of relic ,. .. fs, coral limestone, or Iithified coral rock, .,.e a most Important abiotic compon.nt. Regardless of tile type of substrate or sou,.ce of protection, the coral canmunlty offers space for organ I SIllS ranging tran epi benthic invertebrates to large fish. Those ani~als In turn contribute to the food chains of the entl,.e eC05yst ... 5-42 Octocorals (specifically gorgonlan octocorals) are v.ry Important in the .cological balanc. of '~e reef .coysyst .... Th.y have numercus Int.ractlons with oth.r animals, Including: functionIng as a nOid- .. fast for numercus other Int.rt.brates; as a substrate for .ncrustlng fir. coral (~lllepora); a host for parasItIc organisms and symbiotic zooxantl'lel lae; a food source for snails and marine worms and a r.fuge for fish and shrimp. Additionally, octocorals contrlbut. to the gen.ral reef buIld-up, adding ov.r a ton of llmeston. In the form of spIcules p.r acre per y.ar to a reef habitat (Cairns, 1977). Data from a rec.nt flve-y.ar study at Blscayn. NatIonal Park (aNP) support the Importance of octo cora I habitat. Av.rage octocoral density was as high as 58 colonles/m2 for eight patch re.fs studied witnin BNP (Wh.aton Lowry, unpublished) wh.reas stony coral d.nslty av.rag.d only 8.5 colonleslm2 (Jaap, unpublished). Maximum Iln.ar density of octocorals was 544 for 20 m in contrast to a stony coral maximum of only 44 colonies. Tilmant, et al. (1979) reported 214 fIsh species from th.s. same octo coral dominated re.fs. ·l'his exc.eds 134 species for Tortugas and 146 species for P.nn amp reporTed by Jones and Thompson (1978). Thes.octocoral dominated r •• fs are thus rich In r.ef fish and serve not only as habitat and a focal point for a great number of Important species but probably as a recruitment ar.a for the for. reef. Some coral assemblag.s In the Gulf of Mexico may be adjac.nt to habitat for marine turtles that have been aCknowledged as thr.atened or endangered species by the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. A January 17, 1979, lIsting of protected species [Federal Reglst.r 44(2):3636-36541 included the green (Chelonia mydaS), Kemp's Atlantic RIdley (L.pldochelys kempii), leatherback (Dermachelys corlacea), hawkSbll I (Er.tmochelys Imbrlcata), and loggerh.ad (Car.tta car.tta) sea turtl.s from the management ar.a. 5.3.3 Economic Valu.s Due to the FlorIda law pronlbiting coral taking and the subsequent shift of supply to foreign sources, such as the Philippines, India, and Haiti, much of the current economic value derlv.d from corals in the manag.ment area comes from the nonconsumptive recreational uses of living corals or col I.ctlon of other reef resourc.s. Howev.r, s~uld these foreign sourc.s declln., the monetary value of corals may rise and incr.as. d.mand for harvesting corals in the management area. Throughout the management ar.a but .speclal Iy In the FlorldaK.ys, dive shOps, glass bottom boats, reef ·flshlng tours, snorkel trips, boat ramps, andlor tropical specimen coll.ctlng companies, emphasize the imporTanc. of corals to many local .conomles (5 •• Section 10.1). It has been estimated by Davidson (1979, personal communication) that the ar.a from Ohio K.y to Sugarloaf Lodge n.ar Loo. K.y, Florida, generates about .ight to ten million dOllars annually in marine-r.lated Incane, much of It coral r.lated. In 1978, the town of Key Largo had 13 dive shops, 22 dive boats, John P.nn amp Coral Reef State Park (Including a large bolt ramp and holst, sma I I marina, and numercus dally tours to r.ets), 34 boat ramps, and 22 marinas (Office of Coastal Zone ~anagement, 1979b). An estimated 400,000 people, many of .hom visit the r.efs, visit the park at K.y Largo each year thrcugh the turnstiles. Park officialS estimate total usage Including boats from prlvat. docks and r.ntals may double this figure (Gillen, 1979, personal communication). ~st of the users .ho visit the reef concentrate arcund r::;ry Rocks, ~Iasses Reef. and a f •• other select locations, not the entire park. In the norThwest.rn Gulf of Mexico, divers pay as much as SIOO each ~o visit the Flower Gardens coral reefs by dive boat even thOugh the r.efs are over 200 km (abcut 110 nm) offshOre (Blood, 1979, personal communication). Industries such as tropical specimen collecting and glass bottom boat tours are also dependent on corals. These brief examples, and the more detailed Information in Sections 8.0, 9.0, and 10.0, reiterate tne dependence of the coastal regions on viable coral .cosystems. AlthOugh shOrt-term benefits may be gained by harvesting corals from the reef, extreme care must be taken to protect the long-term viability of the,,..ef and the closely related economics of coastal counties, particularly ~onro. Courrty, Florida. The key fact In the above discussion Is the derivation of value fro. living eorals In the natural envlrol'lMnt rather th.n fra. any collected coral specImens (see Sections 8.1,8.2 and 9.1 thralgh 9.3). Collection of coral-auoclated blot. constitutes .nother value that Is related to corals. If managed appropriately, both consumptive use of associated biota and nonconsumptlve uses of corals and coral reets should not· be detrImental to the envlrol'lHnt or any user grcup's econanlc well-being. Preservation of existing fisheries that are related to corals' Should be of vital econanlc conc.rn. For example, the r .. f fish and spiny lobster harvests In the Gulf of Mexico FCZ were valued at approxlmat.,y S9,832,OOO (Florida Se. Grant College, 1979) and S8,636,000 (Centaur Associates, Inc •• 1979), respectIvely. 5.3.4 Buffer Values Coral reefs occurring along southern Florida, and Indeed thrcughout the world,. are markedly affected by patterns of water circulation. The most highly developed r .. fs In the manag ... nt area are the Florida reefs. confIned to the windward or southeastern margIns of the land masses (Glynn, 1973; Shinn. 1976). Less developed coral canmunltles and other dlstlngulsh.ble biotic ass.ablages, e.g •• grass beds, tr-equently occur I .... rd of the r-eef barriers (see location of r-eefs and grass/algae beds In Figure 6-4) • . The protection offered by land fr-an cr-oss-platfonft curr-ents (Glnsbur-g .nd Shinn, 1964) Is mlrr-ored by the buff.r provided Islands by r-ellc and/or IIv. coral r-.efs. Offshore r-eefs h.lp dlsslpat. stonl energies and serve to minimize Impacts of stonns, wave action, and other physIcal stresses. The net r-esult ot these two butter-Ing systems Is a peculiar, abIotic ftsymbloslsft -- Islands protect corals by shieldIng away cold water and low salInIty flows fr-om the Florida Bay and e.stern Gulf and the cor-als protect land masses and near-shor-e canmunltles fran oceanic effects. As a result, the distr-Ibutlon of cor-a I r-eefs paral leIs the distrIbutIon of Islands (Shinn, et al., 1977). Protection offered by corals may be cr"Uclal to the existence of other shal law-water, continental shelf canmunltles. Coastal Florida. and elsewhere In the manag ... nt area, Is r-epresented by II band of grasses shor-.,ard of the coral .r-eets. These beds of turtle grass (Th.'assla testudlnuIII', manat .. grass (Syr-Ingodlum flllforme), and shoal grass (Halodule wrlghtll) represent highly productive communitIes (Helfrich and Townsley, .. , 1965), Qn whIch numerous species, e.g., spIny lobster (HerrMlnd, 1979, par sonal canmunlcatlon; Davis, 1979, person. I canmunlcatlon) and commarclal finfish (Weinstein and Heck, 1979), depend for development and recruitment. FIshes and other species also use the beds as prime forag I ng grounds. Another caestal canmun I ty protected to a lesser extent by the coral s are mangroves, whIch along with grass beds, are cr"Uclal to nutrient flows In the coastal environment. Lastly, many less developed coral communltl •• cat.rlzed as solitary corals or hard bot1'alts (see Section 6.1.1.1 and 6.1.1.2), shor.,ard of the coral r .. fs are also spared fraM stOnft dalllllge. Although not as promi nent as massive coral r .. fs, grass beds, mangroves, and sllllli I coral aSS8lllblages are al I Important canpenents of the caestal ecc.yst . Without the buffer of coral reefs, those thr .. zon would be exposed to unusually destructive fOl"ces. ~Iso, without grass beds and mangroves to assist In filtering sediments, caestal waters would deposit particulates on corals and other bottom dwellers. 5.3.5 Sources of Energy Scleractlnlan and aleyonarlan corals der-Ive ener-gy fran several sources including fr-an sunlight through their- photosynthetic, symbiotic zoo~anthel lae (algae living In the coral tiSSue), from con sumption of zooplankton, from bacteria (which act as biochemical recycling agents), from consumption of detr-Itus, and perhaps even dlr-ectly from dissolved organics. Antlpatharlan cor-als such as Clrrfpathes apparently r-ely heavily upon stinging nentatocysts to feed upon animal tissues, although plant material has been noted In the gut of black corals. These energy sources are detailed In Appendix G. 5.3.6 Predltors Ind Associations As described In detlll In Appendix H, corals are subject to the ecological pressures of predatIon (by fish Ind Invertebrates), caapetltlon for space, and other Interactions with associated organlStls. In SOMe Instances, such IS the symbIotIc relationship of corals to zooxanthellae, the association Is mutually beneflcl al. At the other end of the spectrum. however. are predatory pressures such as thOse applIed by certaIn r .. f tlshes and Invertebrates that eat corals. 5.4 BIOlogical Factors and MaxImum Sustainable YIeld MaxImum sustaInable yIeld (MSY) Is the largest average catch or yield that can continuously be taken trom a stock under existing envIronmental condItions. CalculatIon of MSY depends upon catch and eftort data, or bIological data on growth rates. mortalIty rates. abundance, density, and bIomass among other I tens. Two tacts concerning this coral F~ -- over 400 speCies and a lack ot data - necessitate grouping similar corals to yield an MSY for a type of coral. Hence. biological factors and MSY are discussed below for two general coral groups: octocorals (gorgonlans. precious corals. etc.) and stony corals (fire coral, rose coral. branchIng corals. brain corals, etc.). MSY is Incalculable except as MSY· at Biscayne National Park (see SectIon 5.4.9). 5.4.1 Growth and Size 5.4.1.1 Octacorals (Gorgonlans, PrecIous Corals) The pub" shed da ta on gorgon I an growth has been detenn I ned fran work on the b lack sea rod (P lexaura hO/llOlll8I'a). KInzie (1974) calculated a range of growth rates of 1.0 to 40 filii (0.05 to 1.6 In) yr- I wIth a mean Increase In height of 20 mm (0.8 In) yr-1• In that same study, KInzie also noted that colonial growth In tenns of height need not be mirrored by growth ot n .. branch tips. Mature.e.. hornomalla colonies are 25 to 35 em (10 to 14 In) hIgh with multIple branches ariSing tran a single stem (see Figure 5-10); other gorgonlans In the management area attaIn sIzes averaging 18 em (7 In) up to 2.25 m (7.4 ft) (CaIrns, 1977a). These measurements paral leI data collected by Wheaton Lowry (In preparation) off Biscayne National Park. Research on the precIous black, bamboo. and pink corals (see Table 5-10) has been restricted because of their occurrence In deep waters. Other than Clrrlpathes lutkeni. which lives at 20 to 174 m (66 to 535 ft). most other corals In this category occur below 200 m (660 ttl. As shown In Table 5-10, growth and sIze data for the precious corals In the management area Is repre sented only by the work of Goldberg (1977) on Clrripathes lutkenl. 5.4.1.2 Stony Cor.ls (FIre Cor.Is, Br.nched Scleractinlans, Br.ln Cor.ls, etc.) Growth data for stony cor.'s Is concentrated on the scleractinlan species, especially the branched r .. f corals (Acropora sPp.) and the head corals (Montastraea and others). Llmltad Information is available on deepwater species and the hydrocorals. Growth In terms of stock size and number ot colo nIes Is not limited to new corals Initiated by settling larvae; Shinn (1979, personal communication) and others have noted that many stony corals including the branched corals (Acropora sPP.) may rege nerate tran smal I pieces remaining after damage to or destruction ot a larger colony. Much ot the growth data on the branched scleractlnlans comes trom Acropora palmat. (elkhorn), ~. cervIcornis (staghorn). and~. prollfer. (fUSed stagnorn). Gener."y, these corals have different growth rates dependent upon tenperature (~. palmata and~. prollfera), placement In the reet zone 5~5 TAB~E 5-10. Growth rates and sizes of precious black. pink. and bamboo corals. Data presented· for species in the management area and in the Pacific. References as noted. GROWTH GROUTH RATE COLONY SIZE t1EASUREMENT SPECIES (nm/yr) (Height in m) TECurUQUE REFERENCE In Management Area: Cirripathes lUtkefti 50-100 up to 7 skeletal ring rlOldberg (1977) (Black coral) analysis VI CorallillJl medea ... 0.5 Cairns (1979. personal I {Pink coral} cOlll8Un1cation) &; Corall ium niobe .. 0.5 Cairns (1979, personal (Pink coral) cCNIun1cation) Le10fathes glaberrima (8 ack coral) up to 1.2 Cairns (1979, personal cORlllunication) In Paci f1 c wa ters : COrallium secundum 90 up to 0.6 s ke leta I ring Grigg (1976) (pink coral) analysis Gerardia SPa up to 0.25 . Western Pacific Fishery (GOld coral) Management Council (1979) Le,idisls SPa up to O.lO Western Pacific Fishery Bamboo cora I ) Management Council (1979) ,. ,i (A. pallllllta), and g.ographlc ar.a (A. c.rvicornis) (G'adf.'ter, et al., 1978). Growth rates of A~ropora in the manag .... nt area and on Caribbean r .. fs rang. frQ71 34 to 266 mm per year for ~. cervicornis" 47.3 to 10' IIIfII p.r year for ~. pallllllta. and '9.2 to 81.8 mm for ~. prall f.ra. Those rates are low.r If expressed so'.'y for corals in the management ar.a (Tabl. 5-11). Gladfelter, et al. (1978) found that calcification rates (the amount of calcium carbonate deposited per unit branch perimeter) in Acropora palmata were Independ.~t of temperature yet dependent upOn zonation; 0.85 g per em per year In the backr .. f, 1.66 in the shal low for.r .. f, and 1.35 in the deeper forer .. f were typical. The data of Shinn (1966) and Gladfelter, et al. (1978) Indicate that Acropora sPP. growth rates In terms of linear extension are higher in the warm fal I months than in cool.r sPring months. Similarly, corals in the management area may exhibit slower growth rates than th. same species In wanner climates (see, e.g.,~. cervicornis data in Table 5-11). Growth data for other shal low-water scleractinians (brain corals and finger corals) has been sum marized by Bright, et al. (1981) and Gladfelter, et al. (1978). Generally, growth rates for these species (see Table 5-12) are only ten to 20 percent that of Acropora sPP. Most grOWTh rates for Montastraea, Porites, and Diplorla sumrrerlzed in Tabl. 5-12 are less than 1.0 mm (0.2 in) per year. excepting the work of Lewis, et al. (1968) in the Caribbean. Rates between geographiC areas are more consistenT than observed In Acropora. Also, rates recorded by Gladfelter, et al. (1978) at the beckreef (2 m) and deep forer .. f (10 m) of Buck Island, Virgin IslandS, indicated that depth did not affect growth; both portions of the reef hed identical average growth rates of 7.6 mm (0.3 in per year based on colonies ranging in size fram 9.63 cm2 to 138 cm2 (I.' to 23 in2 ). Highest density bands of MonTastraea annularis seem to be deposited in the warmest months of the year (Hudson, eT al., 1976). Although not quantified, several 'references to Millepora and Maniclna aerolata growth rates have con veyed the preliminary conclusion that growth rates on suitable hard surfaces are quite high. Recently discarded bottles, rocks, and other debris may be covered by Millepora alcicornis or other stinging corals within several monthS to a year. Prior to the exlstJng Florida coral law, several collectors have suggested rapid recolonization In the rose coral !!.. aerolata in Florida Keys waters. Limited data indicaTe that growth may be rapid in the first thr .. to tour years and much slower thereafter (Vaughn, 191 I, 1916). Data on growth rates of d.epwat.r SCleractinians within the management area are practically non existent. Hence, to provide a source of cQ71parison, growth data on corals frQ71 other geographic areas are presented (Tables 5-13 and 5-14). One species In the tables, Lophelia prollfera, is located In the management area on deepwater banks. In general, growth rates observed in these limited reports are significantly lower than growth rates reported above for shal low-water corals in the management area. In the absence of area-specific data, the growth and weight information In Tables 5-13 and 5-14 may be assumed to be a fair approximation of deepwater sc leract I n I an growth in the SOuth ."t I ant Ic and Gu I f of "lex i co. 5.4.2 Morta lity ~ Most of the Information on naturat or human-related mortalities of corals In the management area is in accounts of destruction related to storms, groundings, etc. These qualitative reports relay limited Information on death of a coral area (e.g., "many heed corals near the grounding were overturned and smashed") and ocCasionally certain species (e.g., "the 13·C wat.r kil led 90 percent of the staghorn 5-47 Table 5-11. Growth retes of brandied scleractinlans (Acroporldael based on researd'! done on the s~ throughout the Caribbean and south AtlantiC. References as noted·. Growth measlred as Iln .. r extension, I.e., growth In length. SPECIES Acropora cervicornis Acropora palmata Acropora pro II fara Ocut Ina varlcosa LOCATION (OEPTH) Key La rgo Ory Rocks (2 m) transplant to coral patch Key Largo (3.5 m) transplant to nearer shore Key Largo (I m) Ory Tortugas BUCk Island, Virgin Islands Barbados (10 m) Jamaica Bahamas Eastern Sambo Reef, Florida Backreef, Buck Island, Virgin Islands (0.5 m) Shal low torer .. t, Buck Island, Virgin Islands (0.5 m) Oeep forer .. f, Buck Island Virgin Islands (9 m) Curacao Eastern Sambo Reef, Florida Backr .. f, Buck Island, Virgin Islands (2 m) Fort Pierce, (6 m) Florida (80 m) GROWTH RATE (I'IIIII/yr) 109 43 34 40 71 146 266 45 115 58.5 82.7 55.4 88.0 76.0 105 81.8 59.2 11.3 16.0 T94PERAl\JRE RANGE (O·C) 20 - 30.5 17.2-32.8 13.3-33.8 26 29.5 26.0 29.5 26.0 29.5 26.0 29.5 26.0 7.4-26.7 STUOY OURATION 2/61-1/62 I€ASUR94ENT TECHNIQUE "I lISt Ic-banded brandies, measured Ins i tu CITATION Sh Inn (1966) 2/61-2/62 Plastic-banded Shinn (1966) brandies, measured Ins i tu 2/61-2/62 Plastlc~banded Sh Inn (1966) 2/10/77 4/5/77 brandies, measured· 'n situ Removed and mea- Vaughan (1915) Sired, then returned Alizarin Red S Gladfelter, et al. stain proCedure (1978) fu I I year Olrec1' Lew Is, et a I • ( 1968) ful I year Olrect LewiS, et 4111. ( 1968) 8/5/77 9/30/77 2/10/77 4/5/77 8/3/77 9/30/77 II20/77c 4/5/77 8/3/77 9/30/77 1/20/77 4/5/77 9/15/77 11/16/77 1/11/77 4/5/77 6/78 6/79 Olrect Direct Vaughan (1915) Bright, et al. (l981l Alizarin Red S Gladfelter, et al. stain procedure (1978) Alizarin Red S Gladfelter, at al. stain procedure (1978) Alizarin Red S Gladfelter, et al. stain prOcedure (1978) Oirect Direct Direct Bak (1976) Bak (1976) Bright, et al. (1981> Alizarin Red S Gladfelter, at al. stain procedure (1978) Tie wrap banded J. Reed (1981) branches, AI I urln stain Table 5-12. Growth rat .. for unbranched seleractinlans. Reterenees are listed. Growth measured as Iinee extension, I.e., growth outward trom base (stain, spike, etc.) In diameter. LOCATION' SPECIES (DEPTH) Montastraea Baekreef. Buck annularls Island. Virgin Islands (2 m) Same (2 m) Deep forel"'eef. Buck Island V. I. (10 m) Same (10 m) Cal"'ysfort Reef '<ey Largo, Fla. Sarys fort Reef Florida (3 m) Florida Curacao Jamaica (10 m) Sarbados (10 m) (transplanted) Jarna ica (tl"'anspl anted) 3uck Island. Vi I"'gl n Islands GROWTH RATE (l1111/yr) 8.3 6.6 7.0 8.9 8.4 10.7 5.0-6.8 8.0 19.2 25.0 7.3-8.8 FOl"'ereef, baek- 8.0-9.7 reef, patch re.f Key Largo, Fla. (2-10 m) East Flower Garden Bank St. Croix. V Il"'gl n Islands (3-7 m) Jamaica (0-15 m) 6.5-9.0 9.2-10.4 6.2-8.8 T94PERATURE (O·C) 29.5 29.5 26.0 16-32 18-26 5-49 SruDY ~ASUREMENT DURATION TECHNIQUE REFERE~E 8/12/77- Alizarin Red S Gladfelter, at al. 11/10/77 stain prOcedure (1978) 1/13/77 5/6/77 8/12/77 11/5/77 1/18/77 5/5/77 12/11/60 8/6/71 Alizarin Red S Gladfelter, et al. stain prOcedure (1978) Alizarin Red S Gladfelter, et al. stain prOcedure (1978) Alizarin Red S Gladfelter, et al. stain prOcedure (1978) Imbedded spike Shinn (1976) in skeleton (10 yrs. 8 mos.) 3 years Direct Direct Direct on intact colonies Hof fme i ster and Multer (1974) Vaughan (1916) Sak (1976) Alizarin Red S Dustan (1975) Direct Lewis. et al. ( 1968) Direct Lewis, et al. ( 1968) , 18 yeal"'S of X-rad i ography Hudson and Sh inn cOl"'i ngs (~npub I I Shed) In 75 years of X-radiography data 50 years ot X-radiography data X-radiography X-I"'ad i ography Gladfelter. et al. ( 1978) Hudson (1981) Hudson and ~obbln ( 1980) Saker and liebel'" ( 1975) Aller .,nd DOdl' ( 1974) ) Table 5-12 (continued' ~OWTH LOCATION RATE TEMPERATtRE STlJOY MEASUREMENT SPECIES (DEPTH) (IIIII/yr) (O·C) DURATION TECHNIQUE REFERENCE Montastraea British 6.6-8.7 X-rad lograpl'ly "'acl "tvre and annularls Hondorus and Smith (1974) ( cant I nued ) Florida East Sambo 7.0 9r'gl'lt, et al. Reef, Florida (1981 ) Near Key West, 9.0 Agassiz ( 1890) Florida Bright, at al. ( 1981 ) Fort Jef ferson, 7.0 Vaughan ( 1914) Dry Tortugas, Florida Bennuda 8.0 lams (1969) Bright, et al 0 (1981) Bahamas. Goul dl ng 6.0 Vaughan (1914) Cay Jamaica 8.8 Dodg8, at i!l1 Bright, et a ( 1981 ) Jamaica 16.0 Lawls, et al. (196 3rlght, at i!lI. ( 1981 ) Porites Backreet. 3.53· 29.5 9/9/77- AI I zarl n Red S G I ad fe I tel"', at al. astreoldes Buck Island. 11/15/77 ( 1978) Virgin Islands 3.36 26.0 1/13/77 (2 m) 5/6/77 3.36 26-29.5 9/76-5/77 Deep forereef 3.00 26.0 1/26/77- All zarl n Red S Gladfelter, at i!lI. Buck Island, 5/5/77 (1978) Virgin Islands (10 /II' CarIbbean 3.0-3.4 Lewis, et i!l1. ( 196€ Porlte. Caribbean 36 porlte. Lewis, et i!l1. ( 1965 PorItes sPP. Caribbean 20-40 Law I 5, et i!lI. ( 1968 Dlplorla Carys fort Reef 5.0 12/11/60- Imbedded spike Sh I nn (1976) strlsosa Florida 8/6/71 ," skeleton (10 yrs 8 mos) 5-50 VI I U\ TABLE 5-13. Deeper-water scleractinian growth rates based on colonies attached to undersea cables near Norfolk Island. Australia (290 20 1 00"S. 168007 1 l5"Ei 800 nmi or 1480 ~ east of Drisbane). legend: A = based on data from a 17-year old cable. B = from a 30-year old cable. Weights based on dry weight of cleaned corallum (i.e. skeleton). (From ~uires. 1~60). SPECIES Caryophyllia profunda Specimen A B C Average Goniocorella dumosa Culicia australiensis Tubastrea ~ Specimen A B Average A IIEIGIIT WEIGUT (mm/yr) (gms/yr) 2.02 1.55 1.96 1.04 2.94 0.46 1.82 l.16 2.49 0.57 0.42 0.39 0.46 0.77 1.16 4.50 2.83 HEIGUT (mm/yr) 1.15 0.88 1.11 1.05 .1.67 0.26 1.0l 1.79 1.41 B WEIGHT (gms/yr) 0.l2 0.24 0.22 0.26 0.44 0.66 2.52 1.59 TABLE 5-14. SlJI1II(lry of qrowth da ta fran deepwa ter sc 1 erac tin i ans on undersea cab.l es. References as noted. (Adapted from Squires. lQ(,O). (1\01.[ GROWTII CADLE CABLE AfaE UO. OF RATE SPECIES DEPTH (m) LOCATION (yrs) SPECII1ENS (nin/yr) REfERENCE Carlo~hlll ia 2000-2800 fted i terranean ,,* 10 2.5· ttll ne-Edwards I el ectrica (1861) Carloehlll ia 2000-2800 ftedi terranean 2 1 Hi lne-Edwards arcuata" (W61) VI lO~hosmjJ ia 2000-2800 f1edi terranean 2* 1 5.0* I1i lne-Edwards I VI (1861 ) N te egraph1cus loehe 1 ia prol ~ fera Off Spa in 6 7.5 Pratje (1924) Lophel ia 1139-1200 Uorth Atlantic 6 6.8 CAlncan (W77) prol Hera Oesmophlll urn 1139-1200 Uorth Atlantic 6 1 7.1 Duncan (1877) cristagal1 i So 1 enosmi 1 ia 1139-1200 North Atlant ic 6 Duncan (IB77) variabll is *These data are based on a cable age of 2 years. I~wever. the cable age was actually 3 years. Therefore. the growth rates reported by Mj)ne-[d~/ards are probably too high. Assuming the rates are a averaqe of two years of growth. the values r.~y be reclaculated for 3 years: ~a!yophyll ia electrica - 1.67 r.Jhl/yr and Lophoslll1 ia telegr:aphicus - 3.33 IiIIII/yr. ' corals, Acropc!a cervicornis, at 'ry Tortugas," Davis, 1979, personal communication). Sucn conver sational data r8CIr"ents the best ava Ilab Ie I nformatlon. General aspects of coral mortal I ty are diSCUssed In the work of Antonius (1975, 1976, 1977. and In press). One Quantitative study was tnat of Antonius. et al. (1978) at Lace Key. Florida. Dive transects and Inspections of tne reef-building corals were transformed In to a "percent dead" number: patcn reefs (ten percent); reef flat (25 percent); fore reef (ten percent); and deep reef (22 ~ercent). rne total at tne Lace Key study area was 13 percent dead. These data are presented by species In the report. Grigg (1976) calculated the annual Instantaneous natural mortality rate of pink coral (Corailium secundum) I n the Makapuu. Bed of f Hawa 1.1 to be 0.066 or 6.6 percent. Natural massive mortalities of staghorn coral (Acropora cervicorniS) at Jry Tortugas have been observed on two occasions: 1878 when nearly 100 percent of the colonies died because of unidentified "black water" (Vaughan. 1911) and In 1976 to 1977. when a winter cold front kll led about 90 percent of the staghorn corals (Davis. 1979, personal communication). The work of Jaap (1979, personal communication) at 31scayne National ?ark also provides some Insight Into coral mortalities. By measuring recruitment, Jaap has Quantified net changes In 4 IffZ. quadrants. Negative net. changes (see Table 5-16) show mortality. Other discussions of mortalities are reflected In the description of tne present health of corals (Section 6.2). 5.4.3 Abundance and Density Insufficient data exist on which to base calculations of the total amount or percent coverage of corals in the management area. At best, estimates may be made by extrapOlating from smal I scattered studies, such as tne work of Walter Jaap and Jennifer Wheaton Lowry at Biscayne National Pa/"t(, however, tnelr data are not representative of the entire management area. Qualitative stataments on tne distribution and abundance of corals may be made under similar confidence limits. Coral reefs are very limited In distribution, perhaps to less than one percent of the total management area; patCh reefs cover slightly more area than outer bank reefs. Deepwater banks again account for less than one percent, probably less than the coral re.fs. ~st of the corals in the ~anagement area occur in hard bottom areas or as so II tary specimens. 5.4.3.1 Octocorals Wheaton Lowry (In preparation). Opresko (1973), and Goldberg (1973a). have d.talled abundance and div.rslty for octocorals In the south.astern Florida and Florida reef tract areas. Very limited Information exists for the remainder of the ~anagement area. At Biscayne National Park (Schooner. Elkhorn. Star, and Dome reefs). Jaap and Wh.aton Lowry (In press), surveyed octocoral abundanc. and density by.transect, species count. and photographic analysis. Octocoral colon'es usually ccmprlSed more than halt of the total coral colonies (Table 5-15), I •••• octocorals were more abundant than stony corals In a 1977 survey. In 1978. a similar pattern of octocoral predominance was found but the total number of species was slightly lower. The five most abundant species (53.9 percent of total octocorals) were Plexaura flexuosa, ~. hOlllQlllalla. Gargonla ventallna. Eunlcea succln .. , and Pseudopterogorgia americana. "'ean numbers of octo cora I colonIes counted along a 20 In (66 ft) transect of the eight reefs listed I, Tabl. 5-15 In 19n and 1978, respectively, wer. 102.81 and"!SS.!7 (Wh.aton Lowry, In pr8CIaratlon). Octoeoral densities .ere surveyed by Wheaton Lowry (In preparation) by dive counts and p~tographlc analysis at Blseayne National ~ark. The 1977 results, as dive counts per quadrant, .ere 27.41 colon1es/~ (range 16.00 to 46.50); In 1978, photo plot counts .ere 26.28 colonles/m2 (~ange 9.75 to 50.00). By both methods, Schooner Reef and Its control exhibited highest densities compared to the other three ~.ef pairs. Opresko (1973), based on field study at Soldier Key, Boca Chl!a ~ass, and Red Reef, calculated fll8an densities of gorgonlans of 11.3,6.9, and 27.1/m2 ~espectlvely. Most common genera at the three a~.as .ere Eunlcea. ~terogorgla. Pseudopterogorgla. Brlareum, and Plexaura; densities of those species a~e listed In Table 5-17. The only other density In.formatlon for octocorals .Is from oft Palm Beach County, FlorIda. Goldberg (1973) reported an average densIty of 25.1 colonles/m2. No data .ere given on abundance In that are .. Several researchers noted the hIgh numbers of sea pansIes (Renilla) taken In trawls In the north eastern Gulf of ~exlco but no quantitatIve data exists. Holland, et al. (1977) reported the species to be abundant in patches at 30 m C1 00 tt) off the rexas coast. 5.4.3.2 Stony Corals Data on abundance and density of stony corals In the management area are presented in Bright and Pequegnat (1974). Bright and Abbott (I n Bright and Rezak, 1978), Jeep (1979), and Jaep (( n preparation). As lIsted In Table 5-15, stony corals comprise only about 21 to 22 percent of the coral biota at eight reefs In Biscayne National Park. The most com~n five species are Porites astreoldes, Mlllepora alclcornls, Porites porites, Montastraea annularls, and Siderastrea slderea. Basad on 25 m (90 tt) dIver t~ansects, stony co~al abundance at the Biscayne reefs In 1977 and 1978 averaged 25.06 and 26.95 colonies, ~espectively (Jaap, In preparatlon)o Stony coral densities recorded at Biscayne National Park at eight locations .ere 7.53 colonles/m2 In 1977 (quadrant sampling; ~ang. a to 23) and 6.16 colonles/m2 in 1978 (photographic analysis; range 2 to 16) (Jaap, In preparation). At the Dry Tortugas, Wei I~ (unpublished) gave densities of shallow water stony corals ranging from 2.79 to 9.15 eolonles/m2. In the northwest ~ulf of Mexico, aright and Pequegnat (1974) reported 30 to 40 percent live stony coral cover at the peak of West Flower Garden Bank. BrIght and Abbott (in BrIght and Abbott, 1978) observed 60 to 65 percent JIve stony corals at East Flower Garden Banks. 5.4.4 DIversity 5.4.4.1 Octocerals Once again, most of the data on diversity has been done by Wheaton Lowry (In preparation) In BIscayne National Park. I-flghest octocoral diverSities along a single 2~m (66-ft) tr-ansect .ere 3.2 at Schooner Reef Control In 1977 and 3.98 at the same reef In 1978. Calculations using the Hln Shannon-Weaver species dIversity Index .ere relatively high, mostly above 3.00. 5.4.4.2 Stony Corals Species diversity for stony corals at Biscayne National Park (Table 5-16) .as comparably lower than that for octocorals (Jaap, In preparation; Jaap, 1979). Whereas many transects ~""ealed octocoral diversities of over 3.00, the hIghest stony coral diversities (Shannon-Ofeaver H'n) .ere 2.80 at Star Reef In 1977, 3.3.3 at:Jeme Reef In 1978, and 3.06 at Schooner Reef In 1979; diversity values rtmalned 5-54 TAULE 5-15. Rt't'f Hallie Ilkhorn I I khorn UII! tro I ln I Slhoont'r ln ln Schuoner control Star Star control lIome IJIlne (:onlrol TOTAL S AV[RAG[S ? Octocoral and stony coral ahundance and percent cOAposHion per 1,,'- quadrat at . fourexperi"ental reefs and adjacent control reefs in 1977 and 1978 at Biscayne r4ational Park. Variability between years attributed to inconsistency in sampling techniques (after Jaap and Smith. in preparation). Ortocoral Stony (llral Total of Percent Percent C:olonlt"s (olonit's. a II (ora Is Octocorals Stony (orals 1911 1918 1911 1918 1'111 1918 1911 19/8 1911 1918 66 ]9 28 lU 94 59 10.2 66.1 29.8 ]).4 180 86 42 ]1 228 119 81.6 ll.) 18.4 21.1 14'1 61 18 21 181 82 19.1 14.4 20.1 25.6 102 100 )6 14 218 114 8).5 81.1 16.5 12.] . 70 11 !)4 15 124 92 56.4 81.1 41.6 16.] 61 110 9 16 16 126 88.2 81.1 11.8 12.7 64 II/A 16 2] 80 H/A 80.0 20.0 ----. 9J . Hi!! 18 16 III ...!Y~ 8].8 16.2 "" 413 241 119 11111 592 11.9 111.6 22.1 71.4 under 3.00 In al I but four cas~ for the thr .. years eomblnede Compared to other regIons (s.e Loya, 1972; porter, 1972: Ott. 1975'. these dIversItIes are Io.er for stony corals. At tne 96 m2 surveyed In BIscayne NatIonal Park, H'n ranged trom 0.47 to· 3.06, H'max from 1.58 to 3.46, evenness J' from 0.30 to 0.94 (Table 5-16). Age data on corals Include scattered reports on the age of living corals and relic reefs. In the relIc reefs underlying tne FlorIda reef tract, Shinn, et al. (1977), calculated accumulation rates and ages (~standard devIatIon) by Carbon-14 dating of drll I cores from she reef slt.s (see FIgure 5-6 for IMp): 1. Sa I Harbor 2. Sewer Trench 3. Long Reef 4. Carys fort Re.f 4.0 m depth 7.3 m depth 5. Marker G R.efs 3.1 m deptn 4.6 m depth 6.2 m depth 6. Ft. Jefferson NatIonal ~nument (Dry Tortugas) 9.1 m depth 13.7 m depth Accumu I at Ion Rat. (m/I,OOO yrs) 0.38 0.74 0.65 0.86 1.39 0.49 0.56 1.91 2.28 Age l.r!.!.L 6,300 ~ 120 4,930.!. 70 5,630.!. 120 4,570.!. 85 5,250.!. 95 6,170,:, 60 7, 160 ~ 65 37,480.!. 1,300 4. 762 ~ 6,017.!. 65 90 These data conflnn tne thIckness and ages of coral roek in relic reefs. The corals present varied b.~een sItes but Included SIderastrea, Monstastraea annularls,!i. cavernosa, COlpophyllla. and D'e'or'a. Acropora palmate. long consIdered a major reef-buIlder In Florida, was absent In most reefs drll led. Sh I nn (1979), I n a cor I ng survey at the Grecl an Roeks ott K.., Largo, stated that the gro.th rates of Montastra .. sP. IndIcate 1 m (3.3 ttl of upward gro.th In less tnan 150 yearsQ ·In Makapuu Bed, Hawaii, the Western Pacific FIShery "'anagement Council (1979) calculated tne "critIcal age" at whIch coral gro.th gaIns are overtaken by natural mortality losses. For the pInk coral (Coraillum secundum). that age was 31.4 years, whIch corresponds to an average colony weIght of 237 g (6.2 oz). 5.4.6 Reproduction and Recruitment ReproductIve and recruitment capabilities of corals In tne management area have been studied at Biscayne NatIonal Park and tne Flower Garden SankS. Ongoing research on eight reefs In the Park has Quantitled changes.. In marked plots be~een tne su rs of 1978 and 1979 (Jaap, 1979, personal ccmmunlcatlon).· Data compiled for Pacific corals are also presented. 5-56 Table 5-16. Prell.lnary data on recrult .. nt (1976 to 1979) for eight r .. fs In Biscayne National Park. Including tour r ts at lDorlng buoys (see figure 6-6) and four control reefs near the buoys. Data baSed on changes In colonies and species In 4al (four I~ adjacent plots) as deter.lned by dl~r eka.lnatlon. Range. ..an. standard deviation. and dl~rslty data are calculated fra. the four Individual lal and . expressed for the entire 4al plot. H'n ~ Shannon-Wea~r Index; H' .. x ~ nu~r of species x log base2• J' .. e~nness; t«: '" no change. (fro. unpublished data of Jaap. 1979. personal coa.unlcatlon.) Reef S pled .nd TOTAl CIIANG[ RANGE "(AN SIANO. Il:VIATltWe Plot lUlber Colonies Speetes Colonies Species Colonies Species Colonies SIJecies Colunl., Species H'n H' ... J' (Ikhorn Plol I-I 26 6 -1 -2· 1-10 3-~ 6.50 4.00 1.89 0.ft7 2.23 2.~8 O.Bl (Ikhorn "lot 1-2 4~ 1 '10 ,1 8-17 1-6 11.2~ 1.25 4.111 2.l. 1.61 2.81 . 0.51 (lkhorn Plot 1-3 14 1 '14 NC 6-13 1-1 8.!»0 2.00 1.11 0.82 1.04 1.58 0.66 . (Ikhorn Plul 1-4 26 1 -I -4 4-11 2-1. 6.50 2.~0 1. J2 O.!.O 1.20 I. !IS 0.16 (Ikhorn C(Mltrol I'lol 1-6 69 1 '20 HC 0-11 1-1 11.15 5.00 I ].5l 1.6] 2.l8 l.81 0.81 lIk/lorn CCHltrol Plot 1-1 61 6 • ]4 -2 1-l4 ]-5 16.15 4.00 1.50 0.82 I. 78 2.58 0.'9 ·.3 (lkho,· .. CCHILt·ol "lot 1-8 49 6 .11 HC 1-11 ]-5 Il.l5 ].50 4.17 1.00 1.19 2.58 0.69 JI (Ikhol"ll CCHllrll1 I'llIt 1-9 40 9 '24 '5 5-16 ]-1 10.00 4.50 4.!l5 I. 91 2.0) 1.11 0.64 ..... Schooner Plot 2-1 29 5 -1 -l 2-12 2-4 1.25 ].()I) 4.11 0.82 2.06 2. ]2 0.89 Schooner Plot 2-2 21 7 11 '2 5-9 ]-5 '.80 1.BO . 1.11 0.96 2.]6 2.81 0.B4 Schooner Control Plot 2-6 21 10 .4 '1 4-10 4-6 6.15 5.00 ].70 1.15 1.06 1.12 0.92 Schooner Cootrol Plot 2-7 26 3 16 -I 5-11 1-2 6.50 1.50 2.00 0.58 0.41 1.58 0.30 Star Plot 3-1 29 8 ., HC 5-10 l-6 7.25 4.25 2.06 1.71 I !II 3.00 0.B6 Star Plot ]-2 10 9 '4 HC 6-9 ]-6 1.50 4.50 1.29 1.29 l.l1 3.11 U.81 St.,. Plot ]-1 35 8 '12 '1 6-11 ]-5 0.1!! 4.25 2.116 0.96 l.]1 3.00 0.11 Stu Control Plot 3-6 25 5 .l ric l-12 I-!t 6.l5 2.25 4.]5 1.89 I.]l l.]2 0.51 Star Control Plot ]-1 25 1 -10 -3 4-8 2-5 6.25 1.50 l.(16 1.29 2.18 2.81 0.11 Star Contrlal Plot 1-8 26 6 '11 'IC 5-10 1-4 6.50 2.f.3 l.18 1.19 1.66 2.58 0.b4 Dolle Plot 4-1 22 9 '8 '1 2-9 2-6 5.50 4.00 2.89 1.81 ~.99 ].17 0.94 Dolle Plot 4-2 26 1 II( He 4-B 2-5 6.50 1.15 1.11 1.26 2.26 2.81· 0.80 Ime Plot 4-3 20 6 -I -3 2-10 l-l 5.00. 2.50 1.46 0.58 1.91 2.58 0.14 DIMe Control Plot 4-6 II 5 11 'IC 4-1 2-5 5.50 1.25 1.29 I. lei 1.86 l.ll 0.00 oo.e Control Plot 4-1 32 II .4 .2 4-12 1-6 8.00 5.00 1.21 1.41 2.92 ].46 O.B!» ao.e Control Plot 4-0 J5 8 .19 '1 1-15 2-1 8.15 4.25 4.92 2.06 2.]9 ).00 O.dO Preliminary r .. ults of the r .... ,.dI of Walt.,. Jaep at 8lscayn. National "a,.k a,.e pt"esented In Table 5-16. Recrultlwnt can be calculated from the "change" colunn, .hlch quantified dltte"enees In the numbers of colonl. and specl .. between the s~"s of 1978 and 1979. The ,.asults a,.e !fa,.lable, ,.anglng f,.om an addition of 34 colonl .. at Elkhorn Plot 1-7 or five species at Elkho,.n Plot 1-9 to a loss of ten colonl .. at Sta" Plot 3-7 0" four species at Elkhorn Plot 1-4. General Iy, rec~l~nt did not appear to dl fte,. between control and experimental reefs. However, some plots (e.ga, EI khorn Controls 1-6 to 1:9) did have exceptionally high changes. Spa.nlng In rose coral, Manlclna aerolata, apparently occurs In late spring to early su~r In Flo,.lda .aters (Boschma, 1929; Yonge, 1935). Pink corals In Ha.allan .aters apparently reach sexual maturity at a height of about 12 em (4.7 Inl or an age of 13 years «~rlg9, 1976). The reproductive cycle Is annual .Ith spawning taking place In June and July. Basad on the assumption of steady state recruitment of the Makapuu Beds off Hawaii (Western Pacific Fishery Management Council, 1979), an estimate of ,.ecrultment.as obtained by calculating the quantity of co,.al lost via mortality. In a syst ... In equilibrium, the rates .should be equal. The estimate of annual ,.ec~ltment to Makapuu for pink coral .as 5,227 colonl .. (Western Pacific Fishery Management Council, 1979'. Fluctuations between yea,. classes a,.e p,.obable. There Is saae Indication that the assumption of an equlI Ib,.lum state may not be valid In coral ,. .. fs. 5.4.7 Dlst,.lbutlon Data on the ar .. 1 dlst,.lbutlons of corals In the management area are lacking. Isolated collection ,.eco"ds pinpoint locations of certain species but convey little Infor-matlon on the area of a stony co,.. I bed. This fact' In canblnatlon with the paucity of abundanee data In many ,.eglons prevents a real I stlc cal cu latlon of standi ng stock and blanass. 5.4.8 Biomass Biomass calculations are possible where data for a partlcula,. area are available' for: I) total ar .. (A) of the coral bed; 2) density (0) as colonies per m2; and 3) average .elght (W) per colony. This Infor-mation may be used to estimate living biomass (Bo) of an unflshed stock, 80 • A x 0 x \II Several assumptions a,.e Inhe,.ent In calculating 80 • FI,.st, .elghts per colony vary greatly depending on the species and Its age. In recognition of this probl ... , typical .elgl'lts have been deduced f,.om the literature (Table 5-17). Second, since .elghts Include both living and deed tiSSues, an estimate of percent living tissue In a colony must be made. This again Is dependent upon specl .. and size but I s herein restricted to a colony of typical .elgl'lt. Hence, It has been assllll8d 1'1'1.1' thr .. percent of the .elgl'lt of typical stony corall and four percent of typical gorgonlans are alive. Using the esti mated typical .elgl'lts and the data of Jaap and Smith (In preparation) and Op,.esko (197), total and .llvlng biomass calculations have been made .for several communities In the Florida reef tract (Table 5-18). By campa,.lson, the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council (1979) deter-mlned the total biomass of pink coral (Corailium secundum) to be 43,500 kg for the Makapuu Sad (3.6 km2 in a,.ea. or about 20 times the a,.ea of Elkhorn Reef) or 0.01 kg/m2 total biomass. The lower biomass In the Ha.alian bed ,.etlects tne g,.eat dlfterences In colony .elght between the stony corals and gorgonlans. 5-58 U1 I U1 'D Table 5-11. SUMMary of dry weIght data used fo determine typlcdl weights per cordi cOlony. SPECIES O'Iplarla cl I \Usa Por Ites proltes PorItes astreoldes [unlcea succlnea succlnea i.. ~. plantaglnea i.. tournefortl tournefortl E. t. atra i.. calyculata subsp •• Ith lip i.. calyculata without lip Pterogorgla cltrlna f.. anceps Pseudopterogorgla acerosa f.. a.rlcana Brlareum asbestlnum Plexaura ho.o.alla f.. t lexuosa Pseudopterogorgla blplnnata f.. rlglda f.. acerosa P. alll&rlcana OOSEHYEO WE I GilT HANGE (ky) <I to 100 or higher 0.001 to 1.0 0.001 to 0.191 x. 0.23 x. 0.02 max. 0.36 max. 1.45 /lid". 0.39 max. 0.61 max. 0.12 IIBX. 0.23 max. 1.21 IIIiIX. 0.80 x. 0.28 max. 2.38 lllille. 0.94 max. 0.08 x. 1.99 x. 0.24 I18X. 0.86 AYEHAGE WE.! GIlT (ky) 0.10 0.10 0.06 0.01 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.46 0.03 0.08 0.32 0.10 0.05 0.15 0.18 0.01 0.61 0.06 0.09 TYP ICAL WElGIH (kg) 4.0 0.10 0.10 0.22 0.01 0.28 0.05 0.16 O.B SOUHCE Jaap (1919, pers. ca...) Jaap (1919, pers. c~) Jaap (1919, pars. ca...) Opresko (I97J) Opresko (I9B) Opresko (I97J) Opresko (I97J) Opresko (I97J) Opresko (I97J) Opresko (I91.B Opresko (I97J) Opresko (I 97J) Opresko 1I97J) Opresko (I97J) Opresko (1913) Opresko (I97J) Opresko (\913) Opresko (I97J) Opresko (1913) Opresko (19, \) TABLE 5-18. Calculations of tissue (skeletal and Ilvlny) and biomass (total and per ~) for yoryonlans at three reef locations and stony corals at Elkhorn Reet. See teKt for discussion ot calculations and assumptions. TYPICAL TOTAL L/YIOO TOTAL AREA OOY TOTAL L/ Y It-Mi BIOMASS BIOMASS S~YE'I'W DENSITY WEIGHT BIOMASS BIOMASS per ,; per ,; LOCATION SPECIES (.,2) (colonles/m2) (kg) (kg) (ky) (kg) (ky) SOtR;E Elkhorn Reet Dlplorla cll~sa 16 0.50 4.0 32.0 9.6 0.6 2.0 Jaap (i n prep.' Porites porites 16 1.00 0.10 1.6 0.5 0.:1 1 0.1 Jaap «In prep.' Porites astr~ 16 1.25 0.10 2.0 0.6 0.1 7 0.1 Jaap (I n prep.) Soldier Key Eunlcea spp.1 64 5'.70 0.22 80.3 32.1 0.5 1.3 Opresko (1913) Pterogorgla spp.2 64 4.18 0.08 21.4 8.6 0.1 0.3 Opresko (1973) Boca Ch I ta Pass Pseudopteroyorgla spp.3 16 4.00 0.28 11.9 7.2 0.4 I. I Opresko (1973) .n Red Reet Briareull spp.4 64 5.82 0.05 18.6 1.4 0.1 0.3 Opresko ! 1973) . I n ~ Pie)Caura spp.5 64 6.02 0.16 61.6 24.7 0." 1.0 Opresko (1973) Pseudopterogorgl~ spp.6 64 4.40 O. J3 36.6 14.6 0.2 0.6 Opresko (1973) footnotes: Includes!... succlnea, f.. tournetortl. and!... calyculata 2 I nc I udes P. cI tr I na and P. ancej»s 3 I nd udes f.. aCMosa and f.. a .... 1 cana 4 Includes only l!. asbestlnull 5 I nc I udes f.. h01lO1IIiI i I a and!.. t 1.)Cuosa 6 Includes f.. blplnnata, f.. rlglda, f.. acerosa, aod P. alErlcana 7 Quantity actually less than 0.1 kg ~ / 5.4.9 ~xlmum Sustainable Yield (MSY) The lack ot sufficient dati on blanass Ind mortality, and the abSence of a fiShery fran which catch and ettort data 1liiY be obtained, prevents any cal~latlon of MSY for the entire management area. An estimated MSY (MSY·) hiS been determined for several species at specific reefs In the Florida reef tract, but cannot be expanded to other corals due to great differences In speCies, density, growtn rates, and other flcto". Using the data presented In Table 5-18, an approxllllltion of MSY may be calculated for several communities. The calculation uses the method developed by Gul land (1970), ana applied by tne Western Pacific Fishery Management Council to !ts coral resources: MSY· • 0.4 ~ x Bo 0.4 ,. a constant with no units attached M s mortality Bo s Ilvl ng biomass • A x D x W ApplicabilIty of MSY· for Gulf and south Atlantic corals generated from this equatIon Is remote. Tne probablll ty of error I n the estimates of ~Y are enhanced by us I ng mortal I ty data fran Hawa i i an pre cious coral, biomass data for Floridian stony and gorgonlan corals, and a constant derived for fisheries Quite different than corals. This constant may range In value from 0.17 to 0.95; 0.4 was selected to be consistent with the Western PacifIc Council'S plan. To show how alternate mortality and biomass values could affect MSY·, sensitIvity analyses were run .on the corals for which MSY· was calculated (Table 5-19). The sensitivity test examines the changes In MSY· when mortality or biomass are reduced by one Quarter (-.25y), one half (-.5y), or three quarters (-.75y), or Increased by one half, 100 percent (Iy), or 200 percent (2y). As shown in Table 5-19, MSY· per rn2 for corals varies dependent upon the dlfterent M and 80 values. No one set of values may be selected as more realistic than others with the existing data. ~ence, a range Is the most appropriate way ·1'0 state MSY· per rn2. The range may be derived fran tne fIrst and last columns in Table 5-19. Table 5-19. MSY· calculations st~ndardlzed as kg/rn2/yr dry weIght and sensitivity analyses for alter nate mortalIties (M) and blomasses of living tissue (Bo). Symbols x and y refer to Bo and M for each species from Table 5-18. Due to the equation, values of "4Sy· are Iden tical withIn one sensItivIty level for one species regardless of whIch varIable, 60 or ~, Is altered, I.e., .25x(y) equals .25y(x). SPECIES Dlplorla cllvosa (brain corll) Porites astreoldes (finger corel) PorItes porites (finger coral) Eunlcea sPP. (octoeoral) Pterogorgla sPp. (octocorll) Pseudopterogorgll spP. (octocoral) (Boca Chlta Pass, Florldl) Pseudopterogorgll ssp. (octocoral) (Red Reef, Florida) Brlareum sPP. (COrky sea finger) Plexaura sPP. (black sea red) )( .75y x .50y x .25y )( y x +.50y 0.0040 0.0079 0.0119 0.0158 0.0237 0.0007 0.0013 0.0020 0.0026 0.0039 0.0007 0.0013 0.0020 0.0026 0.0039 0.0033 0.0066 0.0099 0.0132 0.0198 0.0007 0.0013 0.0020 0.0026 0.0039 0.0027 0.0053 0.0080 0.0106 0.0159 0.0007 0.0013 0.0020 0.0026 0.0039 0.0027 0.0053 0.0080 0.0106 0.0159 0.0013 0.0027 0.0040 0.0053 0.0080 Source: From dat.a of Jaep (I n preparat Ion) and Opresko (1973). 5-61 )( +Iy )( +2y 0.0316 0.0474 0.0052 0.0078 0.0052 0.0078 0.0264 0.0396 0.0052 0.0078 0.0212 0.0318 0.0052 0.0078 0.0212 0.0318 0.0106 0.0159 Very f .. data I st on MSY. fo,. corals outside the manag nt a,.ea.. Gene,.ally, ottle,. al".as suH.,. fran the s .... lack of InfOl'lllatlon .nca..nt.red In ttlls F~. MSY· has been calculated by the Westel"n Pacific FIsh8ry ~anagement CouncIl (1979) fo,. thr .. co,.als In ~akapuu Bed, Hawaii CTable 5-20). Tabl.5-20. Estimates of MSY· (landed dl"y weight) via the Gul land method fo" th,. .. co,.als In the ~ak6puu Bed of Hawaii Cal".a of 4,500.000 m2,. SPECIES COl"alllum secundum Cplnk cOl"al) Gel"al"dla sp. Cgold cOl"al) LepldlslS Spe Cbamboo co,.al) Total "lSY· Ckg/y,.) 1,148 313 285 SOU,.c.: Westel"n Pacific Flshel"Y Management Council. 1979. 5.5 PI"obabl. Futul". Conditions 0.000255 0.000070 0.000063 The Infol"mation avallabl. on pl"oductlvlty and health (see Sections 5.4 and 6.1) .nable sevel"al CUl"SO statements to be made: 1) COl"al gl"owth I"ates al"e so slow In most species that I"8Covel"Y I"ates fol/owlng lal"ge-megnltude hal"Yest, human Impact, 01" natul"al stl"esses al"e fal" slowel" than obsel"Yed In most othel" living I"esou,.ces. In most I"espects many co,.als may be conslde,.ed as a non,.enerable I"esource. 2) Human Impacts that have bien Identified as possible limiting factors In cOl"al health, do not appea,. to be subsiding. Many ch,.onlc pl"oblems such as shIpping bilge dlschal";es, Industl"lal and recl"eatlonal pollution. and sewage could become lal"ge,. p,.oblems In the future even with implementation of this plan. 3) NatuI"al stresses continue to act on pe,.tions of the management area whe,.e species OCCUl" at or neal" thell" geog,.aphlcal limits. Despite the data gaps all" ... y ~tloned. sevel"al recent .fforTS have genel"ated p,..llmlnary data fo,. use In Indicating any futu,.. t,..nds. Co,.lng studies at Key Lal"go National Itta,.lne Sanctuary Indicate that co,.al g,.owth I"at .. have Incl""sed In the past decad. (Hudson. 1981). Whethe,. 0,. not that Impro vement Is attributable to manag nt pl"actices Is mask.d by the discovery by Hudson In the same stUdy that cyclical co,.al growth may be nonnal. Studies at BIscayne National ~ank have shown concentl"ated damage to co,.al Immediately adjacent to several mool"lng buoys CTllmant. 1979, pe,.sonal communication). Pel"haps the appl"O!ch of dll"ectlng usel'" to parTicular a,.eas may be detl"lmental to objectives of PI"" sel"Ylng co,.als. Conv.,.sely. limited damage In high use al"eas may decl"ease damage to othe" a,. .. s and enhance overall coral management efforTs. '~uantifyjng these Impacts Is difficult. The variability in apparent Impact is summerlzed In Table 5-16; total counts of corals and diversities between buoyed anr control plots raveal no pattern In al I 24 plots. One future determinant of coral health In tP'le management area Is the status of stoCks In nations that 5-62 ) export corals to the United States. I •••• the Phlllppln.s and a tewoth.rs. Th. possibility t~at coral .xports tran the Philippines may be eurtalled or ev.n stopped could redirect r.sourc. pr.ssures to domestle stocks. A Philippine law may have sev.rely r.strlcted the .xportatlon of corals sine. 1977 (s.e S.ctlon 7.1.1 of this plan). Thus tar. the law appears not to have be.n .nforced. To allow a realistic assessment of future conditions. It appears mandatory that a multiyear survey of coral growth. stress factors. and management practlc.s be Initiated on a specles- and area-specific basis. These data are a m!nlmal bas. fran which .stlmat.s of, tutur. conditions could be mad. 'and supported. This subject Is discussed below In S.ctlon 14.4. Becaus. corals In the FeZ have until recently been protected and managed by the Bur.au of Land ~anagement and the fact that they are now unprotected Is not g.neral Iy understood; the stockS are pre s.ntly In a good but precarious position. "4asslv. harv.st of stony corals and destruction of coral reefs could occur at any time. A recent expans Ion of the ef fort for snapper and grouper has I ntrOduced various types of bottan fishing g.ar directed at those flsh.s closely associated with hard bottQIIS and r.efs. Roll.r trawls, bottom longllnes. and fish traps are used in this fishery frequently In proximity to coral and coral reef s wh.re the fish congregat.. A I though g.ar may be lost when I t becomes .ntang led I n cora I, the competition among flsh.nnen for a flnlt. resource has Increased fishing .ffort In al I ar.as thus Increasing the Incld.ntal damage to corals and coral r •• fs. Similarly the high recreational fishing level Increasingly subj.cts coral bottoms to Injury fran anchoring by sma I I boats and vessels. Octocorals oth.r than s.a tans are being harVested for aquarium use In a small flsh.ry off Florida without apparent damage to the stodks. Secause they are a rich source of hormone mater I ai, the possi bility exists for harvest of substantial amounts for experimental or .v.n commercial purposes. One American pharmaceutical company estimated Its annual need to be ten tons per y.ar of PI.xaura homomalla for use In extraction of ~rostaglandln for medical research. This mat.rlal was harvested in the Cayman Islands. On Bach. Shoal In Biscayne National Park about four acr.s would be needed to yield ten tons of this coral, but if selectively pruned to al low (rapid) regrowth. the amount of r.ef area required might be Increased 'by t.nfold or mol"'. (Say.r and welnheim.r. 1974). The stodks can most likely provld. adequate mat.rlal for experimental research purposes. but may not be abl. to sustain an extended commercial market should on. develop. In either case. local depl.tion could occur as the result of localized harvest of large numbers of colonies. 5-63 6.0 DESCRIPTION OF HABITAT 6.1 GeographIcal Range of HabItat Types Coral reef commualtles or solItary specimens exist throughout the geographical areas of authority of both Councils. This wide dIstrIbutIon places corals In ocean,lc habItats of correspondlr1g variability, from nearshore .nvlronments to contInental slopes and canyons, Includlr1g the Intenft8dlat. sh.,f zones. HabItats supportlr1g corals and coral-assocIated species are discussed below In groupings based on their physical and ecological charact.rlstlcs. Dependent upon many varl,abl.s (s.e SectIons 5.3 and 6.2.2), corals may domlnatee habItat Ce.g., coral reefs), be a significant compon.nt (e.g., hard bottons), or be IndIvIduals wl.thln a community charac terized by other fauna ( •• g., solitary corals). GeologIcally and ecologIcally" the range of coral assemblag.s and habitat types Is equally divers. (se., e.g., James, 1977). The coral re.fs of shar'low warm waters are typically, though not always, built upon coral lIn. rock and support a wIde array of hermatypIc and ah.rmatyplc corals, finfIsh, Invertebrates, plants, and microorganIsms. Hard bottons and hard banks, found on a wider bathymetric and geographic seal., oft.n possess hIgh specIes diver sity but may lack hermatypiC corals, the supportlr1g coral lIne structur., or some of the associated bIota. In d.ep.r waters, large elongate mounds cal led deepwater benks, hundreds of meters In length, often support a rIch fauna compared to adjacent areas. Lastly are communitIes Inciudlr1g solitary corals. This category oft.n lacks a topographic re"ef as Its substrate. but Instead lIIII!Iy use a sandy bottom. for exampl •• This discussion dlvld.s coral habitats (i •••• habitats to which coral Is a significant contributor) Into five categories - solitary corals. hard bottoms. d.epwater benks. patch r.efs. and outer benk reefs (d.flned In Tabl. 5-1). The order of pres.ntatlon approximates the ranking of habitat complexity based upon species diversity (e.g •• zonation. topographic relief. and other factors). Although attempts have be.n made ~o g.nerallze the discussion Into defInable types. It must be noted that the continuum of habItats Includes many more than the five distinct varieties discussed below. How.ver. In compliance with .'stlng knowledge. the following categories wllr suffice. 6.1.1 Solitary Corals Throughout much, If not al I, of the manag.ment area. research has located bottom communities which Include corals as a minor component of biotic diversity (for example, Siammona (1978) In the Gulf of ~exlco and Cairns (1979) In the Atlantic). Although these solitary corals (see definition In Table 5-1) contrlbut. benthic relief end hebltat to communities throughout the fishery cons.rvation zone. they apparently comprise a minor percentage of the total coral stocks In the management are .. 6.1.2 Hard Bottoms Hard bottons (se. definition In Tabl. 5-1) constitute a group of communlti.s characterlZ.d by a thin ven .. r of live corals and other biota overlying assorted sediment types. Hard bottoms on benkS are topograhlc hl3hs or salt domes created by geologie uplifting; they have vertical r.'lef measured In tens of met.rs (Bright and Rezak. 1978). Hard bottons are usually of low relief and on the continen tal sh.,f (Bright. et al., 1981); many are associated with relic reefs where the coral veneer Is supported by dead coral s. This grouping of coral habitats is one of the most widely distributed of the five categories Iden tified above. being common throughout the management area. Hard bottoms or benks have been described by Hopkins. et al. (1977). and Giammona (1978), in the Gulf of ~exlco; Goldberg (1973a) and Bright, et al. (1981). off ~utheastern Florida; off the coasts of southeastern states (Johnston. 1976); otf Georgia and South Carolina (Stetson. et al •• 1962; Porter. 1978, personal communication; Thomas. 1978, p.rsonal communication); and North Carolina (Huntsman, In press; ~aclntyre and Pllkey. 1969) • ....... IA.o-,"""!' •••• / Ecologically and geological Iy, ha~d bottoms and ha~d banks a~e two dlve~se catego~les. Both habitats Include co~als but typically not the ca~bonate st~uctu~e of a patch o~ oute~ bank co~al ~eef no~ the Iithified ~ock of lIthoherms, a type of deepwate~ bank (see discussions below). Dlve~se biotic zona tion patte~ns have evolved In many of these communities because of thei~ geologic st~uctu~e and geog~aphlc location. Ha~d bottoms a~e common on ~OCky ledges, ove~lylng ~ellc ~eefs, o~ on a va~iety of sediment types. In each case, specl es compos I tlons may va~y dependent upon "'ate~ depth and asso ciated pa~amete~s (light, tempe~atu~., etc.). Ha~d banks nea~ly always exhibit zonation patte~ns. as depicted In theFlgu~es 5-8 to 5-17, and a much la~ge~ ve~ical ~ellet than ha~d bottoms (8~lght 3nd Rezak, 1976 and 1978). Shelf-edge banks occu~ off central easte~n Flo~lda at depthS of 70 to 100 m, with relief up to 25 m and cove~ed with mass Ive, cont Iguous co I on I es of .£. var I cos a (1 to 2 min hel.ght). Sc:rne of the pi nnac les a~. cove~ed entl~ely with dead Ocullna deb~is. At 3 to 50 m depths solitary colonies «30 em diameter) of .£. varlcosa g~ow on limestone ledge systems (I to 3 m ~."et) that pa,.allel, the coast of Florida (Reed, 1980b). Ha~d bottoms and banks In dlffe~ent geographical a~eas suppo~ dlffe,.ent co~al assemblages. In the Gulf of Mexico, whe~e water tempe,.atu,.es and othe~ factors affect hermatypic co~al g~owth, ahermatypic co~als p~evall. Aga~lcla (lettuce coral) and Mad~acls bearing zooxanthel lae a~. abundant in the algal sponge zones of "g~ouP th,. .... banks Id.ntlfled In the no~l'Iw.ste,.n Gulf of ~exlco (se. Table 5-8 and accompanying discussion). Some hennatyplc species have been collected In ha,.d bottoms In the Flo~lda Middle G~ounds. Hopkins, et al. (1977) catego~lzed those assemblages as "h.nnatyplc co~al communities." G~imm and Hopkins (1977), desc~lbed the scle~actlnlan and octoco~alilan diversity of that ra;lon ",hUe 8~ight and Rezak (1978) desc~lbed the ha~d banks In the no~hweste~n Gulf. The only ha~d banks reported I n the northeastern Gu I f .e~e the "deepwate,. co~al st~uctu,.es" located by "'oo~. and Bu I II s (1960) east of the Mississippi River Delta in 390 to 505 m (1,280 to 1,650 ft). Nea~ the Flo,.lda Keys, ha~d bot toms co-exist as underdeveloped reefs nea~sho~e and seawa,.d of the oute~ bank ~ .. f t~act. North of Fowey Rocks off southeaste~n Flo~ida, hard bottoms Include al I types of co,.als, though hennatyplc species a~e nea~ thel~ no~hern limit (see,fo~ example, Goldbe~, 1973a). Co~al communities f~om F/o~lda noNh to No~h Ca~ollna, a,.e dominated by ahermatypic speCies (go~gonlans, Ocullna), although some hermatypic species do occur off No~h Ca,.ollna (Maclnty~e and Pllkey, 1969), and Georgia (Hunt, 1974). The corals on the hard banks otf No~h Ca~ollna nea~ the 720 and 990 m (2,230 to 2,970 tt) lsobaths consist p~ima~lly of Lophella p~o/lfe~a and Enallopsammla profunda, but also Bathypsammia sPP., Ca~yophyilia clavus, and Balanophyilia sPP. (Stetson, et al., 1962). 6.1.3 Deepwate~ Banks The existence of deepwater benks cal led lithoherms In the St~alts of Flo~lda off Little Bahama Bank has been ~epo~ed In the IIteratu~e by Moo~e and Bullis (1960), Neumann, Kelle~, and Kofoed (1972) and Neumann, I(ofoed and I(el le~ (1977). As def i ned by ~eumann, et a I. (1977), II thoherms a~e deepwate,. st~uctures composed of su~face ha~dened layers of Iithified sandy ca~bonate sediments suppoNing a ~eglona/ly dlve~se a~~ay of benthic fauna. Othe~ types of deepwat.~ banks may not be ha~dened but do suppo~ va,.ylng amounts of co,.als. True II thohenns a,.e located p~edoml nantl y beyond the oute" edge of the cont I nental shert on the con tinental slope. Although thel~ dlst~lbution is st" I being denneated, these st~uctu~es have been Identified only In the weste,.n south Atlantic ~eglon, especially within Bahamian national .ate~s (Flgu~e 6-1). Some lithoherms do, howeve~, occu~ nea,. the oute~ edge of the FeZ. Neumann, et al. (1972, 1977), encounte~ed lithoherms at 500 to 700 m (1,988 to 2,310 ft) in the noNheaste~n St~aits of Florida, along the base of the Little Bahama Banks; W"be~ (1976), anal'yzed the pet~ology and envl~onmental setting of some banks on the flank of the Little Bahama Bank. Neumann, et a/. ""977), I n desc~ I bl ng a "thoherm I n the St~a I ts of F I o~lda, II sted the ahennatyp i c 6-2 /1 I Il51- r-+--/" I I J ; ::', , i t I ."' . ; -- I I ", s""; -,. I KEY o HARD.ANI( . , ;14 \ 11\' \'. , I , I I I ".., 1 10... 100 --- - 'II) 'JO 80 .,.. , ~ ..... 7" .-,-, J----\:,--- 4 \- ", ~---. \ \ , , \ ----t '~.·l ' .~ f 9" .. ..... I ~," ft..." ~ ~ . \ ,.. I ~~' '\ • , ~ ~ -' Q', "1-~. \- , ... \ • . ~" 1..0 ~~~L~':~,l ~.~ ...... tJ>, ';I.;.;~' .'. ~ ~ .•. :~ c::a t:? 5b '-:~~.\:', .. :~.P /. :.- ...... , \ Sf) ,~ --- . -------- -----. 8', FIGURE 6-]. Known distribution of deep water hard banks and lithohenms in the south Atlantic (after Macintyre and Pilkey. 1969. r'eumann ~ ~ ~~ .• 1977). '-0, 6 •• 2!1 branching corals, Loph.II. prollfera and Enallopsalllftia profunda, as the chl.f contrIbutors to struc ture and habitats. As noted by James (1977) and otn.rs, spong.s and oth.r Inv.rtebrat.s also add to bottom relief, specl .. diversity, and total available habitat. Wilber (1976), emphaslz.d the rol.s of corals, alcyonarlans, sponges, and crinoids In bafflIng, binding, and trapping sedl~nts to the Iithon.nn. D.epwater banks ~y occur In a varl.ty of shapes. ~ng the formations obs.l"'V.d are rocky mounds 30 to 40 m (100 to 133 ft) high and hundredS of meters long (Neumann .t al., 1977); or Individual ~unds or "haystacks" (Hurl.y, Siegl.r and Fink, 1962). Becaus. of accumulated Sedi~nts, s.ismic profil.s are oft.n nec.ssary to unmask the true Iithified Interior of some Iithoh.nns (Wilber, 1976). Banks nave be.n found to vary gr.atly In v.rtical and horizontal dl~nslon. Dep.ndlng upon ag., rates of sedimentation and lithification, curr.nts, and species composition, banks may show a topographical .xpresslon ranging from a f.w met.rs to as much as 144 m (475 ft), as quoted by St.tson, .t al. (1962). Th.s. diff.r.nc.s alt.r wat.r flow over the structur. and h.nce biotic zonation (Lang, 1979, p.rsonal communication). Within this category of coral assemblag.s. the word Iithol'lenn Is oft.n con fused with oth.r t.rmlnologles. The precis. d.flnition of lithoh.nn id.ntlfles banks accumulated by sustained chemical precipitation, I.e., lithIfication, that Is thought to be facilitated by upward moving, d.ep, cold wat.r, as on the .ast.rn sid. of the Straits of Florida. In contrast, most hard banks In the Gulf of Mexico ar. actually salt domes with a dlffer.nt origin. Bloh.nns, anoth.r t.nn applied to rock structures resembling Iithoh.nns, may appeal'" similar to Iithified structur.s, but ar. actually quit. dlff.r.nt. 6.1.4 Patch Reefs As d.flned In this FMP (s •• Tabl. 5-1), patch re.fs are dlv.rse coral communities typified by the pres ence of hermatypic (r •• f-bullding) and ahermatypic species. PatCh r •• fs dlff.r from consolidated outer bank r •• fs by th.lr smal leI'" size and lower scal. of v.rtical r.li.f. Th.S. ar. usually distributed Irr~ularly in clust.rs n.arshor. in warm wat.rs II~. the Florida K.ys, (Marszal.k, .t al., 1977). How.v.r, as d.fined in Tabl. 5-1, many coral assemblag.s occurring at the Dry Tortugas, In the K.ys, or north of Miami, ar. more approprlat.ly called hard bottom communities. In south Florida, patch r •• fs as d.fined h.r.in, have ba.n the subj.ct of studi.s by Marszal.k, .t al. (1977) and Jones (1977), among oth.rs. 1401"'. than 5,000 patCh r •• fs occur in the Florida r •• f tract b.~ •• n Miami and the Marquesas K.ys, (Marszal.k, et al., 1977); most of those patch.s OCQJr be~ •• n Hawk Chann.1 and the outer bank r •• fs p I ••• , in a g.neral strip 3 to 7 km (1.5 to J.S nm) offshore (Flgur.6-21. Typically, Pitch r •• fs form on coral lin. rock or anoth.r suitabl. substrate such as coral rubbl. (Marszal.k, .t a/., 1977). GeologIcally, patch r •• fs tend to form In two patt.rns - dome and Iln.ar - although transitional shap.s occur, (Marszal.k, .t al., 1977). Dome-type re.fs ar. roughly circular to .I/ptlcal as viewed fram abov •• Most reefs of thIs type .xhlbit •• 1 I-d.v.lop.d sandy bottom halos around th.lr frlng.s. (Randal I (1965), Ogden, Brown and Sal.sky (1973). Jones (19771, id.ntlfied s.a grass grazing around coral assemblag.s by s.a urchIns (for example, Diadama antillariuml, parrot fish (family Scarida.) and oth.r biota, plus curr.nt scouring as possible caus.s of halo formationl. Fram abov., a tr.nd toward clust.rlng with limited t.rrltoriality is easily perc.lv.d, I ••• , although the dom.s ar. grouped, some dlstanc. Is maintained be~ •• n individual patch r •• fs. ~ost dome patch r •• fs have I.ss than 5 m (17 ftl of topographic r.ll.f, but some as high as 9 m (30 ft) do occur. Lin.ar-type r •• fs are usually situated s.award of dome-type patc~ r •• fs paral 1.1 to the outer bank r •• fs. In top view, lineal'" paten re.fs appeal'" acuat. to Iln.ar, much lik. the true out.r coral r •• fs of the Florida r •• f tract. H.nce, Inst.ad of forming clusters, th.s. patCh reefs often occur end-ta-.nd. Ol • U1 FIGURE 6-2. Distributions of cora1 reefs in the Florida Reef Tract. (A) Fowey Rocks south to Tavernter Creek and (8) Tavernier Creek south to the Harquesas Keys (after .... :-~ Marszalek et !t .. 1977). ..; , . , .... \ ) . :)./ •• I I : I - OUTER .ANK REE .. ~ PATCH REEfS '.':: ' SHALLOW IlANIIS +- .. ., .. u •••• 1I.f' (UN» • ,':, '" i#~:::";;.:.;. c..) P';:J • , .. ~~. .". ':.,.... .. . ~') · ....... L.( , ~-J 00I0 ~.~ .. , • t iW"AIIo It., w... ~ "* A " .. O .... IIOC~·· .J " ~ .... ::1 . r ~ , J ,.~~\ I //,1,/ .~' II; :~ '1 Ii! , • 16' ~ / , ",r/ !I ~/""'~/ ... , f: "~ . . ~' .•. '" ~:;,·;i:~ .. ~·,~·····.t "::". ,/1/1 . '// ,. t/illiJ"/.v Yo'" oIU- . ·,jJ/P~ - ;:.Y''V .Jl .... .,; 'Z ?'"" .... , ~r f"of)O ' ... ,,-~ B fLORIDA aAY .ery w y , . ~~...e--~~.#i-- ~-=W-=== 20" ~.:::=-:== --=--~-- ~... J The distribution of patch r"h, dane- and IInMr-ty~, Is not uniform In southern Florida waters. Due to the clustering of daae-ty~ r .. fs, the relationShip of the Ii n.ar-type r"fs to coral reefs, and numerous stresses (water tamperature and sewage effluents, for example; see Section 6.2.2), patCh reefs are most abundant In the upper Keys (Table 6-1; Flgur. 6-2). Table 6-1. Patch reef distribution In the Florida reef tract. Fowey Rocks to Broa,q Creek (Key Largo) Broad Creek to Tavernier Creek Tavernier Creek to Big Pine Key 9ig Pine Key to MarQuesas Keys Source: Marszalek, et al., 1977. Approx. no. patCh r"fs Total 3,975 1,590 50 ~ 6,035 PatCh reefs also exhibit ecological variability. Dome-type assemblag.s support a diverse array of scleractinlans and octocorals, plus numerous benthic Invertebrates, algee, and fish (Marszalek, et al., 1977). Except for the noticeable absence of elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata. the biota of dome patches resembles that of consolidated outer blink r .. fs, but usually lacks coral zonation. At Biscayne National Park, nowever, dome patch reefs display biotic zonation bell~ed related to rell.f and sedimentation, (Jaap, 1979, personal communication). Oetocorals dominate the top Interior zones .. hereaS.!!. annularls, Olplorla spP., and Colpophyilia natans dominate western /IIIrgln. The dominant coral in this type of patCh reef is the smal I star coral, MontastraM annularls, which Is often pre sent in single enormous colonies, (see also Shinn, 1963). Llnear-ty~ patCh re.fs support corals and other marine life much like dome-types with the frequent addition of~. palNta. When found on a linear patch reef, ~. palmata colonies are usually smaller, more widely spaced, and oriented dl f ferently than when found on an outer blink coral reef (Marszalek. et al., 1977). Of the two types of patch reefs, the linear-type Is probably the ecologic transition fonn between dan. patch reefs and outer be nk reef 5 (Marsza lek, et a I ., 1977). One hypothesis classified patch re.fs of both types according to their presumed developmental stages of youth, maturity, and senescence (Jones, 1977): Youth (early development) -- Young patches consist primarily of plon .. rlng scleractlnlan and aleyonarlan species capable of attachment to the Sediments. Th. young patches grow In size by outward expansion and by upward growth on living and dead pioneering corals. Corals In young assemblages on solid substrates are dominated by the star corals Montastra .. annularls and.!!. cav.rnosa, and the starlet corals SiderastrM slderea and iL. radians. On less stabl. bottoms, the brain coral Olplorla (es~clal Iy~. labyrlnthlformis) and the moon coral Colpophyilia natans, are major patch fonnlng species. Smaller colonies of Porites (~. astreoldes and £:. porites), !!ti.!. fragUIII, Agarlcla agarlcltes, Dichacaenia stokes I I, and ~ussidae corals, may grow between coral heads. MIII.pora (!!. alclcornis and.!!. complanata) aid in cementing the components Into a patCh re.f. Maturity -- Mature patch reefs are characterized by vertical relief of several meters and a diameter of 10 to 20 m (33 to 66 ft). Generally, these patches extend upward to the level of lowest low water. ~ature patChes usually have a horizontal zonation pattern. MontastraM annularls, whose large boul;ars (3 m or 10 ft and more) are the Chief contributors to patch structure, usually occurs on the eastern and southeastern (windward and seaward) margins (!!. cavernosa may also occur there); Olplorla (brain coral) and Colpophyilia (moon coral) headS more than on. met.r In diamet.r occur on the le .. ard sides or In eddies; and Siderastrea (starlet coral) colonies ,less than on. met.r In diameter occupy the center and remaining margins (Jones, 1977). At Biscayne National Park, ho.ever, the largest buttresses occur on .estward fringes (Jeep, 1979, personal communication). Senescence -- When coral growth rates are exceeded by mortality In the massive r .. f-buildlng speCies, senescence begins (Jones, 1977). This occasion Is accentuated by simultaneous Increases In growth at alcyonarians. During senescence, the scleractlnlans such as Montastraea and Siderastrea may survive due to size and ~llt resistance. MOst of the patch, ho.ever, evolves Into accretion piles of coral fragments overlain by a thin layer ot loose sediment. At least during early senescence, other corals may survive by expanding mucous production (Porites, Dichacaenia, some Mussldae), vertical orientation or rapid growth (Agarlcla and Millepora), or branching and vertical ;rowth (Porites porites). Unless rejuvenated by new stocks, senescent reefs probably die. 6.1.5 Outer Bank R .. fs Outer bank reefs are restricted geographically to the Florida Keys; special class occurs at the Flower Garden Banks In the nort~estern Gulf of Mexico. Geologically and ecologically, outer bank r .. fs represent perhaps the oldest, most structurally complex, and d.'verse type of coral assemblage. Although lithoherms, salt dome hard banks, and other environments that support coral may be older, these reefs are the height of ecological complexity for systans actually formed by corals and their associated organisms. Outer bank r .. f distribution Is worthy of further discussion. In the Gulf of Mexico, Bright and Rezak (1976, 1978), following Initial research by Stetson (1958) and others, have studied the topographic highS at East and West Flower Garden, Stetson, Sonnier (formerly Thr .. Hickey Rocks), and about 20 other features on the Texas-Louisiana shelf. Of those banks, only the two Flower Garden sites suppo' true coral reef communities. Except for the Flower Gardens, the areas described above are here bell~. more appropriately classified as hard banks and hard bottoms (see Section 6.2.1.2). Southeast of the Florida Keys, on the upper shelf, lie al I of the remaining coral reefs In the management area, occurrl ng as a dl scontI nuous arc bef"tfeen Fowey Rocks and the Dry Tortugas (Figure 6-2). Outer bank r .. fs located In the Keys and at East and West Flower Garden Banks are different In many ways (Table 6-2). Hence, generalities on mean depth, seales of relief, total area, species composition, etc., must be presented for each area separately. North.estern Gulf of Mexico -- The coral reefs recognized by this FMP in the northwestern Gulf are East and West Flower Garden Banks, located near the shelf break about 200 km (110 nm) offshore (Figures 5-1 I and 5-12). Both r .. fs rest atop topographic highS that rise to within 20 m (66 ft) or less of the sea surface, (Bright and Rezak, 1976, 1978; Rezak, 1977). With Increasing depth, zones of corals, algae-sponge, antlpatharlans, deepwater corals, and finally soft bottom. are encountered. These coral reefs are discussed In greater detail In Sections 5.2.1.7 and 6.3. Florida R .. f Tract -- In contrast, the Florida r .. f tract Is .Ithln easy access of the cOistal popula tion centers of Miami-Homestead and the entire Keys (Marszalek, et al., 1977). The Florida reefs also differ In their structural composition, In their location on the Shelf, and their ecology. Instead of a dome-like base of geologically-uplifted salt, the outer bank reefs are a discontinuous arc of skeletons and sediments accumulating i~ situ. Although reefs have their origin on sand or other suitable substrate (shel Is, rocks, fossil reefs, coral debris), their compoSition Is predomi nantly coral, I.e., limestone or coral rock. Shinn, et al. (1977) and Shinn (1979), concluded that the linearity of these reefs approximately paral Ie' to the Keys Is due to underlying bedrock topography, rather than to biological. or water quality causes. The Florida reef tract includes approximately '96km (52 nm) of outer bank reefs located bef"tfeen Rocks and the Dry Tortugas, a distance of about 270 km (146 nm) along the 20 m (66 ft) Isobath. large portion of the reef tract Is In the FeZ just beyond Florida's three-mile terrotlrlal sea. Fowey A As a I OJ TABLE 6-2. Comparative zonation of hiolo~ical c~:~unities in coral reefs within the Qana~e­ ment area. Uote depth differences. flORIDA OUTlR BANK REEfS (lIIOdifled after ShiM. 1963) lone Back Rpef Reef flat Spur Groove Tract I forereef S 1011e Second-rhlrd Plattonl ec-un Ily "Inant or in"lcator Depth (II' organl.s 1.5-3.0 0.6-1 0.6-4.5 4.5-11.1 12-15 lead corals, H. annular Is, octocon Is gradlngliifo'sea grass shoreMard algae, octocorals, ravia .fragUII, Siderastr .... .! ~dian2. Acr0r.r~ ~ IAIa ta, ~!!J ~~P ~~! COiIP ana ta:tra 11 tllOa sp .• Gorgon la·veni illn;i,heavy NaVe enerijy1 H. annula.ls. octocorals Nit~dlmTHlShed spurs grad Ing Into silt sand Relief features rising fron 24-3011 to 12-ISm ~!r~~tophlJ~. spp •• Agar'lc ia laAlarcilT. Jlelloserls'cl.icullata tennl Rating in-sTIITanashoreward and seaMard lone fLOWER GARDlN BANKS (Bright & Pequegnat. 1914' COIIIIUnlty doIIlnant or Indlcltor Depth (., orqanl~s ~loria- 24-45 Montastraea Porites H. annular Is. D. strlgosl Jr. iSir:eOldes Algae Sponge 45-1] GYllslna, LlthothalinlUil Crinoid 13-85 coaatulld crinoids Soft 80ttOll 85-100 sa.e octocorals attached to hard out crops ' shown by Table 6-3 and FIgure 6-2g these coral r .. fs are distributed unevenly along that range; ~st of the reefs are found oft the Key Largo areac Marszalek, et al. (1977). best described the reefs as " ••• typically elongate features of variable vertical relief .hlch occur at the shal lew Shelf edge between the 5 m and 10 m (16 to 33 ft) depth contours. Their long axes form a discontinuous line of r .. fs oriented paral lei to the shelf edge. The northernmost reefs trend N-S and tne reefs near ~ey 4est E-W reflectrng the change In orientation of the arcuate shelf edge." Most of the outer bank reefs have .el I-developed spur and groove formatIons on their ~eaward faces. Spurs are extensions of coral reef grewth seaward up to 30 m (tOO ft) or more; grooves occur between adjacent spurs. Spurs and grooves are best developed In the upper and lower Keys. The middle Keys area exhibits ~ spur and groove formation but the orientation and development is varlabl.e (Marszalek, at al., 1977). Shinn (1963), found that spur and groove development In Key Largo Ory Rocks, Florida, Is a construc tional rather than erosional feature. Shinn, et al. (1981) found that spurs at Lace Key .ere constructed of Acropora palmata and had fanned over fIve meters of carbonate sand. Spurs at Looe Key are no longer accretl ng due to the extens ive di .. ott of .t,. palmata a few thousand years ago. Rabbi n (1981> also documented the Keys wide di .. otf of!.. palmata at AI flgator Reef. The deep reef at Loce Key Is being smothered by migrating carbonate sand. Examination of air photos revealed that carbonate sand that originated to the east and northeast of Loce Key Is moving In a .esterly direction (Shinn. et al., 1981). Table 6-3. Outer bank reef distribution In the Florida reef tract. .!!:!!. Outer Bank Reef (km) Fo.ey Rocks to Broad Creek 22.2 Broad Creek to Tavernier Creek 34.3 Tavernier Creek to Big Pine Key 16.6 Big Pine Key to Marq usus .Key .ll&. Total 95.8 Source: ~arszalek. et al., 1977. Generally, FlorIda reefs are 11.r In area, less bIologically di verse, and lack tne vert ical relief of most coral reefs of the B.h .... or CarIbbean Sea (M.rszal.k, et al., 1977). Ho.ever, coral specIes diversity Is stll I caaparabl. to or greater than reefs bordering nearby countrIes. Like the patch r .. fs described above (S.ctlon 6.2.1.4), outer bank r .. fs may be grouped accordIng to theIr extent of development. I •••• und.rdeveloped and .ell-dev.loped (Marszalek, et alo, 1977). Und.rdeveloped -- Very caamon throughout the tract, occurring as coral reefs wIth spars. coral grewth and no Acropora palmata zone. These re.fs may represent relIct limestone ridges I n the SPIT and groove arrangement or relatIvely young reefs with Immature bIological zonatIon patterns. Long Reef In the upper Keys Is an example of the relIc reef case. (See, for example, ShInn, et al., 1977). Sma I I stands of IlIIIIIIIture coral reef biota often bridge the gaps between more well-developed reefs. Well-developed -- Marszalek, et al. (1977), characterized these coral reefs by their "reef-flat forme of In situ dead encrusted elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata, skeletons and rubble." Colonies of Acropora, f~ng.r coral PorItes. and starlet coral Siderastreeplus encrusting fire coral Millepora, an~ dozens ot bentnlespecles form most of the live reef structure. The typical zonation pattern sho.s 6-9 ; /} A. pal.t. colonl. on the s ••• rd fac. of the re.f to a depth of about ~ m (13 ft), with!.. complanata ~nd the colonial zOOInthld P.lythoa In the turbulent shal low zone and a divers. coral aS5lmblage d~l­ nated by smal I st.r coral, Nont.str ... annularls, h.lds In the deeper sections (Shinn, 1963). Within tne Florida r .. ftr.ct, Carysfort Reef and Key Largo Ory ROeKS (Grecian ROeKs) are examples of "ell developed coral reefs. As discussed In Section 6.3, several of these wei I-developed r .. fs are being considered for reeommtn dation as habitat areas of particular concern. Those areas, e.g., Loce Key and Ory Tortugas, are discussed In greater detail "In that section. 6.2 CondItion and Trends Several Important Impacts on coral health, are categorized and discussed below. p,.esent knowledge Is not sufficient to establish a definite scale of Impact severity. Many of the man-Induced and natural stroesses desc,.lbed below possess the capability of t .. po,.arlly or pennanently dep,.esslng co,.al health and stability. Some of the mor. cannan ,.esponses to stroess Include polyp ret,.actlon, altered physiological 0,. behavioral patterns, and modified energy cycles; the latter may be difficult to obsel"Ve or Quantify but It Is a sIgnificant cQIIJponent of overall coral heal tho Anothe,. phenanenon, the "shut-down react Ion" (SOR), has been stud I ed I n the laboratory and obsel"Ved on ,.are occasions In the field In stony co,.als (AntonIus, 1977). Th. SOR appear-s to be eli cited by exposu,.e of sIck or dIseased corals to a naturally sublethal st,.ess, e.g., predation by the polychaete Hermodlce ca,.unculata, and proceeds as a ,.apld dIsIntegratIon of body tissues ,.esultlng In death. Some doubt exists whethe,. the SOR 15 a ,.eal physiological process or a continuation of tissue Ivsls In the sick co,.al. Lastly, damaged corals (abraded f,.om anenor enalns, stom damaged, etc.) may provide a starting point for Infection with the blue-gr .. n algae, Oscillatoria submembranac ... that can potentially kill entl,.e specimens (Antonius, 1975, 1976, and In press). Generally, these data Imply that ~ertaln specific a,. .. s may be In poo,..r h •• ,th than oth.,... Furth.r more, the data provld. Insight for detecting a,.eas with the pot.ntlal for d.cllnlng health assllftlng p,.esent st,.esses continue. Pot.ntlal problem a,. .. s Includ. the upper Florid. reef tract where sewage pollution and ,.ec,. .. tlonal str.ses are escalating, Loce Key, where ,.ec:ent pranotlon In dive magazines may Impact the reef canlll.lnlty, and the Florida Middle GrQ,lftds, where low temp.ratlres and dlssol ... d oxygen have been known to stress and even kl I I co,.als and benthic al gae. 6.2.1 Man-made Impacts Anchor damage -- Anc:nor-s and anc:nor chal ns f,.an comllllrcl al and rec:,. .. t lonal v.ssels (especl ally p,., vate rec:,.eatlonal boats) have often been cited for physical damage In coral syst .. s. However, the nature of anc:norlng (underwater, often at night, widespread areal occu,.rence, dl fflculty to pollee, often an emerg.ncy), and th. variety of sh I ps I nvo lved (prl vate rec:r .. t Ion boats, tankers, comllllrci al fishing boats, supply boats, party boats, dive boats, etc.), has lImited exIsting knowledge of the activIty. Cesplt. the paucity of data, It Is known that the amount of damage 15 proportIonal to the level of use In an ar .. , the method of andlorlng, the size of andlor used, and the canposltlon of the bIotic canlll.lnlty. Unpublished accounts fran several areas have emphasized the relationship of user levels to a"enor damage. Heavy use areas, such as Key Largo Coral Re.f Marine Sanctuary off Key Largo, Florida, exhibit more andlor damage (s.e, e.g., Oustan, 1977), than an ar .. like Biscayne National Park In t"e upper Keys, with fewer vlsltor-s to the reefs (Tllmant, 1979, personal canlll.lnicatlon). Indeed, heavily used~ marked coral ar.as of the Sanctuary at K.y Largo are In distinctly poorer condition than more remote ,.eglons of tne park; andlorlng and concent,.ated dive presstre have be.n attributed to a" signi ficant portion of that stress (Jameson, 1979, personal canmunlcatlon). Desplt. the evidence Indicting 6-10 anchors fo~ dameg. to corals, It should be cla~lfled that In many coral ~e.f a~eas the speclas damaged Ceeg., Acropora), are also the corals with the gr.atest growth rates and regeneration capabilitIes (s .. Section 5.4.1.2). Ev.n at the Flow.r Gard.ns and 28 Fathom Banks on the rexas and Louisiana out.r continental sh.lf where few boats anchor, ancho~ damage stili oCOJrs and 15 consld.~ed to bea majo~ source of ~chanlcal damage to corals (BrIght and Jaep, In press; BrIght and Rezak, 1976; NatIonal Oc.anlc a°nd Atmosph.rlc Administration, 1977; Zingula. 1978). As detailed below, damage need not a~lse fran anchors In use. Bright and Jeep (In press) noted apparent scarring In FlorIda ,.. •• fs fram 14 anchors unintentionally snagged and Imbedded In the corals n.a~ Pulaski Shoal at Ory Tortugas. Furth.nnere, at East Flow.~ Ga,..d.n Bank, on. damag.d ar.a below the coral zone In the al~l-spong. zone at 45 m (150 ft) clrOlmsc:rlbes an abandoned Coast Guard mooring buOy and block (Bright and R.zak, 1976) • In addition to the frequency of anchoring, anoth.r d.termlnant of the amount of damage 15 the met~d of anchoring. Anchor fluke span, I.ngth of chain played-out relative to ater d.pth (I.e., chain slack), and placement of the anchor on the bottcm, are .ach Important facto~s. Many vessels, perhaps .speclal Iy the larg.r cammerclal fIshIng boats (DavIs, 1977a) and p~lvate boat~. attampt to snag anchor flukeS on corals or coral rock to attaIn a fIrm posItIon. Any anchorIng technIque also has an assocIated p~oblem of chaIn abrasion on corals. The ext.nt of d.nudatlon Is ccmpa~abl. to the amount of slack In the anchor chaIn or cab I •• BrIght and Rezak (1976) and DavIs (1977a) reported cases wh.re swIngIng anchor lines and ground tackle had cleared the bottcm of all benthos, IncludIng co~als, over areas 10 to 30 m (30 to 100 ft) In dIameter. BrIght (1980, pe~sonal cammunlcatlonl has obs.rv.d seve~al larg. 011 tank.~s anchored on th~ Flow.r Gard.n Banks. Th. anc::horlng of tank.~s di,..ectly over the co~al ,.. •• f a~ea of Eas- Flow.r Gard.n must have resulted In substantial damage to the lIving coral (Bureau of Land ~anagement, 1981). Lastly, anchor damage Is related to the localIzed type of biota In the anchor drcp zon •• Th. least amount of damage occurs where the anc::hor can be placed in a sand flat amongst the corals, provld.d chaIn or cable damage does not ensue. Staghorn and elkho~n corals, plus oth.r branc::hed species, may b. mo~e susceptlbl. to physIcal damage than nonbranched, or .ncrustlng species. Davis (1977a) doOl mented that 20 perc.nt of an .xt.nslv. staghorn coral (Acropora c.rvlcornls) stand w.st of Loggerhead K.y In Fort Jefferson National Monument, Dry Tortugas, was damag.d In on. wlnt.~ s.ason of anchoring, mostly by cammerclal fIshIng v.ssels. Sudd.n storms may have necessItated such conc.ntrated ancho""ng on t,. I.eward sIde of the r .. f- (DaviS, 1979, p.rsonal cammunlcatlon). " PollutIon -- 'IIat.r pollutIon can arIse fram any numb.r of sources or activItIes and Invol .... many types of pollutants~ ResponsibilIty for pollution control and regulation of 118M-made dIscharges lies with other ag.ncles; hence, thIs discussIon will be restricted to a revl .. of a few of the more pertln.nt pollutIon Impacts. Oil pollutIon, especIally fram v.ssel spills and bilge cl.anlng, has be.n studIed frequently as a pot.ntlal stress on coral polyps. 011 slIcks floatIng ov.r submerged co~als appar.ntly Inflict mInimal dameg. (Johannes, 1975). A Sh.11 Oil ,..eport (Shinn, 1972) conclud.d that "Montastra .. annularls (small sta~ coral) can su~vlv. two hours- total ImmersIon In LouisIana crude whereas Acropora c.rvlcornls (staghorn coral) exposed for two hours to a mixtu~. of s.awater containIng on. part crude to sIx to 12 parts seawater cauSed Immedlat. r.traction of the polyps but camplete recovery In 24 hours.n A study by Bak and Elgershulzen (1976) of the reaction of 19 Caribbean h.rmatyplc corals to Ing.stlon of 011 sedIment partlcl.s reYealed that rejectIon was Id.ntlcal to that of clean sediments. Furth.nne,..e, phYSical contact appeared to be less harmful than toxic biochemical effects. No .vld.nce was found of 011 absorption Into co~al tissues. Convers.ly, oth.~ ~esearch has shown of 011 pollutlon,on corals have be.n 1976;- and Rlnk.vlch and Loya, 1971). apparent damage to corals fram petrol.um fractions. The effects studi ed In the north.,-n Gul f of Ellat, Red S.a, by Loya (1975, Although these studIes are outsld. the management area and In a 6-1 i I · . I"'athel'" unique II"'M cCllblnlng Indus1Ty with extl"' tidal fluctuations, they do constltut. w.ll dOQ.l,..nted cause Ind .tt.ct 1"'.latlonshlps be'hr •• n 011 pollution and cOl"'al h.alth. At the study II"'N, a chl"'onlcally polluted and a contI'" 0 I I"'eef (fl"''' of pollution) both exhibited approxlmat.ly 90 p.l"'c.nt mortality due to In extl"' .... ly low tid •• Thl"''' y.al"'S lat.l"', the contl"'ol I"' •• f had I"'.COV.l"'ed to a hIghly dlv.l"'S. cOl"'al canlll.lnlty; the polluted I"' .. f had not be.n recolonIzed. Loya (197', 1976) suggested That the caablnatlon of phosphat. eutl"'ophlcatlon and chronic 011 pollution pr .... nted recovery of the polluted r.ef flat. Specl flcally, chronic 011 .xposur. caused:, 1) damage to the l"'-clrOC:Suctlv. systan of corals; 2) d.creased vlablll ty of cOl"'al la/"'Va.; and 3) chang.s I.n some phys Ical character I stlcs of the sUl"'fac. upon .hlch la/"'Va. nonmel Iy s.ttl •• Of pl"'lmary concern among 011 pollution Incld.nts ar. dlschal"'g.s of dles.1 fuel 01'" oth.r petl"'odlllllicals I"'esultlng fl"'an groundlngs·ol'" bilge cl.anlng. ~any of th.s. pollutants al"'. I"'eadlly dlssol~d Into tl'le wat.1'" colu .... and hence may spread locally on the I"' .. fs. Oet.l"'g.nts, dl spel"'Sants, .tc., used to Imne blliz. oils may also be d.tl"'lmental to cOl"'als and associated I"' •• f biota. 011 Ind gas exploratIon and d.v.lopment on the Gulf of ~.xlco contln.ntal sh.lf and the Blake Plateau, nec.ssltates consld.ratlon of dI"'ll II ng platform dlschal"'g.s of cuttings and muds. Whel"'eas cuttings al"'. 'pl"'edomlnantly rock and sediments, dl"'ll I muds al"'. canpl.x chemical mlxtul"'es of coolants, I ubI'" I cants, blocld.s, and stablllz.1"'S (Arnel"'lcanFl.tl"'oleum Instltut., 1978). L.as. agl"' .... nts fol'" 011 and gas explol"'atlon and dev.lopment Issued by BLM stlpulat. measUl"'es and pl"'actlces fol'" the protection of cOl"'als. Thll"'d Is the g.n.l"'al gl"'ouplng of pollutants teMfted heavy metlls, .hlch can accuMYlat. In cOl"'al tissues above the natul"'al Iy-occul"'rlng lev.ls. Taylol'" and Bl"'lght (1973) found high levels of mel"'cul"'Y, cadmIum. lead. copper, and zinc In gl"'oupel"'S fran 3ulf of Mexico cOl"'al I"'eefs. Certain fish (e.g., swordfish) natul"'ally accumulate som. heavy metals. IncludIng mel"'cul"'Y. How.vel"', .Ievlted body bul"'d.ns of some I!I8tals In SOllIe biota may I"'esult fl"'an man-made soul"'ces of pollution such IllS antifouling paints. con struction mat.l"'lals, pow.1'" plants, III'" pollution, 01'" sewag. and desalination plants (Johannes, 1975). Fol'" Instance, a heavy metll plume was dlscovel"'ed ext.ndlng off Yll"'glnla K.y neal'" MI .. I (Mank.I"', 1975). Mank.,. also found that mercu,.y, zl'nc, I.ad, cobelt, and ch,.anlum al"'e present In sediments of the beys and cOIIstal I"'eglons ott southeut.,." Florida. Thes. metlls, thought to have origins specifically fran ul"'ban sewage. Industl"'lal wastes, power plants, and lutomobll. emissions, al"'. also concentl"'ated off the coasts of oth.r major populatlon{urben c.ntel"'s. Corals 1'1'1.1"'. exhibited hlgh.r chraalum levels than seen at the Florida Middle Grounds (Manker, 197'; Bright, et al., 1981). Lead and mercury may also be acculllulating In sediments at Tavernl.,. Key and the Jolin Flennekamp COl"'al Re.f State Park ma,.lna. Heavy IIMItals In sedIments ar •• aslly resuspended by disturbance of the Sediment-water Int.rface. Exc.ss sewage qualifies as a fourth category of pollution. Although 111''1'1 •• ol"'k has be.n done on thIs subject In the management IrM, ext,.apolatlons fl"'an Hawaiian, .este,.n FlIClflc, and Ca,.lbbian cOl"'al caftmUnltles, Indlcat. that sewage alt.1"'S nut,.ient cycl.s, dls,.upts .ocloglcal balances, depl"'esses oxy g.n levelS, Ind ~y totally alt.r the canposltion of a canlll.lnity (Jollannes, 197',. Recent hiStory at Kaneahe Bay, Hawaii, shows that 99 pe,.c.nt of the shal low ,. .. f co,.als a,.. now d.ad due to sewage .pollutlon, onsl'lore dev.lop .. nt, sedimentation, and f,.esllrat.,. I"'Un-off (/IIIal"'agol, 1972; SlIIlth, .t al., 1973~ Smith, 1977). In the she east COllst Flo,.lda counties be'hreen St. Lucie and Mon,.oe Counties, s .. age t,. .. tlllent facilities a,.e so ov.r--bu,.dened that many hot.ls and othe,. buildings PIMllP thell'" s .. ag. Into coastal watel"'S untl"'eated (Bl"'lght. et II., 1981). Whll. most Key Lal"'go houses have septic tanks, many i'lcmes In Key West and Dad. County. Flol"'lda, liso pump sewage directly Into the ocean. Even septic tanks ottel'" no gual"'ant .. of safety since stonns and POI"'OUS Keys' soils often pennlt I"'un- • off dl,.ectly Into cOllstal •• tel"'S. Eutl"'ophlcatlon, as a I"'esult of nutl"'l.nt loading, may also 111111'1' co,.al gl"'owth and health. Loya (1975) hypotheslz.s that phosphate eutl"'ophlcatlon 15 one of the majol'" man-made dlstul"'bances Of cOl"'als In the Gulf of Ellat, ISl"'lel. In Kaneah. eay, Hawaii (Maragos, 1972) and elsewhe,.e al"'ound the .01"'1d 6-12 Gulf of Ellat, Israel. In Kaneohe Bay, HawaII ("'aragos. 1972) and elsewhe,.e arOJnd the world (JohanMS, 1915). cOi"als st,..sed by eutroph leatlon or other forces ar. otten dan I nated by th Ick Oeds . of the encrusting alga Dlctyosphaerla cavernosa Or other opportunistic al~e. Recreation activity -- Increased, concentrated use of coral resources and adjacent waters In parks and preserves for boating, diving, specimen collecting, photography, and other botton-contact act Ivl ties has had a noticeable adYerse affect on coral health. Diving for specimens (I.e., souvenirs or curios) appears to be the major recreational stress. Since ,.eef assemblages are often near shore and bIologi cally diverse, patch r .. fs and outer bank reefs, especially those marked with buoys and on maps, receive an 'nordlnate percentage of the total recreational pressure. For example, Oavidson (1979, personal can~neatlon) observed about 50 recreational beets In less than 3.4 km2 (I nm2) at~ ~ooe i(ey at noon on Memorial Day,··1979. Florida's resources and, to a much lesser extent, the offShore banks of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico, are two areas of stress. These Impacts are I1I)st severe on small populations, those with slow growth rates, or members of an Interwoven ecological cycle (predator prey, symbiosis, etc.). Dustan (1977) Identified activities such as diving, snorkeling, and beetlng that are localized around r .. fs, as the chief contributors to reef damag~. Swlm~rs may grasp· corals for leverage or scrape against them, which. along with other contact activities, may kll I corals or alter energy cycling to repa I I' wounds. Coral collecting Is a difficult actIvity to assess. As described In Sections 7 • .:sand 7.4, It Is ille gal unless a special permit Is received; some scIentific specimen collecting by colleges and supply houses occurs In Florida state waters. It Is possible that much I1I)re pressure Is exerted by Illegal collections of many corals and associated anImals for curios or live sale. Vessel groundings -- Groundings (eIther temporary strandlngs or as shIpwrecks), by a wide range of vessels engaged In many activities constitute a significant source of coral destruction (Oavldson, 1979. personal can~nlcatlon). The amount of damage appears most dependent upon the species of coral struck. ship variables (speed. hull design, construction materials, etc.), and m,teo,.ologlcal factors [wave surge, tides. winds, etc.). Often, spilled cargo or vessel fuel can have a gr.ater Impact on the r .. f biota than the:groundlng Itself. Vessel salvage may also cause harm to the reef. Although physical damage to the corals may be severe follcwlng a groundIng. In some cases the coral can~nlty can recover Ithln a few years. Groundings at 3reclan Rocks near Key ~argo. FlorIda, In 1964 and 1975, cut swaths In Acropora stands but are largely regenerated today (Shinn. 1979, personal can~n Icatlon). Recent stud I es at Biscayne National ~ark near E I "ot '<ey, have Ident I fI ed ground I ngs as a major human Impact (Tllmant, 1979, personal can~nlcatlon). ~ark staff have Initiated a study of eight patch and coral r .. f areaS (four study and four control loeatlons), to aSsess the frequency and Impacts of groundings and other events. Surveys In Septanber and October 1977. and In January and February 1979, encountered one ease of grounding on a head of sma I I star coral, Montastraea annularis, at Dome . Control Reef In the January transect. An ·Impacted coral head measuring several meters In maximum dlmenslon was spilt and toppled (Biscayne National ~ark, 1978a). Other surveys In 1978 (Biscayne National !=lark, 1978b) revealed disturbed colonies of.!. annularls at Star Control ~eef, bottan paInt on portions of a ballast pile at Schooner Reef, and a yacht grounded at Elkhorn Reef. Acropora palmata (elkhorn coral), Mbntastraea annularls, and Siderastrea slderea (starlet coral) colonIes showed damage. In summary, four boat grounds and nume,.OJs "scrapIngs" we,.e observed during the fl,.st 18 months of study on the eight I"'e.ets at Biscayne National ~ark. (Tllmant, 1979, personal canmunlcatlon). r.4any mo,.e probably go unreported. 6-13 The MOUnt of datlege I nf II c1'ed by a ground 1"9 dependi grNtl y upon tile speed of the vessel, sllape of IIull (I.e., ar .. of contect with tile corals), hull construction (strength of tile meterlal versus corals), wave surge, tides, and winds (wlllcll contribute to whetller a ground I "9 Is perManent or t.porary). Over a two year period (1974 to 1976) In Jolin Penntka.p State Park and at Lace Key, Brlgllt, et al. (1981) recorded several other groundings and sllipwrecks. While tllese vessels were breakl"9 up, s .. age, garblge, eng I ne all s, cargoes (Il10 lasHs), sll I p perts, and onboerd suppll .. , were str.n over 1'''' reefs. Corals observed to be dalllllged Included elkhorn (Acropora pallllllta) at Key Largo Dry Rodc.s, and brain coral (Dlplorla strlgosa) and sllllli I star coral (Montastra .. annularls) colonies at Lace Key. Durl"9 a 16-lIIOnth period of 1974 to 197', Oustan (1977) observed she ground I "9s or wrecks In tile State Park. Numerous other unquantlfled observations of propel lor 1111's .. re also recorded by Dustan. Davidson (1979, penonal CQnlllUnlcatlon) described a wreck on Looe Key on May 18, 1977, wIIere seeping f .. 1 all fran tile 'Robby Dale' made dlvl ng phys Ically n.,seatl"9 for several days. The eftec:ts of a later salVage mission on the corals were documented by Bure., of Land "'anag nt (BLM); tile salwrs .ere prasecuted I n court by BL"'. The grounding probl .. lias a different perspec:tlve at tile Flower Garden Ba,*s and otller oftshore coral canlllUnltles. Wllereas IIIOSt r .. fs In Florida are near shore wllere recreational boIIts abound, offshore corals are also enda"gered by canrnerclal vessels. The West Flower Garden Ba .. , for Instanc:., Is located only 11 km (6 nlll) fran the Gulf Safety Fairway, a IIIIIjor east-.est corridor for tankers and cargo vessels Into and 'out of Texas ports. Wltll the ad'4nt of deep draft deSigns, IIIIIrty tankers have dratts too deep to pass over some of tile norttwestern Gulf hard banks or the reefs along tile Florida Keys. With a grounding, the primary .orry Is that a large ship could decimate a significant portion of the coral assemblage, especially those atop coral line or carbonate bases. ~ny groundings of canrnerclal vessels could lead to a spll I of hazardous cargo to Impose anather str .. s on the corals. The effec:ts of spills and pollutants on corals are discussed earlier In this subsection. Flslling -- COIIIIIIerclal and recr .. tlonal flslling can potentially str .. s tile IIealtll of tile coral or coral 'r .. fs. These flShl"9 operations are directed at a multitude of flntlsll and sllellt'lsII that live near or In coral habl tats. ...,ng tile most Important such specl .. near outer bank reefs are snappers (Lut Janus spp. and RhClllbop II tes sPP.), grouper (Mycter-operca spp.), and tile" sll (Lopllol a1'11 us sPP. > (Brlgllt and Pequegnat, 1974; Antonius, et al., 1978). Patch r .. fs and hard bot~s supply habitat to canperably diverse tlsllerl .. stod(s,lncludl"9 the fish listed above, plus stone crabs (Menlppe mercenarla), spiny lobsters (Panullrus argus>, shrimp (Penaeus sPP.>, and IIIIIny others (SlIIlth, 1976; Hopkins, et al., 1977; Dayls, 1979, personal canlllUnlcatlon). Nearly al I areas In .IIlch corals live support some type of flslling ven1'ure. Tropical specimen collectors harvest tlsII frCJII areas wi til or wl1'hou1' corals. Extensive tropical tlsh collec:tlng IIIIIY alter ecological relationships. FlsII collec tQl"S harvest IIIOstly Juveniles frCJII .aters less than" • (50 ft) deep (Feddern, 1979, personal com.unlcatlon). FlsII populations In deeper .aters and In difficult collec:tlng arNS (e.g. coral reef s) IIIIIY rlllllli n as recru I nt reserves. In addition to specific flshl"9-related stresses, fish gear IlIIpacts may also be an IlIIportant sourc:. of coral destruc:t Ion batll I ns Ide and outs Ide state .aters. Based on observat Ions of tile I ndustry and conversations wltll sclentls1'S In tile field, these potential gear damages could Include shrllllp trawling In hard bat1Qw areas, calico scallop dredgl"9, snapper-grouper trawll"9, shrllllpers trawling for lobsters, lobster pot flSlllng, and r .. f fiSh traps. In each cas., the gear Is equipped with .elghts or dlalns that may physically damage corals and associated biota. Geographically, til ... activities occur In tile northeastern and east.rn Gulf of Mexico (shrimp trawling, scallop dredging), tile shelf off •• st.rn Florida between St. Marks and Tarpon Springs (trawling), Florida Middle GroundS nNr parts of Tarpon Sprlngs'and MaClelra Bead'l (snapper and grouper), tile Florida Keys (lobster potting, lobster trawling, fish traps), off northeastern Florida and Georgia (rock shrimp, brown Shrimp), and off Geo~la and South Carolina (shrimp trawling, snapper-grouper trawling). The potential Impacts Include disruption of the hard bette. communities Inhabited by the silt-tolerant corals (Solenastrea, Ocullna, and Siderastrea), sponges. shellfish. and finfish In tne Gulf and off the southeastern states; physI cal harm to coral reefs that have fish or shel Iflsn traps dropped on, dragged through, or swept Into them; and possible biological harm to the r .. f aSSOCiated biota (e.g., lobster pot removal of adult tropical fish and"flsh trap removal of resident reef species). The opinion that loblter traps are harmful to hard bottan areas hen they are fished with excessively long buoy lines has been eICpressecl. These practices In shallow waters entail dragging the traps across the bottan during retrl ... al. Bottom long II ne fI sh I ng for snapper and grouper has recent I y eICpanded I n the IDIInagement area as a result of econonlc stress In other fisheries. Lines are frequently set adjacent to coral reefs where r .. f fishes congregate. They are not normally set across the reefs because Of. potential loss of tile gear. An Increased use of stronger wire cable for long line al lows use of the gear over hard bottom with less risk of gear loss, but with mere potential for habitat damag •• Jaap (198t, personal com munication) has Identified two species of corals brought In by bottam longlln. flsh.naen. Significant user conflict has d.veloped between traditional r .. f fish flsheMDen and roll.r trawl fishing vessels off Daytona Beach and In tile eastern Gulf of Mexico. Th. former clal~ that roller trawls are destroying the habitat, Including Ocullna varicose coral banks. Tunnlcllffe (1980) reported coral damage In Jamaica where larg. fish traps thrown on the reefs caused much breakage and death.of corals. Similarly, a Florida fish trap study (Taylor and McMlchaels, 1981. personal canlllJnlcatlon) reported coral pieces, some Identified as staghorn In traps, Indicating that wire traps will break SOIII8 fragi Ie corals. The Impact of fishing activities on coral via Incidental catch has been studied by the St. ~etersbur3 laboratory of tile Florida Department of Natural Resources. The study, sponsored by the National Marine Fisheries Service during 1978, consisted of onboard sampling of collections fron 196 shrimp trawls on tile shelf off western Flprlda, between Apalachicola and Dry Tortugas. Results shOwed soft corals (Renll la) In 25 of the 196 trawls, with mest of those trawls In the north.rn Gulf region near Apalachicola. The quantity of corals per trawl rang.d fram only a few plec.s to about 25. A 1965 film entitled "Gulf of Mexico Shrimp Trawls", produced by the National Marin. Fisheries Service's Gear Research Unit. showed the effects of various trawl designs and fiShing methodologies. The film also showed destruction by a net towed over a stump coral and suggested gear adjus~nt to avoid contact. Impacts fram f Is"lng may be categoriZed as phys Ical or chemical. Phys lcal ImpaCTS may result fran gear damage or simply gear use. Nets and pots may be lost on reef outcroplngs as se.n near Dry Tortugas and at the Sambo Re.fs In the Keys (9right and Jaap, In press). Hand fishing by spear or lot.ter loop may result In overturned coral lIeads or damaged corals fram diver contact. Hook and lIne fishing may affect corals to a limited eICtent, but not nearly so much as towed or emplaced g.ar. Lobaterlng with traps directly on corals Is a rare, accidental occurrence tllat can damage fragile species (Acropora cervicornis or staghorn c'oral) or large brain corals like Dlplorla (Bright and Jaep, In press). Lobsters and other reef residents may also be coll.cted by stunning with poisons or explosions. Jaap and Wheaton (1975) conducted field studies on acetone, quinaldln. In an acetone solution, and Chem-Flsh-Collector (a commercial rotenone preparation) and also revlawed the literature on anaesthetics and poisons. T~elr field studies on gorgonlans and scleracTlnlans at Eastern and Western Sambo Reefs off Boca Chlta Key, Florida, revealed that rotenone and quinaldine often Induced coral polyp retraction and occasionally caused tissue discoloratIon. The scleractlnlans Acropora cervicorniS, ~. p~lmat., Siderastrea slderea, Dlplorlastrlgosa, and DichacaenIa stokesl, .ere damaged by t~e ~otenon.· (Jaap and Wheaton-Smltn, 1974). Several gorgonlans and other test corals wer. not 6-15 affected by the c:h 1 ca Is at the 1'.1' levels. Associ ated reef species such as the urc:h In, 0 I ad antillaru. and SOlIe crabs and SllrlllPS, vacated the trea1lnent ar .. or died. Quinaldine and bleac::n are used to stun or drive out IIOblle anllMIs to ease live capture; ratenone Is a toxicant .hen used In sufficient doses (Jaep, 1979, personal communication). In the Bahamas, chlorine bleac::n fishing among corals .as a commo~ practice of flshennen. Often, a characteristic pattern of Inf.ctlon .nsues .h.reby zones of the b I ue-grMn al gae, Osc I I latorl a su~branac .. , the bacter la, Oesu I fov I br" I 0 and Begglatoa Invade the str.sed tissues (Campbell, 1977). Explosives IMY be used In SOllIe ar.as to coll.ct fish (Ronqull 10, 1950; Christian, 1973) or move coral rock, but Its dalMge to living corals has nev.r been adeQuat.ly Quantified (Jollannes, 197'). Explosives do not appear to be In use at thIs time, but .er. used at Carysfort R.ef n .. r Key Largo fran about 1900 to th. early 19'0. (Shinn, 1979, p.rsonal communication). palMg. throughout that period was sev.r. but recovery slnc. the 19'0. has resulted In no vlslbl •• ff.cts of the blasting. Lastly are the posslbl. Impacts of artificial fishing rMfs. Throughout th. IIIInag nt ar .. , fishing associations, state resource agencies, and prlvat. groups hav. built artificial r.efl on th. Inn.,. contln.ntal sh.1 f. In IMny Instances tlr .. hav. be.n th. prllMry r .. f bul Idl ng blockl. Probl s arise, lIo.ever, when tile bundl.s of 1'1,. .... Ighted wltll concr.te break 1001. frQII their lIOoring and ,.011 about unanchored. In Monroe County, Florida, n .. r Coffins Patch Re.f off Marathon, the daMg. to coral has be.n so sev.r. tllat the tlr ... er. ,.amov.d (Richard Helbling, personal communication). A similar problem occur,.ed off Fort ~y.rs, Florida (Casey, 1979, personal communication). Th. problem appears to be proper placement of 1'11. r.ef and nat 1'11. construction. Although the un tethered tlr. ar. doing much damag., artificial r •• fs firmly attached do provld. valuabl. habitat tor IMny fishes. Dredging and sedimentation -- Oredglng has an effect on the natural turbidity regllllls of coastal environments. This Impact Is critical because of th. dep.nd.nce of corals upon cl.ar waters and tile fact that resuspended particulates often Increase availability of pollutants to IMrlne biota. In coastal Florida waters, sediments t.nd to be fine-grained and suspend.d naturally In wlnt.r months. Aerial photographlon fll. at th. Planning O.par1'lllent of Monroe County, Florida, In Key West, empha slz. the amount of sediments Involved and their persistence. In oth.r ar .. s, .speclal Iy In d.ep.r wat.rs, turbidity problems occur but not with such obvious rep.rcusslons. In all cas •• , s1OI'1IIs, nonnal wave surg.s, and boating, r uspend 1'11. partlculat ... Sto""s also contrlbut. natlral Iy to this 1Mn II18d. Impact. Fine-grained Sedl nts hav. occurred naturally for thousands of y.ars In the reef tract (Enos, 1977). Sedimentation r .. ultlng fra. dredging causes damag.s proportional to particle slz., total load, and settling rat .. , which In turn Influence a multitude ot ecological variables (growth, r.plratlon, reproduction, energy cycling, .tc.). Hubbard and Pocock (1972), studying 26 Caribbean corals, lIave suggested tllat corals are "slze-lpeclflc sediment rejectors" and that this ability varl between species. In g.neral, only silt, the ... 1 lest particle slz. conSidered, was .ff.ctlv.ly r-.ov.d by al I species t ted. Strong currents MY aSlllt corals In "lIIIOvlng more coarse-grained sediments (se. SUllll'lllry In Jollann., 1975) but IllUCUI transport, cl I lary beating, or other biological meanl, account toi" most polyp cleanllng. The ImPacts of dredging op.ratlonl ar. also dependent upon the techniques Involved. Griffin (1974) nated that use of a dl ep.r or slit curtain around th. op.ratlon lMy d.cr .... plulIII liz. although not affecting th. total sedlllllnt load. "Hard-rOCk" dredging as practiced at Key Largo and studied by Grltfln, has leiS Impact, I.e., low.r particle conc.ntratlon In the plume, than hydraulic dredging. Sediment t,.ap studies at Key Largo dete""lned tllat Siderastr.a slderea (starlet coral), cl.ared at least 12' mglaa2/day during a period wh.n no dredging was occurring (Griffin, 1974a). During dredging, fallout lMy exc.ed 300 mglcm2/day; tile capabilities of corals to cl.ar that nount ar. not known. At high load I.v.ls, wat.rs lMy becane anoxic (Grl ffln, 1974.). A d.talled SUlllllllry of on. Florid. Keys dredge and fll I proj.ct Is pres.nted In Grltfln (1974b). Beach nourishment proJects, barging, and pipeline exca~tlons mey threaten corals, too 3rlght, et al. (1981). Shinn, 1979, personal communication). Courtenay, et al. (1974) obser¥8d that sand oeing transported to shore to replenish an eroding beach smothered a smel I coral aSSemblage otf Hallandale, Florida, north of ~Iaml. AerIal photographS of the Hawk Channel and Key Largo areas, ha~ re~aled persistent trails of sedIments from blrges and glass bottom boats CGrlffln 19748,b. Shinn, 1979, per sonal communlcatlon)~ A second Impact of dredging Is dIrect r.mo~1 of corals. Co~al rock has been used as construction meterlals (buildIngs. roadS, etc.). extensl~ly In ~rlous parts of the Florida Keys. This meterial Is relict r .. f limestone, usually occurring onshore or nearshore. Howe~r, as cited In Schlapak and Herblch (1978), corals are stIli dredged In the PacIfIc for use In construction and navigational cnan nel de~lopmente Research -- Research activities mey impose a mixture of stresses resembling fhose described abo~. Hence, the Impacts of research operations to collect corals, trawl on hard groundS, search tor petroleum, etc., parallel the Impacts of the respectl~ activities. It Is thought that, In general, these Impacts are minor sInce the research Institutions are aware of the potential damages and often supervised by their contracting agency. Summary The phySical/chemical Impacts associated with human activities (anchor damage, pollution, recreation, fishing, trapping, vessel groundings, dredging, and research), Impart econa.lc Impacts which may be observed In two torms from two perspectives. First, In the short-term, these Impacts Increase the Immediate Income or enjoyment of the Individuals causing the Impacts. This occurs because the Indlv duals are reaping some personal benefit Ce.g., recreation, sewage disposal, fishery harvest), while paying less than full price for the resource. For example, a dl~r can Increase his enjoyment by anchoring directly over a coral formation and decreasing his time and air consumption to reach the coral; shrimp trawlers can Increase both har~st and Income by engaging In "bottom preparation" acti vities. Second, o~r the longer term, Impacts of .these human activIties can Impose costs on the U.S. economy through fishery habitat destruction. Even partial degradation of habitat areas could decrease biomass potentials for shrimp, snapper, grouper, calico scallop, lobster, and less viSible forage for recreational species., Habitat destruction also reduces the aesthetic appeal of the area to recreational users. Thus, the potential harvest of associated species and the recreational benefits could be reduced resulting In corresponding reductions In Income generated. 6.2.2 Natural I~acts The Impacts summariZed here are detailed In Appendix I. Hurricanes -- The most destructl~ Short-term impact on corals Is a hurricane. Wa~ surge and inten sity coupled with sand and debris being carried by the water can wreak ha~c on shallow-water coral communities •. Because of the usual storm trackS, the Florida Keys and the Gulf are especially vulnerable to this stress. Light, depth, and wa~ enerQY -- These three factors are Interrelated. Hermetyplc coral distributions are limited by the wa~ length (spectral quality) and Intensity of penetrating light. functions of water depth. Ahermatypes do not require light but can be excluded from areas of high turbulence, such as some r .. f caps or surf zones. Te~erature -- The distribution of corals relative to water temperature Is correlated with the pre sence or absence of zooxanthellae. Generally, hermatypic corals possessing symblonts are found In warm waters wlthl~ the range of 15· to 35·C or 60· to 9S·F (Mayer, 1916). Ahermatypic species are not limited by temperature and therefore are more widely distrIbuted. 6-17 Researche~ In the FlorIda Keys (Vaughn, 1918; DavIs, 1979, personal communIcatIon; Robe~s, et al., 1979; Hudson, 1981; Tllment, 1979, personal communIcation), have developed e~enslve data sets on tllllperatures I n Keys wate~. Robe~s and Rouse (I n preparatIon) have SUlM'8rl zed IIIIIny of th .. e natural t ... peratur •• f feets. SalInIty -- The ~allnlty pr.f.renee of corals are specIes-specific, with some categories euryhalln. and others stenonalln .. Generally, many nea~hor. species SUC;:h as gorgonlans are IIIOr. euryhallne than the re.f Inhabitants or deepwater species. Local oceanographic conditions In the management area Influ.nc. salInity and h.n~ coral distribution and h.alth - MIssissippi Rlv.r outflow, Ev.rglad.s dlscharg. and salty lagoons along the rexas coasts among others. Ecological relatlonshlps.-- Coral h.alth can be altered by a variety of Inter- and Intraspecific rela tionships - competitIon, predation, natural toxicants, Infection, and others Esee also Appendix H, In addition to Appendix I). Each of these relationships Invol~s bIological and behavIoral elements that a ffect coral heal tho Sedimentation -- In various po~lons of the manag.ment area, particularly In the FlorIda r .. f tract and off the MissIssIppi River Delta, natural turbidIty and sediment may lImIt lIght penetration, feeding efficiency, and oth.r determinants of coral health. Gas seeps -- Seep of biogenic and p.trog.nic gases are known to occur on sev.ral hard banks In the no~l'1western Gul f of Mexico. 6.3 Habitat Areas of Particular Conc.rn For purposes of this section, habitat areas of pa~lcular concern (HAPCs) ar. discussed solely as areas of special biologIcal significance. As required In the guidelines for developing Fishery ~anagement Plans (50 CFR Part 602.3b.6.1 I), these g.ographlc areas Include those " ••• which are of particular concern because of a requlr .... nt In the life cycle of the stodds), e.g., spawning gramds, nurseries, migratory rout .. , etc •.••• (and) ••• those areas which are currently or pot.ntlal Iy threatened with d.struction or degradation." Whereas the follc:.lng discussion focus.s on delln.atit19 these areas for coral stoCks, It should be noted that thIs plan also used the term HAPC to connote a management concept designed to focus regulatory.and enforc .... nt abilities on particular localized areas of significance. Although the two meanings are obviously clos.'y related, the conceptual distinction betwe.n HAPCs as significant biological areas and HAPCs as a claSSifIcation category con ferring special management provIsIons, should be recognized by the readers of thIs plan. As a vital first step In understanding and managll'l9 the coral resource, It Is necessary to recognize that corals are not spr.ad evenly over the management are.. Rath.r, dense clust.rs of ce~aln specIes concentrate at specIfic geographIc locations to fonn r •• fs, hard bot~s, lithoherms, etc. ~reclse understanding of the geographIc distribution of 'IIIIjor coral habItats has, until recent mappIng etfo~s 'see Table 6-4), been largely Ignored. As these and other mapping proj.cts are completed, expanded, and refIned, they will beccme an ~mpor~ant source of coral HAPC Infonnatlon. For delimiting specific coral ar.as, HAPCs are taken only to Include localities wh.re larg. con centrations of adult (sedentary) corals are f"Jund. (The open wat.r planktonic lIfe styl. of larval fonns preclud.s the Isolation of specific geographic localIties of larval concentration.) On a regional baSiS, these coral habitats comprise only a very sllllli I perc.ntage of the g.ographlcal ar.a of authority of the Gulf of "'exlco and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils. Since the focus h.r. Is only on coral habitats of particular conc.rn, the area percentage is even smaller. In order to focus only on habItats of partIcular concern, a set of HAPC criteria has been develop.d for use In this plan (see Tabl. 6-5). These criterIa are general guideline stat .... nts Intended to narrc:. the full ecmplement of coral habl tats dow" to a select few representIng the!!2!!. Important coral concentrations In the management area. 6-18 m I ...... 'D Table 6-4. Major sources of coral mapping and species distribution Information for U.S. Gulf of Mexico and south Atlantic waters. MHO c. Glamnna (Texas AIM) T. Bright & R. Rezak (Texas AIM College Station, Texas) W. Jaap-Scleractlnla J. Wheaton-Octocordilia (fl. Dept. of Nat. Res.) D. Marszalek (RSMAS, Miami» W. Adey (S.lthsonlan) J. Porter (Unl~rslty of Georgia, Athens, Georgia) \"""': -"./ WHERE Gu I t of Mex Ico Topographic highs located In western Gulf 0' Mexico "flourgl ass" area 0' f midwestern florida South florida Northern II tt Ie Bahama Bank Tortugas, florida SCALE nla nla nla 1:24,000 I: 6,000 >1: 10 SPONSOR U.S. Bureau of land Management (OCS Office. New Orleans, louisiana) florida Department ot Natural Resources State of florida Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of land ManageMnt U.S. Bureau of land Managelll8nt National Park Service STATUS • C(M4fNIS Completed Ph.D Summarized a¥allable Infor.atlon Dissertation. (1978) on ecology and distribution 0' Gulf octocorals~ Separate reports for first three years cOlllPleted Completed field sampling Completed. being readied for press Nearly completed Continuing Provides a descrlptl~ account of biotic co..unltles obser~d on Gu I f banks. A major oceanographic collection providing a grid of stations trom which coral distributions could be plotted. Reef and bottom types. Major bottom types. Underwater photographs ot staked Quadrants: squares allow .applng of cordI species; repeated views can assess Changes. . 0'1 I N o T.ble 6-4. (continued) WHO ~ G. E. Davis (U.S. National Park Ser vi ce-E wrg lades National Park) S. D. Cairns (Smithsonian) Woodward-CIvde Consultants T. Hopkins and R. Rezak (Unl v. of South Alabama) Continental Shelf Association WHERE Fort Jef ferson National Monu.nt Gul f of Mexico Caribbean, SE coast of U.S. Eastern and north eastern Gul f of Mexico florida Middle Grounds Pfleger and Sweet Hanks, northern Gul f of Mexl co SCALE about 1:30,000 n/a I: 48,000 1:12,000 and 1:40,000 nla SPONSOR U.s. Bureau of Land Manage.snt (OCS Office, STATUS Published 1979 bV BLM (see Fig. 6-8 New Orleans, Louisiana) herein). Unlwrsltv of Miami U.S. Bureau of Land Manage nt (Washington, D.C.) U.S. Bureau of Land Manage nt U.S. Bureau of Land Manage.ant (Washington, D.C.) Collpleted Ph.D Dissertation (1976), published 1979. Report publl shed Januarv 1979. Ongoing Publl shed 1960 CCM4ENTS Provides a resource .. p of coral distribution to the Monu.ont boundary. grass, fleshy algae, staghorn r .. fs, patch reefs, and hard bottollS are pped. See Fig. 6-6. Ser I es of 60 IMPS of deep water Scleractinia distributions. descriptions and Illustrations of 88 species. zoogeography. Studv maps and described benthic habitats at ten locations to deter.lne their suitability for OCS 011 and gas leasing. Sub rslble obser¥atlons of biotIc co..unltles and botto. contours. Maps topographic highs and Mil 118 botto.". "Table 6-5. Criteria for Identifying coral Habitat ~reas of Particular Concern. 1. Ecological a. ~n area that contains an outstanding example of a coral community type found over a broad ocean area •. (For example, a deepwater Loph.,'a-Enal'opsamm'a bank, a shal low-water Acropora coral reef. patch r •• fs, etc.). b. Areas known to possess rare specl es of coral. c. Areas whose coral diversity contributes to a highly unusual or uniQue biologiC relatlonshl~ or ecologic condl tlon."· 2. Research a. Areas with a substantial history of coral research and study. Such areas offer an opportunity to develop a long-term history of corals In their natural setting which should enhance the Indentlflcatlon of trends In growth or response to stress - both vital Infonnatlon for coral managers. b. Areas which display In an especially clear cut fashion, coral habitat features of particular research Interest such as SPIT and groove fonnations or particular biotic zonation patterns. 3. Exploitation a. Areas where high concentrations of economically valuable corals subject to harvesting can be found. This might Include prime banks of black or pink precious corals, or areas where Plexaura homomella can be abundantly found. These resource areas can then be managed as de~91 opment areas under opt Imum y.lel d object Ives. b. Areas where specific man-made devel~ment plans, use, or pollution Impacts have Inflicted, or threaten to Inflict, environmental damage Including reduced coral species diversity, abundance or health. 4. Recreation a. Areas which are docum.nted as locations frequented on a regular besls by recreational divers, sports f I she".,..n, or gllss bottan boat 5 ightseers. b. Areas that otter a high but underutillzed recreational resource because of their outstanding aesthetic quail tl .!!!! proxlml ty to population cent..-s or boat access pol nts. 6-21 At a mlnl~UM. any coral area chosen as an MAPC must meet one or more of the specific criteria pre sented In Table 6-5. In addItion to theSe criteria. an effort should be made to ensure Inclusion of arMS that r~r .. enT all coral comlll.lnity types found In the management area. Consideration of a geographiC factor wIll provide for a regional syst~ of MAPCs In whiCh the ful I diversity of Important coral habitat sites Is Included. Particular attention should be given major coral habitat areas. For.most of these broad areas Is the extensive Florida reef tract which stratcnes along the Florida Keys. Other such habitat areas Include the topographiC highs-or banks In the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. the reef and hard bottom coral habitats scattered throughout the northeastern Gulf ot ~exlco (Including the Florida Middle Grounds areas); and the hard bottom communltl .. scattered off North Carolina and South Carolina (see Figure 5-4). All habitat areas should··be mapped on a scale suitable to show the particular resources and associated habitats. A set of geographiC coordinates and boundaries should accompany the. map to clarify the pre cl se area. The coral habitat areas described below have been determined to satisfy the criteria and Include the Important element of geographic distribution. The Councils wll I address. with revl .. by their Scientific and Statistical Committees, nominations for MAPCs periodically and take action as they deem necessary. InCluding public hearings and any other fishery management plan amendment processes. Coral habitat areas of particular concern (MAPC) and the criteria by which they quality. Coral HAPC East and west Flower Garden Banks (nominated national marl ne sanctuary) Dry Tortugas (Fort Jefferson National ~onument) Loce Key (designated national marine sanctuary) Key Largo Coral Reef (deSignated national marl ne sanctuary) Biscayne National Park Gray's Reef (designated national marl ne sanctuary) Florida Middle Grounds (na.'nated marine sanctuary) Ocullna Bank Gulf of Mexico TOe29raehlc HighS Criteria (see Table 6-5) I.e. 2.a. 2.b. 3.b. and 4.a. I.a. 2.a. and 3.b. I.a. I.b. 2.b. 3. b. and 4.b. I.a. 2.a. 2.b. 3.b. and 4.a. I.a. 2.a. 3.b. and 4.a. I.c. 2.b. 4.a, and 4.b. I.a, I. b, I.c, 2.a, 2.b. 3. b, and 4.a. I.a, I. b, I.e, 2.a, 2.b. 3.a, 3.b, 4.a, and 4.b. As described brIefly In Section 5.2.1.7 and shown In Figures 5-4 and 5-7, the northwestern Gulf of Mexico Includes almoST 30 Identified banks rising from the otherwise flat continental shelf. Many of these banks possess corals. Although other banks may eventually be determined to be of sufficient significance to be tel"'lll8d as an MAPC, only the East and West Flower Garden Banks are here considered as such. EaST and West Flower Garden Banks· The two separate banks at the Flower Gardens (s.e Figures 5-11. 5-12, and 6-) are distinct geologic 6-22 A,.. ., t A"b AI!>' I I • 0>' - I ~ = - r- . / n. ' I ' A "0. A ," t / I ~ .. , . I ... •• • • •• , •• '1 A~I I 1 .... .. I' • ,'., I A,,,, A.... I I • 16, A 161 I I ,I . ;/1-::---- --~::: ,-J A • Ib' I ( .. ;d.' · .,i .~"- i j 'I • '" /; \ \ I I ., A .... ••• p'" . ,I . .". ..... . j 11 .. ;11 ISI.AN..::ri - A "ft I • 11 ..... , "'"'' "'.... '" ... ", ,; .... ". ' :I \\ I • ". , .... ., .. ,,' . .. " "" .... ~ III II I #~ ~ ': A)~ • - .. I 85' =:." w , ". '- ! · - 1 J • , '" -"7 MI 1. I I . II ANi '," , t\ I 1 r--m \\ "' \ "'1 ~t.~-,." '.' . , '~ .. '-j .• ~\::;A-" ·:r .... I . - ,. ",' . I' .• A.." :::::. , .. , \ ; I'U I ..... , ' ", \ ' 16 1/ '7 \ A4UI -- •.. - . -\,"" ... " ....... , ... ., ••• I ."".'. , .. " \ L .. ,,, -l'~ ,,, " ,. - T - - "I I .-..,..,.. .' 11 \ ,,~ ,.. . I ,.' ~ I .., \ ,., I ,.. ,., ~ , .. . ' . - I .\ ~ \ \ F1r.lIR[ 6-3. 116 211 ,II 1:" u' n. II'> \ I I .• .~ .• locat ion of Flower r.arden [lank s IIAPC (wi til }O(\/I BU1 a il and qas tra<:t nUlilht>rs. clnd the t.rd tf ' Tracts are three miles (statute) square, shown). 1\1so shows the proposed lIItlr'ine SdnctUdrv 'Ie (Office of (odstdl IUlII' ·l,lndllelll(~nt. }!)7<)d). .tructur .. locat.d about 25 IcII (ll.5 ,.) ~art and ov.r 200 ICII (108 ,.) frOil the eoa.t. of Tex .. and Louiaiana. Located an the edge o( the continental shelf, the E •• t Bank'. lIidpoint i. loe.ted at about 27. 55' 07 ... • N and 93. )61 08 •• 9· W. The W •• t Bank centerpoint il at 27- 52' 14.21- N and 93· 48' 5 •• 79. W. The .. It .. infra.tructure of the Banks project. up through the overlying rock strata and ro~. two diatinct hill. ri.ing •• ver.l hundred .. ter. above the lea rloor to 1 ••• than 50 II (165 rt) of the ... aurfac:.. The HAPC 1. !i ited to the portiona of .. eh b .. k above the 5O-fathOil ilobath (F'igur.6-3). East Flower Garden"Benk i. a tear-shaped aa.e roughly 5 kit (2.7 ~) in di .. eter rising to within 20 ~ (66 rt) or the lea lurrae. (Bright and Rezak, 1976, 1978). The,total ar.a or earal reer atop the bank il 75 acr.1 (0.3 k112) (Orrie. or Coalt.l Zone H ... g ent, 1979a). The eor.ll and ... ociatld speeiel occur in seven distinct zonae (Ie. Figure 5-12) frOll the cap at 16 II (52 rt) to the bal. of the bank (i.e., onl.t of soft bottOll eoMaunity) at 110 to 120 • (360 to 393 ft)1 1) leafy algae; 2) Hadr.cil; 3) Oiplori., MOntaltr.e., and Porite.; 4) alga.-sponge; 5) deepwat.r earal.: 6). antip.th.rienl and drowned reefs: and 7) soft·bottOli (Bright, 1977). The Hadr.cis zone isoccupi.d·al~lt entirely by populationl or the 111.11 br.nching earal ~. lIirabilil. Principal specil', including ear.ls, within e.ch or the zon.1 have been elucidated by sub!lersible tranlect. and list.d by Bright and R.zalc (1976, 1978). West Flow.r Garden Sank il oblong shaped roughly 11 kit by 8 kII (6 by 4.3 1111), trending northea.t to southwelt. The live reef .top the ~. occupies 100 ecr •• (0.4 k.2) (orfice of Coa.tal Zone Man.g .. ent, 1979.), including. peak rising to within 20 ~ (66 ft) of the aurf.ce (Rezak, 1977). Biotic zon.tion at West Flower Garden is ehar.cterized by assemblages sillilar to thoee ob.erv.d at the E.st Flower Garden Bank. FrOli itl peak at about 20 II (66 ft) depth to the dOle b.le at 136 II (450 ft), four zones exilt (see Figure 5-11): 1) Oiplori., Montastraea, Poritel; 2) algae-sponge: J) deepw.ter ear.l.; and 4) 80ft bottOli (Bright, et al., 1974). No leafy algae or Hedr.cil zone. were de.eribed (Bright, 1977). Antip.th.rianl have been oblerved lIIidlt the soft bottOll zone. Corals at West Bank have been clallified and published by Tresllar (1974); Bright and Pequegn.t (1974) describe. subltantial nu~er of the assoei.ted speci ••• Cor.l ass .. blage. and habit.t .t E.st and West Flower Gerden Benks cOliprile • unique resource. The coral reefe on thole b .. k. are the northweltern ~st rlef. in the Gulf of Hexico. Hance the biota they support are stre'led cli .. tologie.liy, .t l.alt parti.lly isolated frOil the gene pool, and susceptible to collaple should existing populationl be destroyed. AI the northwestern molt eor.l reefs, they are of particular r •••• rch int.r .. t. The biotic zonation at the Flow.r Gardenl hal been de.cribed .. ane of the ~.t .xten.ive of all Gulf of Hexieo banks (Bright, 1977). The banks have also been subject to an environllental illpact .tat .. ent .. a noIIinated ~arin. sanctuary (Office of Coa.tal Zone Man.ge ment, 1979a). Potential threat. to the r .. f. exilt in the for of increased oil and ga. drilling in the ar.a, expanding deep draft v .... l traffic, increasing recreational Ule, and anchoring by any ve ••• l. The fallowing two .an.g ant .... urll are proposed to protect the corals from incidental damage by the us. of fishing gear or anchor •• ~ Traditional, hi.torie.l fi.hing .. thod •• re allowed trawl. ar. prohibited within the 50-fathOll isobath. except IS authorized by perrlit. but bottOll longline., tr.p. and pots, and bottOli The taking of all corals is prohibited Anchoring shall be prohibitld on the East and West Flower Garden Sanks, 20 and 24 square ~ile areal above 50 fathoM. in depth except for vessels le.s than 100 flet in registered length. (Notl: this ~e •• ure hal been disallowld by NOAA as being beyond authority of HFCHA.) rlorida Reef Tr.ct 0 I N Vi 16 lfN 'HOUSAND ISLANDS" O APPHOIIUU'E flllEN' Of H.E fL OHIO. 11ft. r 'HAC J ® 51! I ec t eli IIAJ»C : .. ~::..~ . ." ~ " ?'c 0" ,0., .... ,,, """ ••..•• 0 ..... ' CAN SAllf - " FLORIDI. . . ~) 1t,lco,ne Jolin Penn •• a",,, COIal II •• ' 51". ~r Ma,qll,'a. H .. ' ~!!II' lIolane, H ••• ". 0 ~\Q~ ~ ,,0 ~~-i . . <5 Looe- Key Reef National d Marine Sanctuary an "Middle Sambo Reef 8' A..G:J ~ A..~ c.;, d< o .0 l ..&.. ~ ~~ (} «<." ,A ~I~ )0 )0 ... . • ,1 ....... ." • f:' F IGUIl£ 6-4. Florida Reef Tract reefs selected as Habitat Areas of Particular Concern: .,"f '. 25 Th. FlorIda reef tract (se. F'gur. 6-4 and SectIon 5.2.1.4) contaIns the contInental UnIted States' most extensIve cor. I hab'tat. Composed of • ch.'n of 'nd'v'du.' ~ .. fs, the t~.ct s~etehes In a curve of SOMe 370 ~ (200 n.) fra. NI .. ' to the Dry Tortug.s (DIS.'~ and Odum, 1974)., The t~aet Is bounded on the shor .. ard sIde by the FlorIda Keys and on the s .... rd sid. by the Florid. Straits (s.e Figure 6-3). Its wldth-'Is .bout 6.5 kill (4 nIII) .Ith th. s .... ~d edge followl ng th. 18 m (60 ft) bathylllet~lc contou~. Alt~gh ShInn (1963) reports th.t the t~act's flou~lshlng ~ .. fs are larg.ly limited to the northern half of the t~act partIcularly off K.y La~go, other prosperIng ~ .. fs also exIst flTthe~ south. for purposes of Id.ntlfylng coral h.bltats of partlcul.r concern along th. FlorId. reef tract, a total of four areas have been selected. Two areas I ncludl ng IIIIny sep.rate r .. fs near Key Largo have been selected In the northern. r .. f portion; Looe Key oft BIg PIne Key Is Id.ntlfled f~an the mIddle portion. and the Ory Tortug.S rep~esents the southern end of the t~act. Each.ls dIscussed In greater detaIl below. Other tract re.fs which were consIdered, but w.re not Included .t thIs tIme, a~e Sand Key off Key west and the Samba ~eefs off Boca Chlca Key. Th. FlorId. reef tract Is exposed to a varIety of both n.tural and men-lIIIde threats. Land based pollutants such as seelllllent, ,...ge, and varIous chemIcals may be d.lllltgl ng certain r .. fs. However, the sIgnifIcance and even cause-effect relatIonshIps have yet to be cle.rly established. Perhaps the most sIgnifIcant threat Is fran recreational use .hlch exposes the reefs to dIrect dalllllge by souvenir and specImen collectors and anchor damage. Key Largo Coral Reef N.tlonal ~.rlne S.nctuary Th I s !-tAPe has a I ~eady been ~ecogn I zed by the Oepartment of Can rce (CCZN) as an out stand I ng examp Ie of the patCh and outer blink coral ~eefs found In the FlorIda ~ .. f tract. Th. natIonal ~ecognltlon as a natIonal marine sanctuary has Intensified public use of the a~ea; resource coll.ctlon presSlTes are low but user Impacts, such as dIver contact Injury and ~ec~ .. tlon.' boet anchorIng, contInue. ~any of the more pranlnent r .. fs are mapped on FIgures 6-4 and 6-5. Sanctuary regulatIons al low hook and line fishIng but prohibIt spearflshlng'and the taking of tropical re.f fIshes. Th. coral reefs wIthIn thIs area ca.prlse the approxImate north.rn lImIt of r .. f growth along the malnland coast of the Western Hemlsph.r.. The zonatIon p.ttern of the reef structures for the northern Florida ~ .. f tract as described by Shinn (1963 and 1979) Includes fIve zones; a back ~eef, a reef flat, an Acropora zone, a ~lllepora zone, and a rubble zone. Th. coral species camposltlon of reefs In the marine sanctuary Is described by the Office of Coastal Zone Management (1979b). Several of the reefs within the ar .. exhIbit the SPIT and groove formation described by ShInn (1963) at the Dry Rocks Reef. Th. northern tract r .. fs have. long history of scIentific research. r.4uch of the relevant researdl has be.n revl .. ed by the Offlc. of Coastal Zone Management (1979b). A contInuation of this ~esearch hIstory Is evld.nt In the cor., r .. f resource survey being coordInated by the Office of Coastal Zone Manag nt (l979C) for the Natron.1 M.rlne Sanctuary and an envlrormental asses .. nt and biological 'nv.ntory be I r1g org.n I zed jol ntl y by CCZ,", and the F I arid. Dep.rtment of lII.tural Resources. BIscayne N.tlonal Park Biscayne N.tlon.' P.rk Is another !-tAPe that has been protected .tleast In p.rt because of the coral resources found on Its numerous p.tch and outer bank ~ .. fs. SInce these cor.' cam,..,nltles are located c loser to the D.de County urban areas than the Key Largo Coral Reef N.tlonal Marl ne Sanctuary, the Park Is exposed to considerable recreational actIvIty. Divers tend to concentrate at four buoyed reefs (Figure 6-6). This HAPe would Inc' ... .;~ only that portIon of the Park located outsld. state waters, as shown on FIgure 6-6. 6-26 '" I N .., r p p ~;.qUitO "n. 0g ~ .. ~c9:;"~ d MDI .... ' II .. , II J1 0 , (.;:) 0 00 ' eoozoO lS· 'C1"20' LARGO a •• io .... 5110 ... D .. ~ o lIO ~ C) o~ D a ~ V~ ODO~ c:,~o lllolO' ·;:$j'\tXp , ..... Roch .. p o oJ' , I~ ~"#lO II 0°000 .. 0 Q P tI" 0.0 ~ ~ c:::::::>C;:;::::::::> Q {} .." ,~"., UrioCkt II~TlI. EI~~ ""-c;r.cl.n 11o,.. ~ o ~ '.r ,afOOi R .. , o REEf AIIEAS \ \ 10-'0' U"IO' OJ . . - -- - ----.... FlGUflr 6-5. fleefs and aJlJlrox imate boundaries of the I~(>y larfjo Cora 1 neef Marine Sanctuary (,Iameson. no date). '..:, eo,.al ,.eef ass.blag .. In this HAPC c'os.'y ,. .... bl. those d.sc,.lbed above fo,. the K .... Largo sanc:tu.ry; typical zonation pefferns exist. Specl .. canposltlon lias been studied by Jaap (1979), and Jaep "n prep.,..tlon). On-going ,.es.a,.ch .fforts a,.e desc,.'bed In Biscayne ~atlonal gark (1978e, b). Nost "aportantly, tile Park I"ep,. ... nts the only secto,. of the manag .... nt a,.ea and p.rhaps the wo,.ld, whe,.. all of the data necessary fO,. cal culatlng ~SY have be.n collected. 'el"e a,.e currently no special regulations fo" the Pa,.k. General regulations In Title 36 of the Code of Federal Reguiatlons apply to all units of th. natlonalpa,.k syst .... Tltl.36 Includes Part 2 on public u" and recreation, Part 3 concerning boating and vessel pennlts, Part 5 on cOllII'8l"clal and pri vate operations, and Part 7-on special regulations. Looe Key ~atlonal ~al"ln. Sanctuary Loce Key HAPC has been recogn I zed by the Department of Canllllrce (OCZ"') as an Outstand 1"9 examp Ie of a submerged coral I" .. f In the lower Florida r .. f tract. The 5m2 sanctuary area Is located 12.4 km (6.7 nm) southwest of Big Pine Key, Florida (se. Figures 6-4 and 6-7). Fran an ecological and topographic point of vi., five major zonas have been described by Antonius, et al. (1978): I) a patch reef area; 2) a I" .. f flat; 3) a forel""'; 4) a deep reef .... al"d of the fOl"e,.eef; and 5) a deep ridge stll I further .. award. Each of these zones contains a representative coral specl .. as ... blage. Of particular significance, the fOl"el"aef zone contains a spectacular spur and gl"OO¥e syst ... that Is among the best examples In the entlr. Florida reef tract (Antonius, et al., 1978). In order to protect the reef's resources the follOWing actlvltl .. are prol'llblted: taking 0" dalllllge to sanctuary resources, Including tropical fish and corals; speal"flshlng; using wire fish traps, poisons, 01" electric charges; littering; and lobster trapping within the fOl"el"aef area of the Sanctuary. The reef is a diving attraction rapljly growing In popularity with both local residents and tourists (Sarada, 1979). Concurrently, It is subject to growing pressure fran souvenir hunters and anchor damage (.~ntonlus, et al., 1978). The reef Is also used regularly for teaching and recreational pur poses by the Newfound Harbor ~arlne Institute facility on Big Pine Key. Th. I" .. f was naninated for consideration as a marine sanctuary (see Section 6.4) In November 1976 by the Florida Keys Citizens Coalition and was subsequently de~l;nated as such In 1981. Dry TOl"tugas (Fo,.t Jefferson National Monument) Located at the sout~estel"n tip of the Florida reef tract, this HAPC Includes the Fort Jeffel"SOn National ~onument, with apPI"OKlmately 26,166 ha (64,657 acres) of water area (Figures 6-4 and 6-8). Although It may be an Ideal destination for recreational divers and tourists, because of the area's r8llOteness (116 km or 63 III w.st of the nearest port at Key West), the reef resources make up one of the most spectacular and le •• t disturbed reef areas In south Florida. Between 1904 and 1937, the Carnegie Institute maintained a marine research labo,.atory on Loggemead Key, thereby plon .. rlng coral I" .. f studies. ~any of the studies conducted on the neighboring reefs have becane classics contributing greatly to our present understanding of coral I"e.f ecology. Rec:ently, the benthic me,.ln. habitats of tne ~onument have been mapped (see Figure 6-6). Some of the mere cammon I" .. f corals at spe~lflc r .. fs within the ~onument have be.n described by Davis (1977a, b). A field guld. to the I"e.fs was written by Qavis (1977b). Fort Jeffe!"SOn National ~nument Is admi~lstered und.1" a set of special regulations plus th. general National Park Sel"Vlce regulations listed above for the Blscayn. National ~onument HAPC. Relevant special regulations for the ~onument, as described In 36 CFR Chapter 1, Part 7.27, are: (a) fishing - "no species of coral, shells, shellfish, seafan, sponges, se. ananon .. 01" other fonns of marin. life ••• shal I be taken 01" disturbed ••• except In accordance with pal"egl"aphs (a) (2) to (7) ••• " The paragraphs cl ted are being redrafted and/or eliminated such that the only permissible consumptive use of ~onument resources wll I be recreational hook and line 6-28 • \ BISCAYNE BAY I ,.:"t:.» , ( IS ..... II., L Oltlll II •• tIII. II., 'ISCAYNIf NATIONAL [111.1f II., \ 1I0NUMfNI 80U1tOARY ~ REEf AREAS ) '* ANCHOR aUOY I Q * II 121 f ~:F!P". / .... : L.. if IJ 0 CO" a \' - ~ -"" 1),0 .. " -- ~-- -. * v ~ " ., -• --~---.A o "", .. .. .... * o / ~ ./,.,..CifiC R •• f (/' a tt' r' ........ II ... , -~ .kAI'. AH, ~Lo"'"'" - -------- - ------ --- --- "- - - -- ~ l, , -- : ......... FlGUR£ 6-6. - Reefs 1n the 8iscayne National Park boundary. .. & UTTLE TORCH / NEWFOUND HARSOR KEYS --' /' "" /---......... ."",. -. ""'-" ----. ) / /'" ,8 HAWK CHANNEL /------- / / (Looe Key not to scale) ~" --.... -- ......... ~~\--=-:~I ."..."""'" ... 30 .",."" 'Z. 0 Q .-""""' "",..."""'" ,. . "".. " ----", ~ ...- - - STRAITS OF. FLORIDA Figure 6-7 Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary. .,. 6-30 N . • • , / ~--~--.-------.;: .. /. "" .' -' - ---- -10'''----~ . . ,~~ " " ~. " ~v~ .' ~ ,'''~.~;?tt ' r .~ ----7~ ',., ~ -~ ". / . ... . /'" , ""J, , , l " \V ~,' .. ". /·W\.~~~WffIIM ,,~,~- .,./~ '\., / KEY ',,- // (l / ~9~~'!!~!~ .. ~~.~~r / ", / " '. '-"-..., /,/ >; ~"""""'''''III'''''''I'''''''..J'''''''J' '''''' .... ' ••• 11.1, •• It·;.::t.;·31 '· .... 1 .... ,'Il'" ........ "" •• , EiiiiI ~ ............. ,,' ,,,,, ....... ,,""'1 ...... I .. ,. .......... "j .... ', ••. , " . -~ , // ~!~~~ ~UHOA"t O~2 /r-------~\ - / .... ", - .. ~., ... ," ... II ... ' •• , .• " ............. I.' ... ' ...... " ........ . c:=::J ....... , ., ..... , ... ' .. 01. "."tl.. ...... /, / / < .... . -, " ""'" 2' FIGURE 6-8. Outer contInental shelf resource management map, coral distribution, fort Jefferson Uational Monument, The Dry Tortugas (after map published by OU1, DeS Office, New Orleans, 1979). (b) designated anchorage - "all ~ssels entering Tortugas Harbor In tne vicinity of ~arden Key shal I anchor only In the designated ancnorage area of Bird Key Harbor southwest of ~arden ~ey ••• Anchoring by recreational ~ssels Is limited to not more tnan eight hours between sunrise and sunset by permission from the Monu~nt Superintendent or his/her representatl~." Northern LI~ ~tom Coral Habitats North of ~Iaml, Florida, coral dl~rslty and abundance fall abruptly. LI~ bottom communities wltn hermatypiC corals and gorgonlans can be found as far north as Cape Lookout, North Carolina, altnough coral abundance does not approach the dominance displayed In the Florida r .. f tract (see Figure 6-9). The stony corals which mey extend north Include species of Ocullna, Phyllangla, Solenastrea, Cladocora, Astrangla, and Siderastrea. Between ~Iaml and Cape Lookout, thr .. sites ha~ been considered as HAPCs; Ocullna benks off central eastern Florida, Gray's Reef off Georgia and' ~n unnamed II~ bottom off 30gue Bank In Onslow Bay off North Carolina. Howe~r, Onslow Bay has not been listed as a HAPC at tnls time due to a lack of site-specifiC Information. The area may be reconsidered as more data are collected. Ocullna Bank A 9O-mlle shelf-edge strip of coral reefs Is located off central eastern Florida and Is compoSed of banks, thickets, and rubble zones of the scleractnlan Ocullna ~rlcosa (l¥Ory tr .. coral). This fragile, branching stony coral forms massl~ contiguous colonies In deeper water (70 to 100 m) where In snallow water It forms only smel I, discrete colonies (Reed, 1980b). The shelf-edge Ocullna r .. fs are a unique ecosystem. They are monospeclflc, comprised of a single species of colonial coral, and form delicately branched bushes 1.5 m In height, hundreds of feet long, and co~rlng nil Is and pinnacles with 25 ~ relief. These are the only known benks compoSed of monospeclflc colonial coral that occur on tne continental shelf (200 m depth) anywhere In the United States (Reed, 1982). This bank or r .. f system has only recently been dlsco~red. Oense and dIverse populations of fishes and In~rtebrat8S (Reed, et al., In press) are associated with the Ocullna. The area supports a substantial but unquantlfled recreational and commercial fishery for grouper, sea bass snapper, and other fishes (Reed, 1982). The HAPC Is a 23 by 4 nm strip located approximately 15 nm off snore at Its nearest point (see Figure 6-10). Its depth ranges fra. approximately 30 fathoms to 75 fat~ms. This 92 nm2 area Is bounded by latitude 27· 53' N to latitude 27· 30' N and longitude 79· 56' w to longitude 80· 00' W and contains representatl~ shelf-edge Ocullna benks, mejorOcullna thickets, and coral rubble pinnacles. In a relatively new fIshery for bottom reef fIsh, trawlers are utilizIng roller trawls to take fIsh off rough bottoms. Although such trawls are subject to damage and loss If used In hIgh relelf areas. tney are apparently beIng used In close proxImIty to the banks and can damage the habItat and corals In hard bottoms. In order to protect the corals the use of al I bottom trawls, bottom longllnes, dredges and fish traps and pots Is pronlblted within the HAPC. Gray's R .. f National ~arlne Sanctuary Gray's Reef, located about 33 km EIB nm) off Sapelo Island on the Georgia coast (see Figures 5-4 and 6-9) has been recognized by tne Oepartment of Com~rce (OCZM) as an outstanding example of northern II~ bottom habitat by Its deSignation as a National Marine Sanctuary. Although referred to as a 6-32 FIGURE 6-9. Hard-bottom areas which may support live-bottom communities and re ported live-bottom areas. Source: Bureau of Land Management, 1978. LEGEND • Reported Live Bot tom Areas . P~~sible Live B0ttom Ar~as ~ Inner Bank mJ ~liddle Bank ~ Outer Bank ... , SOUTH C;'RCL': :A I! .~ \, ~ ~ ~ ~~. ' \ - 1 "; 'ea~! \! \ ,; ~' ,taMAIICltAI..;\ '\ ',' 'I . \ • : I \ \ , " \ \ !\JCR~H C .F\C"~ ''''~A • .:.....-1. . ... J A B FLORIDA E ~ l-iIDDLE GROUNDS'/ ~ c HAP~ GULF OF l1EXICO N I FIGURE 6-10. Florida Middle Grounds And Oculina Banks As HAPes FLORIDA .,. - .. / "'~ ---~,&' / J. 2f so "~ .. t," the 20 m (65 ttl deep a~ee Is actually a II~ bottom composed of a se~les of ~OCkt ~idges ~unnlng In a south.est-no~theast dl~ectlon and co~~lng an a~ea ot abOut 57 km2 (16.68 n~). Among the benthOS at the sIt. a~e scatte~ed heads ot stony co~als and a ~~Iety of soft co~als. rhe site Is vIsIted only occasIonally by scIentIsts, SCUBA dl~~s and comme~clal and spo~t flsne~men, and Is ~ela­ tl~ly poo~ly known (Po~te~. 1979, pe~sonal communIcatIon). The most autno~ltatl~ desc~lptlon of the II~ bottom was e~epa~ed by Hunt (1974) on tne geology and o~lgln of tne a~ea. The 3e~gla Oepa~tment of Natu~al Resou~ces, la~gely based on Info~matlon p~esented ~y Hunt, nominated tne a~ea as a natIonal ma~lne sanctua~y (Neuhause~. 1979), and it was desIgnated as such in 1981. In the 57 kmf (16.68 nmf) a~ea bottom alte~atlon actIvItIes, t~awllng and d~edglng, fish t~aps, 5nd collectIon of ma~lne plants, In~~tebrates, t~oplcal fIsh, and nlsto~lc o~ cultu~al ~esou~ces a~e to be cont~olled by pe~mlts .•. Tne status QUO activItIes of anchol"'lng and. spea~flsnlng a~e to be monito~ed fo~ futu~e conslde~atlon. Otne~ fisnlng activities a~e to be ~egulated unde~ plans de~loped by tne Soutn Atlantic FIshe~y Management :ouncl I. Flo~ida Middle G~ounds The FJo~lda ~iddle G~ounds Is a II~ na~d bottom a~ea located on tne outer edge of the contInental snelf In tne eastern Gulf of Mexico. It is approximately 160 km (87 nm) .est-northwest of Tampa and 140 km (76 nm) south-soutneast of Cape San 31as, Flo~lda (see Flgu~. 6-10). The Florida I4lddle Grounds Is the best known .and most Important area In terms of coral In tne north east.rn Gulf of ~xlco. The dominant stony co~als Include Mad~acls decactls, P~lt.s dl~rlcata, Dlocnocoenla stel la~ls, Dlchocoenla stokes I I. Octocorals, a ~elatl~ly mInor component of otner Gulf ~eefs, a~e promin.nt on th .... iddl. G~ounds; domInant forms Include Mu~lcea .Iongata (orang. "'u~lcea). Mu~lc.a laxa (delicate Mu~lcea), Eunicea calyculata (warty Eunlcea) and Plexaura flexuosa (sea ~Od), Hopkins, et al. (1977). ~ec~.atlonal actlvltl.s a~e limited by the distance from shore. Although ~equl~lng at least a tWO-day t~lp to ~each tne Florida Middl. G·~ounds and ~eturn, enthusiastic spo~t fishe~men and ~ecreatlonal dl~~s na~ been ~epo~ted to f~equent tne a~ea. Tnls a~ea Is f~equented by comme~clal fishing boats. Primary fish species In~1 ~d include·tne ~ed snappe~ and g~oupe~ wnlch dominate tne landings and ~Iue of landings of Gulf of Mexico ~eef flsn. T~e bounda~y of tne a~ea Identified as a habitat a~ea of pa~ticular conce~n Is defined in Section 12.4, measu~e 5b and contains the majo~ area of ni3n ~ellef bottom (see Fi;u~e 6-10). Tne Flo~ida ~Jddle G~oundS w.~e nomInated as a ma~ine sanctua~y but no fu~tne~ action nas yet been taKen. rne 9LM has IdentifIed as "no actIvity a~eas" fo~ oi I and gas explo~ation and de~lopment a~eas In tne no~the~n po~tion of tnls HAPC. One management measu~e Is ~ecommended: Within the HAPC, tne use of bottom longlines. t~aps and pots, and bottom t~awls Is p~ohibit.d. rha taking of all co~als Is p~ohlblted except as autno~IZed by permit. 6.4 Habitat P~ot.ctlon P~og~ams This section desc~lbes existIng habitat ~~otection p~og~ams that a~e acti~ly utilizing tn.l~ autno~i­ ties to provIde some fo~m of p~otection to~ :orals .Ithin thei~ respecti~ management units (e.g., pa~ks, p~ese~~s, sanctuaries, etc.l. rne ~~og~ams wnlch a~e conslde~.d in detail include: 1) the tede~al OffIce of Coastal Zone .... anagernent's ."'a~ineSanctua~les ~~og~am; 2) th. NatIonal Pa~k Se~vice's 6-35 0\ , W 0\ • • ... ~ .. lin I ••• ,-, a ........ ' .............. ,1°' I.' ......... . •• toIA.", .................... , .................... . ...... ............. ','A', .......... ". I".' ...................... " ''' .. ' .................... . ~I.I. I'.... • ... .... II' I" .... ,' ................. " IN ........ " ........ ', ...... '., "'1'&'. to ."", ........... I ................. I,,'UI. 11,,\ "1"1 • ,., ................ I'''' ........... CIiM ....... . ...... .... ••• D •• • .... ,,' ", .., ..... '.0 .................... . •• ~ ....... " III ,., ... I •••• " II', '10" ."11 •• --. ......... 10 ••••. ,I' ...... . ... , ...... -.. , ............ . • ••• 6. ... 1, '" ...... .......... • .......... I. UI.' • ••• ''\1 "., .............. . FLORIDA ~ ~Q ,," .y de Cc~ 11\ ,,~ c, o 10 30 JO L--..L... .' '- . ... 111 , ... 40 , so -' FI~URE 6-11. Ilabitat manaq~~nt authorities and associated proqrams associated with the Florida Reef Tract (after Shinn. 1979b). National Parks and National MOnuments; J) the Bureau of Land ~anagement's Outer Continental Shelt Leasing Prograa. 4) the Florida Aquatic Preser¥8 System; and 51 tne Florida State Park System. ~he discussion presented below for each of these programs emphasizes the specific ettorts they are takIng on behalf of coral habitat protection Interests within the current fishery management area juriSdiction. In the Florida Keys area, many of these Individual program management eftorts, as wei I as general coral protection proviSions administered by the State of Florl'da (see Section 7.4) and the U.S. 9ureau of Land Management (se. Section 7.3), Interface to form a complex patchwork of geographical Iy-~rlable management restrictions for coral. The geographic distribution of the ~rlous management authoritIes has been reviewed by Shinn (19791 and Is Illustrated In Figure 6-11. In addition to the area-specific management programs, a ~rlety of oth.r federal, state and Inter national authorities ha~ a significant though less focused coral habitat protection role and are discussed In Sections 7.1, 7.2, 7.J, and 7.4. Federal Programs: National ~arlne Sanctuaries Program In terms of complementing the protection objectl~s ot the coral fishery management plan trom a sit .. specific perspectl~, one of the most Important federal programs Is undoubtedly the Office ot Coastal Zone ~anagement's (OCZM) National ~arlne Sanctuaries Program. ThIs program was authorized under TItle III of the ~arlne Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) ot 1972. Its purpose Is to preser~ or restore the conservation, recreational, ecological, or aesthetic ~Iues of localized areas " ••• as tar seaward as the outer edge of the continental shelf, ••• [and In! other coastal waters whether the tide ebbs and tlows ••• " (MPRSA, Section J02a). In effect, the National Marin. Sanctuaries Program I~ a coastal water counterpart to the more tamillar national park, torest wildlife refuge, and wllder"e. systems. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (OCZM's parent organization) has made a tlrm com mitment based on expressed Presld~ntlal support (see text of President Carter's May 23. 1977, Environmental message) to expand program efforts to deSignate and manage new sanctuaries. At the time of this writing, six sanctuaries ha~ been deSignated, four of which are In the Coral FMP management area. Of particular Interest to the Coral FMP, conSideration of new sanctuaries begins with a nomina t/on that mey originate frOM a ~rlety of sources, Including Regional Fishery Management :ounclls and National ~arlne Fisheries Service. Following prescribed e~lu.tlon sttps. Including public hearings, a sanctuary environmental Impact statement, consultation with Interested parties, go~rnmantal and Presidential approval. an IndivIdual sanctuary management plan Is fInalized and 1~lemented. Significantly, management aspects can ~ry widely among different merlne sanctuaries with each designation receiving Individual tr .. tment. Title III of the MPRSA provides clear authority to manage and control uses within sanctuary boundaries that are Incompatible with the sanctuary's recognized ~Iues. As part of the Indlvldua' attention accorded each deSignation, a separate set of sanctuary-specific regulations are tailored to the protection .nNets of each 51eslgnated iIIr .... Regulations are placed ~on those activities within the sanctuary boundaries judged to be Incompatible with the sanctuary's purpose. Actual site management and admlnlst~atlve responsibility for a particular sanctuary mey either be ~etalned by OCZM or delegated .Ith necessary funding support to other appropriate menagement units that could Include the Regional Fishery Management CouncilS. The National Marine Sanctuary Program Is pa~tlcularly Interested I" protecting outstandl"9 coral ~eet areas. One of the six existing sanctuaries - the Key Largo Coral~ .. f National !ttIarlne Sanctuary oft Key Largo, Florida, - complements state efforts at John Pennekamp State Park by protecting a 343 6-37 .;z. CIOO ,.,,2) section of the uppe,. Flo,.'da r .. f tract. A. manag nt plan fo,. the Key Largo sanctuary has be.n designed to p,.ovld. the protection necessary to Ins .... long-t.".. viability of the .cOlystan. Th. manag nt plan also add,. ... s public education, .!Wlromental monitoring and regulatory enforca mental monlto,.'ng and "egulatory .nfo,.C8IIIent needs at the site. Enfo,.c .... nt Is conducted c~.rat'v.'y by the Flo,.lda Oepartlllent of Natu,.al R.sources (~arlne Patrol and Park Rang.rs) and the U.S. Coast Guard. A. d.epwat.,. resource surv.y at K.y Largo Coral R •• f National ~arl ne Sanctuary conducted '" March and June, 1979, accurat.,y mapped the .xt.nt of d.epwat~r coral and qualltatlv.ly Inv.ntorled the resource (OCZM, 1979<:). Th. Gray's R •• f National Marl n. Sanctuary, cov.rl ng 16.68 rwWZ of IIv. bottQIII r •• f located 18 nm ott Sap.lo Island, G.orgla, was d.slgnated In January, 1981, to maintain and protect the Ilv. bottQIII eco syst .. In Its natural stat •• to promote scl.ntlflc und.rstandlng of the ecological nature and th.rol. of th. acosyst .. and the functional relationships of live bottQIII areas throughout the south Atlantic, to on. anoth.r and th. marl n. and coastal .cosyst .. s of the region. and to pra.)t. public apprecl atlon and .15. use of regionally slgnl flcant I I v. bottQIII resources (OCZ~, 19808). A. manag nt plan wll I soon be d.v.'op.d to guld. eHorts In resource protect Ion through manag .... nt, r ... arch, education and regulatory .nforcement, and to .ns .... maximum public ben.flt frQIII this national ~rlne sanctuary. Tne Loce Key National Marine Sanctuary, covering a 5 nrrfZ coral reef a,.ea located 6.7 ,.. east of Big PlneK.y, Florida, was designated In January, 1981, to maintain, P,.otect and .nhanc. the quality of tne natural, biological, a .. thetlc and cultural resources of the Loce Key syst .. , to promote and stlmulat. marine research .Horts directed toward Improv.d manag .... nt declslo""aklng and Identification and analysis of marine ecological Interrelationships, and to enhance public awa,..n.ss of th. func tIoning of the Looe K.y coral re.f systan (OCZ~, 1980b). A management plan fo,. th.sanctuary wll I soon be d.v.loped to provld. direction toward fulfil ling thes. sanctuary purpos.s. Oth.r management areas containing coral reefs und.r consld.ratlon as act Iv. candidates for sanctuary designation by the National Marin. Sanctuary Program include Flower Garden Banks In the nortl1w.st.rn Gulf of M.xlco; .at.,.s south.ast of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands; wat.,. a,.ound Mona and Monlta Islands, Puerto Rico; the ar .. off southwest Pu.rto Rico known as La Pa"guera; and the wat.rs around Cul.bra and Cul.brlta Islands and the Cordi I I.ra reef chain off nortl1w.st Puerto Rico. The purpose of the proposed Flow.r Gard.n Banks sanctuary Is " ••• to protect and pr ... rv. th. bankS' ecosystans In th.lr natural stat. and to regulat. us.s within the sanctuary to Insur. the h.alth and •• II-belng of the coral and associ ated flora and fauna and the continued availability of th. ar .. as a recr .. tlonal and research resouree ••• " (OCZM. 1979a). The activities proposed for regulation address, among others, dell berate ha".. of cora I, dredgl ng, tr .. 11 ng and 011 and gas op.rat Ions. Th. purpose of the proposed St. Thomas sanctuary Is to cons.rv. sanctuary resourc.s I n a manner can paTlbl. with tn. National Ma,.'n. Sanctuary Program goals and obj.ctlv.s In ord.r to maintain, p,.otect and .nhanc. the quality of the ar .. 's biological, aesth.tlc, and cultu,.al resou,.ces; to .ncourag. scl.ntlflc r ... arch within the sanctuary fOCUSed on management-r.lated questions and .nhanc ... nt of knowledge of the ar .. 's natural systans; to enhance national and local awar.n .. s of the slgnlflcanc. of the marin. r.-ourees within the proposed sanctuary; to .ncourag. wis. us. of thes. resourc.s; and to promote und.rstandlng of the rol. of th. National A4a,.'n. Sanctuary Program In ma,.lne cons.rvatlon. The proposed ar.a Is extr ... 1 y Important to recr .. t lonal, can,.rcl ai, and educat Ion use", off.rl ng a un·Jque ar .. for avarl.ty of .at.l"-related interests. The thr" Pu.rto Rican sites ar. proposed for sanctuary status for the purpose of protecting the resou,.ces within the cont~ of a compreh.nslv. management framework. Management objectlv.s have y.t to be d.v.lop.d for these sit ... NatIonal ParkS and Monuments Another site-specific management program with applicability to coral protection Is the syst .. of 6-38 netlona. parkS and monuments operated by the Netlonal Park Service (NPS) within the Department of InterIor. In the broedest tenws, the purpose of the NPS units are to " ••• preserve for al I times scenlc beauty, .'IO-rness, native wildlife, Indigenous plant life and areas of sclentltlc significance and antiquity .o.~ (16 U.S.C il). Although the National Park Systan Includes several marine areas, their distinctly land-baSed orientation makes them somewhat lesS likely to Include new marine areas within their systan. Nevertheless, two areas operated by the NPS within the present study area Include and manage significant coral resources - the Biscayne National ~ark nortn of Key largo, florida, and tne Fort Jeffe~n National ~nument In the Dry Tortugas, Florida. Both the statement for management for the Fort Jefferson National ~nument (U.S. National ~ark ServIce, 1977), and the general management plan for Biscayne National Park (U.S. National Park Service, 1978), Include as major management objectives the protection of nat~al resources (Including corals) within their boundaries. At the Fort Jefferson Monument, al I areas within the Monument's adminIstrative boundaries (with the exception of Garden Key), are classltled as an outstanding natural area under the National Park Service's land classification system. Prohibited activities Include com mercial fishing and the taking of lobsters while allowed uses Include sport fiShing and non consumptive recreational act Ivltles. Under NPS management, the coral· resources at the Fort Jefferson National Monument appear to be wei I protected (Jaap, 1979, personal communication). Accoralng to the general menagement plan, Biscayne Park Is ".GO designed to facilitate the existing recreation activities In a compatible manner with the physical and biotic environment, and (tol pro vide mechanisms for detecting areas of existing or potential environmental degradatiOn" CU.S. ~atlonal Park ServIce, 1978). Recognizing that recreational use often creates a certain level of coral damage, some of the management provisions at this Monument Include: I) monitoring to detect destruction of , area at early stages (to al low Initiation of corrective measures); 2) Improvement of monument boun dary, channel, and depth warning markers at critical locations; 3) establishment of activity areas, 4 enforcement of regulations prohibiting tropical tlsh collecting and "pot hunting" (ranoval of areneologlcal artifacts); 5) the establishment of mooring stations near corals to reduce anenor damage. and 6) establlshll8nt of monitoring stations to detect natural flucuations In envlrol1lMtntal factors Such as temperature, salinity and wind. In addition, special studies are planned In coopera tion with the State of Florida to determine what types of comlll8rclal and sport fishing .111 be allowed, In what magnitude, and what regulatory actions wll' be necessary. Outer Continental Shelf oli and Gas Leaslns The Secretary of the DepartMent of Interior (001) Is charged with administering minerai exploration and development on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), pursuant to the Outer Continental Shelf LandS Act (OCSLA), as amended In .978 (43 U.S.C SI331 et seq.). This responsibility has been delegated to· two offices within the Department: the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the U.S. Geological Survey ("USGS). The BLM serves as the administrative agency for leasing submerged federal lands while the USGS Is charged with supervising minerai development operations on the OCS. Of partIcular Interest to this coral FMP is the Secretary of InterIor's ability to withdraw tracts fran proposed OCS mineraI lease sales for lack ot Information, aesthetic, envlrol1ll8ntal, geologiC, or other reasons. The presence of coral reefs~ ~ara bottoms, or other marine areas containing sl;nlfl cant resources could be reasons for withdrawing tracts. Further, the OCSLA.(4l U.S.C SI34., also pro vides for permanent disposition tram leaSing; ~ey Largo coral reef was provided such protection by President Eisenhower, through Proclamation No. 3339 (55 CFR 2552) which established the ~ey largo Coral Reef Preserve on Marcn 17, 1960. This disposition served as a precursor to the present <ey Largo Coral Reef Marine Sanctuary. (BLM's coral permitting authority under the OCSLA Is not :~n­ sldered a site-specific habitat protection program and Is Instead discussed under Section 7.3). WITh respect to all and gas tract .ithdrawal, BlM has demonstrated an awareness and Interest In pre 6-39 servIng co,.. I c~nltl. and oth.,. sIgnifIcant ,.esou,.c:es. Sev.,.., potentIal lease t,.acts naal"at8d by all caaPlnl .. hav. been .Ithd,.awn due to the p,. ... nc. of signIficant bottom habitats, Including sane contaIning co,..,. Fo,. .. ~I., the Sec,..tary of I nt.,.,o,. ,.ej.ctld 011 canpany bidS for a tract off the Geor-gla coast (T,.act 141) In the 1978 South AtlantIc OCS Sal. 143. Th. d.letlon was based on the pe,.c.'ved n ... to p,. .. rv. a "II v. bottolll comlllUn I ty" (I.e., ha,.d bottolll) doa"mentld to .x 1st th.r .. Slmlla,.,y, recent OCS sales In the Gulf of M.-Ico have prohlbltld drll lIng directly over s.ve,.al coral-.ncnusted ha,.d banks located on salt domes, I"cludlng ar.as dll"'ectly ov.r the East and West Flower Gal"'den aa~ks (Bu"eau of Land Management, 1981). Furth~I"', BLM I.ase stipulations requIre that drll ling op.r"'tlons adjac.nt to th.se banks must shunt th.l,. drll ling dlscha"g.s directly to the bottom neph.'old (a dens. wat.r mass of high turbidity) lay.,. to minimize pot.ntlal Impacts 'I"'an surface dlscha"ges that might otherwls. affect bank corals and oth.r blink biota. Th. S.c,..tary of Interlo~'s ability to d.l.te I.ase t,.acts f,.om 011 and gas dev.'opment and 9lM's ability to "equll"'e cer"'tal" d,.l/ling techniques which mlnlmlz •• nvll"'orrnental damage through leas. sti~ ulatlons repl"'es.nt an Impo,.tant OCS habitat protection autho,.lty fa,. p,.otectlng localized coral habitats. Furth.r, the USGS must ensure 011 company canpllance with regulations and I.as. stipulations onc. a lease Is sold, also ,.epres.nts a key management authority fo,..ensur-Ing protection of coral canlllUnltles. ."though these authorities are not comprehenslv., they a,.. significant because of the wld.spread Int.rest In cur,..nt OCS 011 and gas d.v.lopment and Its pot.ntlal Impact on corals. State Programs B.cause sl3nlflcant coral canlllUnltles within state waters appear to be Ilmltld to the southel"'nmost por"'tlons of Flol"'lda, d.talled discussion of slt~specl flc stat. prog,..s Is IImltld to those actually protecting coral habitat In FI~rlda. Th. p"og".s Id.ntlflld to be of primary conc.rn Include the stat.'s Aquatic p,.es.rve and Pal"'k Systtllls. Florida Aquatic P,..set'v. System By special leglslatlv. action, the Flo,.lda Aquatic PI"'es.rv. Act of 1975 (Flo,.lda Statut .. , S.ctlons 258.35-258.44) was c,..atld to .stabllsh a direct means of p.t'IIIIn.ntly pres.rvlng submerg.d, stat~ owned lands. Th. Act d.flned an aquatic pr.s.v. as a "biologically, aesthetically or scientifically •••• xceptional a,. .. of submerged lands and Its assoclatld waters set asld. for maintaining the area essentially In Its natural or .xlstlng condition" (Florida Statutes, Sections 258.37-258.38). ·The Aquatic p,.es.rves cr.atld und.r this Act Include only lands and water bottollls owned by the state (Florida Statut.s, Section 253.03) and oth.r lands or wat.r bottoms that another gov.Mmment ag.ncy might authol"'lze fo,. preservation. No pr'vat.'y owned lands or wat.r bottoms are Included In the Act unl.ss by special agl"' .... nt .Ith that prlvat. owner. Other specific .xcluslons f,.om the Aquatic P"es.rves al"'e a,.el5 alte,." by chann.1 malnt.nance ot oth.rpubllc wol"'ks p,.ojects and, lastly, lands lost by artlflcally Induced .rcalon. Th. Aquetlc P,.es.rv. Syst .. Is admlnlst.red by the Flo,.lda Department of ~atlonal Resourc.s. LImitations on usage (dIscussed In S.ctlon 258.42 of the Florida Statutes) cont,.ol: sal., I.ase, and transfe,. of p,. ... rv. lands; wat.r r.'ocatlon or bulkheadlng; dredgIng 0" til ling .except a raqull"'ed minImum; drll lIng tor all or gas; or mln.ral excavatIon. Prlvat. own.rs borderIng t~e preserve I"'.taln c.rtaln rIparian rIghts to construct docks and protect th.lr shor.'ln., If those actions a,.. deamed nec.ssary. Although eec:n p,. ... rv. was to have Its own set of I"'ules and "egulatlons to protect water quality and aquatic "esources, no pr ... rv. rul.s have y.t been d.v.loped. In process, ho.ever, a,.. rules fol'" the Biscayne Bay Aquatic Pr ... rv. which could provld. a prototypes.t of I"'ules tor oth.r designated pr ... rv.s. 6-40 Th. original Florida Aquatic Pres.rv.s Act of 1975 outlined boundaries for 31 Aqua?lc Preserves. Although Il1051' of these ar. In Inshor. wat.rs, such as rivers and estua,.les, ocean arMS may also be Included. At I.ast thr .. pres.rves In the Florida Keys probably Include coral habitats - the Coupon Bight AquatiC Pres.rv. adjac.nt to and south of Big Pin. K.y, Florida; Llgnumvlta. K.y AquatIc Pres.rv. to the south of K.y Largo, Florida; and Blscayn. Bay Aquatic Preserve In Biscayn. 8ay, Florida. Florida Stat. Park System Th. relevanc. of the Stat. Park System Is due principally to the John Pennekamp Coral Reef State ?ark on and off Key Largo, Florida. This outstanding park adjacent to Key Largo Coral Reef ~arlne Sanctuary contains slgnlf"lcant coral reef habitats. The John Pennekamp Stat. Park was established In 1959 and Includ.s ov.r 125 ~ (36 nm2) of state waters. Other SIte Specific Protection Programs Finally, In addition to the above listed active habitat protection efforts, sev.ral other governmental programs which could or might be expected to have relevant arM specific coral protection authorities have also been considered: state Natural Area Programs; the Outstanding Florida Water System, the federal Estuarine Sanctuaries Program .. Ithln the Office of Coastal Zone Manag nt; tl'le Geographic Areas of ?artlcular Concern segment of developing state Coastal Zone Manag nt Programs; National Wildlife Refuges operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife S.\Vlce; and the National Natural Landmarks Program administered by the National Park Service. State Natural Area Programs have not been considered In detail becaus., with the exception of Florida no significant coral communities have been identified In any other state waters. Th. Florida Outstanding Florida waters classification, which took effect January 1,1979, Is the n .. est ~uatlc protection Initiative mandated by the state of Florida. Since waters so designated presently Include only surface waters within existing national and state parks, monuments. aquatic preserves, recreation areas. environmentally endangered lands, and similar systems. and slnc. It is stll I too .arly to pro ject how this new classification might relate to coral protection. It Is not discussed In detail. Several estuarine sanctuaries have be.n considered and established along the coast of the current management jurisdiction. Estuaries however are not typically suitable sites for extensive coral communities. Thus. the r.l.vance of estuarln. sanctuary designations wll I be limited primarily to the extent that they can Improv. or asslre high quality coastal wat.r dralnag. and not th.lr ability to pres.rv. specific ~uatlc habitats. High quality coastal drainage Is Important so as to reduce pollu tion stress to coastal op.n .at.r marine habitats Including important coral habitats. As mentioned abov •• the only stat. In the management area bellaved to have jurisdiction ov.r Important coral habitat areas Is Florida. Th. coastal zone management progran of the state. now being restruc tured and redirected, has Ilmlt~ Its Identification of geographic arMS of particular concern to ar.as already established by the stat. legi3latur. (I •••• Aquatic Preserves. Stat. Wilderness Areas, . Areas of Critical State Concern, Envlronme~tal Iy Endangered Lands, and Coastal Shore Front Areas). "lone of these ar.as, ho.ev.r, Included special provisions to protect corals or coral habitats. Only the above mentioned Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserve and tne Florida Keys Areas of Critical State Concern contain coral habitats. Three National Wlldll'e Refug.s are located in the Florida Keys which undoubtedly contain coral habitats: the National K.y Oe.r Refuge, the Great White H.ron National Wildlife Refuge, and the Key West ~atlonal Wildlife Refug •• These areas are operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. These areas, however. rely on the coral permitting authority of the State of Florida to protect the corals (Shinn, 1979b). 6-41 Th. National Land .. rks Prog,. .. off.rs fed.ral gover,...nt protect Ion and preservat Ion of r-epresentatlve exalllpl.s of the nation's natural history. Landllllrks may be eltner land or water baSed. rn. progr-a/II seeks "to encourage the preservation of araas that II lustrata tne acologlcal and gaologlcal enar-actar of the United States, to enhance the educational and scientific value of tne araas tnus preserved. to strengthen cultural appreciation of natural history, and to foster a .Ider Intarest and concern In the conservation of the Nation's natural harltage" (U.S. Oepartment of the Interior. 1979). rhere ar-a presently no natural landmarks designated to preserve corals 41though many landmarkS do exist in tne management area states. 6-42 ) 7.0 FISHERY NANAGEMENT JURISDICTION, LAWS, 00 POLICIES 7.1 ManageMent Institutions 7.1.1 Inte~natlonal and Foreign Int~90v~nmental Ma~ltlme Consultative O~ganlzatlon (IMOO) IMOO was established p~suant to the Conven~lon on the Inte~n~tlonal ~a~ltlme Consultati~. Orgnlzatlon (9 U.S.f. 621) to perform an advisory ~ole on Issues concerning commarclal shippIng. It can, on an I nte~nat lonal bes I s, estab II sh meas~es on the rout I ng of 51'1 I ps and ~ecommand standa,.ds fo~ vesse I desIgn, constructIon, and ope,.atlon. IMOO may also function as an ove~see~ of Inte,.national conven tions and ag,.eenents on c~ma"clal shipping. The va,.lous standa~ds and conventions ove,. which I~ has autho,.lty may serve to "educe the Impacts of navi~atlonal actIvIties (e.g •• g,.oundlngs, vessel discha"ges) on co~al "esou~ces. Philippine p,.esldentlal Dec,.ee No. 1219 -- This Octobe,. 1977 dec~ .. , titled "Providing fo~ the Explo"atlon, Utilization, and Conservation of Co,.al Resou,.cesn, states that nthe gathe~lng, har vesting, collecting, and/o,. exporting of o,.dlnary co,.al Is prohibited ••• n with certaIn special exemp tions (Section 5). Exportation of p~eclous and seml-p~eclous co~als Is slmlla,.ly p,.ohlblted (Section 9.0). These p,.evlslons could g,.eatly affect the United States' co,.al ma,.ket since most co,.als a,.e Impo,.ted raw t,.om the Philippines (see Section 9.3). 7.1.2 Fede,.a I National Ma,.lne Flshe,.les Se,.vlce (NMFS), National Oceanic and Atmosphe,.lc Admlnlst,.atlon (NOAA) The Sec,.etary of Comma,.ce, acting th,.ough NMFS, has the ultimate autho,.lty to ap~ove 0,. disapprove all fishery management plans p,.epa,.ed by regional fishery management councils (FMCs) pursuant to the FCMA. ~FS has Issued regulations to guide the development of fishery plans and the ope,.atlon of regional FMCs. Whe,.e a FMC falls to develop a plan, 0,. co,.,.ect an unacceptable plan, the Sec,.etary may do so. ,...FS also collects dat-a and statistics on flshe,.les and flshennen as-an aid to fishery management. Off I ce of Coasta I Zone Management (OCZM), NOAA -- OCZ~ asserts author I ty ove" the management of co,.a Is th,.ough National Ma,.lne Sanctua,.les, p~suant to Title III of the Ma,.lne ~rot.ctlon, Resea,.eI'I, and Sanctua,.les Act. Within the management a~ea, p,. 01' ect ion of co,.al reefs, coo~dfnated t~ough OCZM, has been the prime motl~atlon In both the desl~natlon of the Key largo Coral qeef ~a~lne Sanctuary, G,.ay's Reef ~atlonal ~a~lne Sanctuary, and loce Key National ~a~lne Sanctuary and the nomInatIon (and conslde~atlonl of ocean a~ ... at the Flowe~ Ga,.den Banks off rexas. The OCZM Estua,.ine Sanctuary p"og,.am has designated Rookery Bay In Collie,. County, Flo,.lda, and nominated Apalachicola Rive~ and Bay In F,.ankll n County, Florida, as estuari ne sanctua,.les. lastl y, by setting standa,.ds fo" approvl ng and fundi ng state coastal zone management p"og,.ams, OCZN may f~the,. I nf I uence the prot.ct Ion of coral s. I n the management zone. Bu~eau of Land Management (BLM), Oepa,.tment of the Inte~lor (001) -- SlM's ju~ISdlctlon ove" the oute" continental shelf (OCS) and ove" co,.als, as a resou,.ce of the OCS, Is baSed ypan the Oute,. Continental Shelf lands Act, as amended In 1978. BlM required a permit fo,. any ope,.atlon which dl,.ectly cau54d hann to a viable co,.al community located on the OCS. In 1979 a Fede,.al cou,.t ruled that 9lM lacks authO,.lty to adopt regulations (to p,.otect co,.al) except In connection with mlne~al leasing activities on the oute,. continental shelf. BlM, along with the Sec,.etary of Inte,.lo,.. has In the past p,.ovlded further co"al p,.otectlon by wlthd,.~wlng lease tracts, fo,. environmental reasons, trom OCS 011 and gas development. Where OCS 011 and gas development joes t~e place, elM can attach lease stipulations to p,.otect co,.al communities. 7-1 \, United State' Geologica' Survey (USGS), 001 -- The USGS supervises al I drll ling development and pro duction operations on the OCS related to 011 and gas development. They seek to ensure that such operations are conducted In a manner as safe and pollution-free as possIble. NO exploratory drll ling or development may occur unless plans for such activity have been approved by USGS. USGS also enforces Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) regulations and BLM stipulatIons applicable to particular leases. AI I USGS juriSdiction Is pursuant to the OCSLA. National Park Service (NPS), 001 -- The NPS retains the authority to manage coral primarily through the establishment of coastal and nearshore national parks and national ~numents. The elscayne National ~ark and the Fort Jefferson National ~onument are two examples of ocean areas managed by the NPS o ~rotectlon of corals and associated biota are -.ong the manag.-nt goals In both monuments. Fish and Wildlife Service' (FWS), 001 -- The ability of the FWS to affect the management of coral is based primarily on the Endangered Species Act and the Flsn and Wildlife Coordination Act; alt~gn no coral species have been listed as endangered or threatened under tne Endangered Species Act. Under the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, the FWS reviews and comments on proposals for .ork and activi ties In or affecting navigable .aters that are sanctioned, permitted, assisted, or conducted by federal agencies. The review focuses mainly on potential damage to fish and .lldllfe, and their habitat. The FWS, Department ~anual 655-1, Is also Involved wltn BLM and USGS In outer continental shelf (OCS) leasing and 011 and gas operations In the environmental studies program; stipulations to protect hard banks, coral reefs, and other marine studies; and review of permits for OCS .el Is, pipelines, and platform Installations. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) -- EPA may provide protection to coral communities through the granting of ~atlonal ~ollutant ~Iscnarge Elimination System (NPDES) permits for the discharge of pollutants Into ocean waters, and the conditioning of those permits so as to protect valuable resources. For example, EPA has utilized Its author,lty to assure that OCS drll ling operations - activities .nlch may require a NPOES permit - do not damage the Flower Garden Banks. Consideration of &cosyst. Integrity In the granting of ocean dumping permits may also foster the protection of corals. Corps of Engln .. rs (COE), Department of the Army -- ODE juriSdiction over tne disposal of dredged material, pursuant to bOtn the Clean water Act and tne ~PRSA, could be exercised In a manner protec tive of coral resources. Proposals to dispose of materials during the construction of artificial reefs, for example, are assessed to assure that the dispoSed materials do not ;lOllute or physically alter the environment. United States Coast Guard (USCG), Department of Transportation (DOT) -- The Coast Guard's prime manage ment jurisdiction emanat .. fra. the Ports and Waterways Safety Act, as amended In 1978, under wnlcn It may regulat. snipping In tne waters offshore the U.S., In part, to protect the merlne environment. USCG may establish and operate Shipping lanes and other vessel traffic services, and also establish vessel design and opeatlon standards, al I of wnlch may attenuate the Impacts of commercial shipping on coral resources. Under various environmental statutes, Including the FCMA, USCG is charged .Ith enforc.nent responsibility to prevent damage to tne merlne environment. Also, the Coast Guard, along with EPA, administers the National 011 and ~azardous Substance Pollution Contlnency Plan. As part of that plan, USCG nas final authority over the procedures and equipment used to clean up 011 spills. The USCG is also responsible for enforcing BLM and NOAA regulations discussed below In Sections 7.3.1 through 7.3.5, 7.3.7, 7.3.10 and 7.3.15 through 7.3.17. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), DOl, and Customs Service (CS), Treasury Department -- A special ~nage­ ment Institution Involving the Customs Service of the U.S. Department of Treasury and the Fish and ~iidllfe Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior coordinates the Importation of corals. ~egulatlons have been Implemented concerning duty percentages for various products and legal ports of entry, among other subjects. 7-2 7.1.3 S1'a1'e. Adjacent to each state Ithln the management area. other than Florida. al I known .~.nslye domestIc coral r.sources (.xcludlng solitary corals - see Tabl. 5-1) are found beyond the thr .. ~ or tnr .. I.ague boundary of. state juriSdiction. I •••• 'th'n the fishery conservation zone. Th.refor •• wltn tn •• xc.ptlon of Florida. which Is discussed below, no state ma~agement Institutions directly aff.ct coral resources .. In FlorIda, the Department of Natural ~.source's (aNR) Divisions of ~arlne Resources and ~arlne PatrOl are the only stat. management Institutions with direct autnorlty over corals. Aside tram s.veral sIt .. specltlc management progr~s described In S.ctlon 6.4, the primary management autnorlty of tne ONR Is a pronlbltlon on the taking and/or possession and sal. of c.r't'aln corals (see S.ctlon 7.4.2 e 2). Should addItional coral resources be dIscovered wIthin the t.rrltorlal seas of "a stat. other tnan Florida at some future time, tne following stat. Institutions would probably heve autnorlty for manag I ng tnose cora I 5: Alabama - D.par't'ment of Conservation and Natural R.sources, Division of Io4arln. Resources; GeorgIa - Department of Natural Resourc.s, Coast R.sources Division; Lou I slana - O.par't'rnent of "~I I d II f. and F I sh.r les; MiSSissippi - Commission on Wildlife Conservation and tne Oepartment of Wlldllf. Cons.rvatlon, Bureau of Marin. Resourc.s: North Carolina - D.pal"trnent of Natural ~esources and Community Oevelopment, Division of 'oIarlne F I sheri es; Sou'th Carolina = Wildlife and ~arlne Resources Oepartment, Marine R.sources Division; Texas - Parks and Wildlife Department, Fisheries Division, Branch of Coastal Fisheries. There are no local management InstitutIons that directly relate to corals or coral r .. f resources. Indirectly, ho.ever, coral user groups (Section 10.1) are subject to local ordinances Implemented by zonIng commissions and other county or town agencies. 7.2 TreaTies and International Agreements 7.2.1 Treaty on Maritime Boundaries Betwe.n the United States of America and the United Mexican StaTes. Signed aT Mexico City, May 4, 1978 This Treaty establishes the maritime boundaries bet-.een the United States and Mexico for the areas bet-. .. n 12 and 200 RIft (22 and 370 km) off tnelr respect lye coasts. It provides that neither country snail claim or .xerclse sovereign rights or juriSdiction over the waters or seabed and subsoil on the oth.r country's side of tne maritIme boundary. The treaty does not affect the nature of the rights claimed by eIther country within the ocean areas under their juriSdiction. 1.2.2 MarItime Boundary Agreement Bet ... n the United States of America and the Republic of Cuba. Signed at waShington, December 16, 1977 This trea1y establishes the maritime boundar"'( between the United States and Cube In the Str-alts of Florida ar .. and In the eastern Gulf of MexiCO where their 200 nm (370 km) zones would overlap. It provides that neither country wi' I claim or .x.rclse sovereign rights or jurlSd'ctlon over the wat.rs or s.abed and subso' , on the other countr-y 'ss Ide of the marl time boundar"'(. Th. a9r nt does not affect the nature of the JuriSdiction claimed by either party In their limited ar ... 7.2.3 G.n.ral Pr-ovlslons on Ships Routing. IMOO Resolution A.378Cx), adopted November 14, 1977 This resolution provld.s for the Internatlona' sanctioning of measUl"es concerning the routing of ships. ~ng the objectives, for which a routing system may be .stabllshed, Is the organization of traffic flow In or around ar.as wh.r. navigation by all ships or c.rtaln classes of ships Is danger-ous or und.slr-abl., and the 'guldanc. of traffic clear of fishing grounds. Routing systams can Include both "traffic separation schemes and ar-eas to be avoided by Ships. The latter'may be .stabllshed wher-e "ther. Is a posslblll1y that unacceptabl. damage to the envlr-onment could result fram a casualty. Thus, elevated ( •• g., Flow.r- Garden Banks and Florida r .. f tract) cora' outcropplngs which pose threats of ship groundings are candidate sites for the establishment of ar .. s to be avoIded. 7.2.4 Int.rnatlonal Conven"tlon for the Pr.ventlon of Pollution of the Sea by all, 1954, as amended. Done at London May 12, 1954; Entered Into Force July 26, 1958, for the U.S., December 8, 1961. T.I.A.S. 4900, 6109 ThiS Convention (th. all Pollution Convention), regulates "the Intentional dlschar~ of 011 and oily mixtures by ships. For tankers of over 150 grass tons, the dIscharge of 011 or oily mixtures within 50 nm (92.6 km) of the nearest land Is prohibited. Standards concerning the rate of discharge and the "total quantity which can be dischar-ged are also Imposed. Ships other than tankers of over 500 gross tons can dischar-ge only when as far as practicable fr-am the nearest land. Th.se discharges are also subject to r-ate and Cluantlty limitations. 7.3 Fed.ral Laws, Pollcl.s, and RegUlations Th. following federal laws, policies, and regulations are presented In approximate rankIng of r-el. vance to the cons.rvatlon and management of coral and coral r .. f resources. "'-"oranda of Under-standIng (MaU) r-elevant to the protection of coral, proposed but not yet adopted, are lIsted last. 7.3.1 FIShery Cons.rvatlon and Management Act of 1976 (FCMA): t6 U.S.C SS1801-1882 The FOO mandates the prepar.tlon of fishery management plans tor Important resources wIthIn the 200 nm (370 km) fishery conservation zon •• Each plan alms to .stabllsh and maintaIn the optImum yl.ld for the subj.ct fishery. The current FMP for corals and coral r.ef resourc.s In the south Atlantic and Gulf of M.xlco regIons Is aNOng such plans. 7.3.2 Marine-Protection, Research, and Sanctuarl.s Act of 1972 CMPRSA), Title III: 16 U.S.C SI1431-1434 Th. protectIon of specific coral r-.. f areas through the establishment of rnarlne sanctuarIes Is dIscusSed In Section 6.4. 7.3.3 Out.r ContlnentalSh.lf Lands Act, as amended In 1978: 43 U.S.C tt1331 et seg. ProtectIon and Management of VIable Coral Communities: 43 C.F.R. 6224 -- A permit fram the SLM has been r-equlr-ed before any person may engage in any actlvl1y which directly causes damege or Injury to a viable coral c~munlty located on the outer continental shelf. A vIable coral cammunlty Includes living coral and all deed coral formations .nd auocl.t~ r •• f org.nl",s th.t ar. pert ot a coral ,..et or oth.r ecological c:anftllnlty containing living cor.ls. To d.t., BLM h.S Issued she pennlts In tne m.nag .... nt arM for the takIng of cor. I for scl.ntlflc .nd ,. .... rm purposes (se. Section 8.2.1l. ~ Septembe" 24, 1~79, 5th CI,.cult Cou,.t of ~ppe.ls ruling on U~S. v. ~Iexand.,. st.ted tn.t this BLM "egulatlon applied only In .,.eas of mlne,..1 I •• slng and development. Permanent Wlthd,.awal of Unleased OCS L.nds f,.om Ofsposltlon: 43 U.S.C §§1}41(a) -- P"otectlon of CO"' I are.s fran the threats of OCS oil and gas development through perman.nt .Ithdrawals f,.an leasll'l9 bv the p,. .. Ident, as was don. In c,.eatlng th. Key L'''go Co,.al R •• f R.serv., Is discussed In Section 6.4. Deletion of T,.acts f,.om OCS Mlnera' Leas. Sales: 43 U.S.C §fI337(a) -- Tempor..ry p,.otectlon of co'"I communities from the Imp.cts of 011 .nd gas development activities th,.ough the deletion of t,.acts t,.om Individual lease sales Is discussed In Section 6.4. Regul.tlon of OCS Dev.lopment ~ctlvltles: 43 U.S.C ff1334 -- Manag .... nt of mlner.1 exploration and development activities (primarily 011 and gas) on the OCS Is conducted by the S.cret.ry of Interlo,., through the BLM.nd USGS. Protection of unique OCS areas, such as coral r .. fs, during 011 and gas development Is provided through the attachment of special stipulations to I.ases. At th. Flower Ga"den Banks, for example, stipulations protect coral resources by requiring the shunting ratner than surface discharge of drilling efflu.nts and the establlslnent of • progrM to monitor th. Impacts ot drll ling on Bank resources. Oth.,. controls on drll ling and production activitIes, such as testing of blowout p,.evente ... , 011 spll I contIngency plans, and prop.r pollution and wast. disposal, wll I also I end some protect Ion to coral resources near dr II I I ng .ct I v I t I ... 7.3.4 Blsc.yne Natlon.1 Park: 16 U.S.C f§450 99 et seq • . Protection of co,.al reefs within the Blsc.yne National ?ark Is discussed In S.ctlon 6.4. 7.3.5 Fort Jefferson National Monument: Presidential Proclamation No. 2112; J.nuary 4, 1935 ProtectIon of coral re.fs withIn th. Fort Jefferson NatIonal ~nument Is discussed In Section 6.4. 7.3.6 Clean Water ~ct (CWA): 33 U.S.C §§12,1 et seq. The CWA requires that a NatIonal POllut.nt DISCharge ElimInation System (NPOES) pennlt be obtained before any pollut.nt Is dISCharged fra. a point source Into .ate ... of the U.S., Including .aters of the contiguous zone and the edJolnlng ocean. Th. disposal of drll ling eftlu.nts.nd other wastes from drTl ling platfonns Is IIIOng tile actlvltl .. for which a ~OES p.nnlt fron EPA Is required. Issuance of such. pennlt Is based prlma,.lly on the eftluent 1ul~.lln .. found In 40 C.F.R. §43'. Howeve,., addi tIonal COnditIons can be Imposed on pennlt Issuance on • case-by-c.se basis In ord.r to protect valuabl. resoU,.ces In th. discharge a,.... ~t the Flower Ga,.den BanKS, EPA l"Ias consld.red nume,.ous NPOES pennlt conditions Including a monlto,.lng and shunting requlr ... nt .nd • prohibition on bulk dlsch.rges In order to protect the Bank's coral ,.e.f resources. 7.3.7 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA), Title I: 33 U.S.C tt1401-1444 ~ pennlt Is required for the tr.nsportatlon of mate,.lals fo" the purpose of ocean dumping. EPA Issues all permits, with the exception of those for the transportation of ~redged materials Issued by the Corps of Englnee .... Criteria fO" Issuing such pennlts Includ. co·nsld.ratlon of the eft.cts ot jump(~ on the marine environment, .cologlcal systems, and flsh.rl .. resources. Cor. I resources could, th.,.efo,.., be pro~ec:ted through this system fran the Impacts of nea,.by ocean dumping. 7.3.8 011 Pollution Act of 1961, as amended: 33 U.S.C SS1001-1016 The Oil Pollution Act regulat the Intentional discharge of oil or oily mllC'tures fr-OII Ships r-eglstered In the U.S., and thus provides some degree of .,rotactlon to coral r-esources. Tankers can not dlschar-ge 01) within 50 nlll (92 kill) of the nearest land. Ships other than tankers must dlschar-;e as far as practicable fr-OII land. The quantity of 011 which c~n be discharged Is also r-egulated. ~ special pr-ovlslon Is made under- the Act, however-. for the r-egulatlon of discharges near- valuable and sensitive r-esour-ces such a~ coral. 7.3.9 Ports and waterways Safety Act of 1972, as amended: 33 U.S.C SS1221-1227 Under this Act, the Coast Guar-d can establish vessel tr-afflc services, deSignate fall"Ways and tr-afflc separ-atlon schemes, lind establish vessel equipment, deSign, constr-uctlon, lind oper-atlon standar-ds, In order to, among others, enhance protection of the marine envlro~nt. The Act Is applicable to vessels r-eglstered In the U.S. and foreign vessels destined for or departing fr-OII U.S. ports. For-elgn vessels violating any r-egulatlons adopted under the Act can be denl«l port access. Under the Act, tr-afflc schemes and various vessel standards could be established wh!ch serve to both direct traffic away fr-am cor-a I r-eefs and minimize the effects of IIny Incidents which may r .. ult. 7.3.10 Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended (CZMA): 16 U.S.C SSI451-1464 Under the CZ~, states are encouraged, with federal funding grants, to develop coastal zone management progr-ams which establish unified policies, criteria, and standards for dealing with land and water use decisions In their coastal zone, an ar-ea which Includes the stat .. ' terr-Itorlal sea. Approved coastal pr-ograms are thus capable of dlr-actlng activities away from ar-eas possessing particularly sensitive resour-ces, such as coral. Many IIctlvlties beyond the defined coastal zone may also be Influenced by approved coastal programs through operation of the CZ~'s federal consistency requlr-.... nts, under which dlr-ect federal activities significantly IIffectlng the coastal zone, Including the approval of a F~, must be conducted In a manner consistent to the maxlmulII extent practicable with approved state programs. Activities r-equlr-Ing a feder-a I license or- permit, such as plans for OCS exploration, deve lopment, and production actlvltl .. can effectively be vetoed by a coastal state determined not to be consistent with their approved program. Section 312 of the CZMA also al lows for the deslgnalon of eSTuar-lne sanctuar-Ies to achle¥e wise use of coastal r-esources, Including natural r-esources. Gul:!ellnes for- these sanctuaries were published at 15 C.F.R. 921 on June 4,1974. 7.3.11 Endanger-ed Species Act of 1973, as amended: 16 U.S.C SS1531-1543 The Endangered Specl .. Act provides for the listing of plant and animal species as threatened or endanger-ed. Although no corals h~ve yet been IIst«l, various species may qualify for this status. Once IIstad as a threatened or endanger-ad species, taking (Including harassment) Is prohlbltad, and a process 15 established which seeks to ensur-e t!'lat projects authorized, funded, or carr-I«I out by federal agencies do not jeopardize t~e existence of these species or result In the destr-uctlon or modification of habitat determined by the Seer-etary to be critical. 7.3.12 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA): 42 U.S.C SS4321-4361 NEPA requlr-.. that all Feder-a I agencies recognize and give ap"propriate consideration to envlr-onmental amenities and values In the course of their- Jeelslon-maklng. In an effort to create and maintain con ditions under which man and nature can exist in productive harmony, ~EPA requlr-es that federal agen cies prepare an envI r-onmental Impact statement eElS) prior to under-taking major actions whiCh might significantly affect thG ~uallty of the human envlr-onment. Within these statements, alt.rnat!"."es to the proposed action which may better safeguar-d envlr-o~ntal ."alues ar. to be carefully assessed. While NEPA does not guarantee the protection of valuable .nvlro~ntal r-esources, such as coral, It 7-6 .) does ~equlre that agency decIsion-makers fully consider the effect of their actions on such ~e5OU~ce ... , ues. Under NEPA, eed\ fishery manage,..nt p I an IIIJst be acc~an I ed by an E I S on the p~oposed action. 7.3.13 Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act: 16 U.S.C ff661-66c Unde~ the Fish and WIldlife Coordination Aet. the FWS and NMFS ~evlew and c~nt on the fish and .lld/lfe aspects of proposats tor wo~k and activities sanctioned, permitted, assisted. or conducted by federal ageneles which take place In o~ affect navigable waters. The review focuses on potential damage to fish and wildlIfe and thel~ habitat and may therefore ser~ to provide some p~ot.ctlon t~ coral communities trom federal activities. particularly In nearshore waters, since federal agencies must gl~ due conslderatl~n to the recommendations of the two agencies. 7.3.14 Fish Restoration and Management ~rojects Act: 16 U.S.C ff777-777k Under this Act, the Department of Interior Is authorized to apportion funds to state fish and game agencies for fish restoration and management projects. FundS for th~ protection of threatened coral communities located within state waters, Including marine areas, could be made a".llable under the Act. 7.3.15 ~emorandum of Understanding for the Management of Marine Resources In the Fishery Conser ... tlon Zone Betw .. n the Gu I f of Mex I eo FloC and OCZM (NOAA) An agreement between the Gulf FMC and OCZM has been developed whIch provides for consultation and cOOl"dlnatlon between the two agencies regarding the conser ... tlon and IIIIInage,..nt of IIIIIrlne ~esou~ces I· the FCZ "hen they both may have planning juriSdiction. The agr .... nt provides for planning for the / o~derly de~lopment, Implementation, and coordination of conse~ ... tlon and management measures uti lizing the most practical and effectl~ ~egulatory system, Including the designation of marine sanc tuarIes where approprIate. It also establishes a f~a,..work for the eXChange of regional and national merlne ~esource policies and obJectl~s. 7.3.16 Memorandum of Understanding for the Management of Marine Resources In the Fishery Conser~tlon Zone Betw .. n the South Atlantic FMC and OCZM (NOAA) The te~ms of this agreement are Identical to those In the Qulf FMC/OCZM agreement. See abo .... sub sec:1'lon 7.3.15. 7.3.17 Memorandum of Understanding on Coral ~~otectlon Jurisdiction on the Outer Continental Shelf Setween the Bureau of Land Menage,..nt and the National Marine Fisheries Service and the Office of COal'fa I Zane Managemen'f (NOAA): P~oposed An agreement between BLM, NMFS, and OCZM. Is currently being negotiated which would: I) provide for contInuIng protection and management of al I coral communities on the OCS; 2) streamlIne the prOCedure by whIch applications are revl .. ed and permits Issued for activities affecting such coral communities; ·and 3) define and cOOl"dinate the responslbH Itles of 9LM, IIlMFS, and OCZM fo·r the management of coral communities. Under the agreement, BLM is likely to relinquish par'f of Its authority concerning the regulation of coral as coral FMP's are 1~lemented and as marine sanctuaries which preser~ coral resources are deSignated (see Section 7.3.3). 7.3.18 Regulations and Policies on Importation of Corals Pursuant to 50 CeR 14.21(n), corals may be I~orted Into the United States at any Customs port of en'fry. Uncured corals IIIIIY be Imported tree (Tarrlff Schedule of the United States (TSUS) 190.30) "hereas cut but unset pieces of finished (Ioe •• cured) corals suItable for use In jewelry, are subject 7-7 to a 2.5 percent duty (TSUS 741.1'). However, when finished coral pieces are I~ported from under developed countries via the "Generalized System of ~reference," no duty Is ImpoSed. Stll I anot'er regulation applies to finished coral set In jewelry. Within the IMnag' .... nt arN, corals lMy be Imponed Into these U.S. Customs Service ports of entry: Wilmington, North Carolina; Charleaton, South Carolina; Savannah, Georgia; 14lanl, Florida; Tampa, Florida; ~oblle, Alabama; New Orleans, LouIsIana; Port Arthur~ Texas; Gal~ston, Texas; Laredo, Texas; and EI Flasc, Texas. 7.3.19 Memorandum of Understanding on EvaluatIng Permit Applications Betw .. n the Army Corps of Engln .. rs and Oepartment of Commerce (NOAA). All applications for Corps of ~ngln .. rs pe~lts In a ~arlne sanctuary wll I be. evaluated for Impact In the sanctuary. ~ pe~lt will be Iss\.ed until the applicant provides a certlt.lcatlon trOll the Secretary of Commerce that the propOSed activity Is consistent with Title I II of the ~arlne Protection. ·Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972. as amended, and can be carried out within the r8Ju lations promul~ted for the sanctuary. 7.4 State Laws. RegUlatIons. and PolIcies SInce coral resources withIn state waters In the management area are lImIted prllMrl'y to t~e coastal waters of FlorIda, the laws, regulatIons. and polIcIes of Florida are the only state authorities directly applIcable to coral resource IMnagement. Although FlorIda has the only direct coral protec tion statute. the other states In the IMnagement area do have several types of authoritIes which may provIde I~dlrect protectIon to coral resources. Including: I) authorItIes aImed prllMrlly at other marine resources or the environment In general that ~y also relate to. corals. e.g •• fIshing ;ear regulations, or pollution control laws; 2) coastal zone management prograns and related legl slatlon; and 3) habitat IMnagement or protection programs. These authorities. are Sl.fllllllriZed below tor each state and detailed In Appendix J. The first category of authorities has In most cases been Implemented for reasons not primarily related to coral. It deals Instead with activities that create bottom disturbances and those which could potentially contaminate the marine environment, e.g •• dredging or fll ling of submerged lands. trawling with bottom fishIng gears, or diSCharging pollutants (see related dIscussion In SectIon 6.2.2.1). Coastal Zone Management eCZM) authorIties described below are I~ most eases state responses to t"1e goals and ObjectIves of the federal Coastal Zone ~anagement Act (see Section 7.3.10). Habitat 'I\Inag .... nt and protectIon programs cIted below are general 11easures applied to habItat In a broad sense and not corals specifIcally. These programs are dIstInguIshed from the sIte-specific habl tat programs discussed I n Sect Ion 6.4. 7.4.1 AlabalM cernl ng vi slons waters. " I a balM 7.4.2 Alabama has no direct coral management Jr protection authorIties. Numerous laws and regulations CJn fishing (Ala. Code ii9-12-90 et seq.) offer Indirect 'I\Inagement of coral resources. ~ pro of the state ·"ater Pollution Control Act specifically apply to diSCharges of oils Into ocean Similarly, there are no applicable habitat programs. Under the Coastal Area Flrotectlon Act, has developed and has had federal appr'oval of Its CZM program (Ala. Code i i9-7-IO et seq.). Florida Under Florida's coral law It Is unlawful for any person to.take. otherwise destroy, sel I or attempt to 7-8 sell the following: 1) any sea fan of the species Gorgonla flabellum, or the species Gorgonla ~~allna; 2) any hard or stony coral (Scleractinia); or 3) any fire coral (Mlllepora). PossessIon of any fresh, uncleaned, or uncured specimen of these species without a certIfIed In~lce of Importation from a foreIgn country or proof that the specImen was taken before July I, 1976, 15 also II legal. Sea fans or stony corals may be taken for scientific or educatIonal purposes only by permIt from the Department of ~atUral ~esources (Fla. Stat. 5370.114). The FlorIda MarIne Patrol must be Informed of the time, place, method, quantity, and specIes to be collected. Dead corals and coral rubble (I.e., coral rock) may be collected without a permit. It 15 unlawful to taKe dead or II~ coral from, or possess It within, John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park (Fla. Stat. 5370.114). By a joint management agreement between the State of Florida and the National Oceanic and AtmospherIc AdmInIstration C~OAA), state park rangers and Coast ~uard personnel patrol both the State Park and the Key Largo Coral ~eef Marine Sanctuary (Cooperatl ... Agre .. nt No. 04-6-158-44116 between Florida D~ and U.S. Departl'llln't ':If Co~rce, NOAA, and 15 C.F.R.929). Indirect authorities wIth rele~nce to corals Include fIshery gear regulations (Fla. Stat. 5370.15), a permit system for the use of chemicals to collect I'IIIrlne specimens (Fla. Stat. §370.08) ocean water contaminatIon regulatIons (Fla. Stat. 5370.09), and dredge and fll I regulations (Fla. Stat. 5370.03). State habitat programs Include AquatIc Preser~s (Fla. Stat. S258.35), Areas of CrItIcal State Concern (Fla. Stat. 5380.05), En vi ronl'lllnta I Iy Endangered Lands (Fla. Stat. 5259), and State Parks. FlorIda's Coastal r-lanagement Program has been appro~d by the OffIce of Coastal Zone Management. Georgia does not ha~ any dIrect coral protectIon laws. The only habitat authorIty wIth potential rele¥ance to corals Is derlYed from the rlerltage Trust Act of 1975 (Ga. Code 543-2300). IndIrect laws Include fIshery gear restrIctIons (Ga. Code 543-900), general water qualIty crIterIa, and dredge and fll I permIts (Ga. Code·543-2400). GeorgIa does not yet haYe a draft coastal management plan. 7.4.4 LouIsIana LouIsiana has no laws or habItat programs dIrectly applIcable to corals.· A CZM program recel~d federal appro~1 In 1980, but corals were not addressed specIfIcally. State fIshIng regu-Iatlons con cernIng shrImp and othetspecles provide some protection for coral (La. Rev. Stat. 556-495). 7.4.5 MIssIssIppi MIssissIppI has no dIrect coral protectIon laws. Habitat programs Include the Natural HerItage Trust Program (MIss. Code 549-5-141' and protection of habitat for endangered wildlife (~Iss. Code 549-5-1 Iii; thus far neIther progr .. has been applIed to coral resources. FIshery and pollutant regulatIons exist that offer IndIrect coral protectIon (~Iss. Code 549-15-6205). A CZM progr .. (Miss. Code 549-5-111) recelWd federal appro ... I In 1980 • . . 7.4.6 North Carolina North Carolina lacks direct coral protection laws but Is well represented by laws, regulatIons and polIcies providing IndIrect protectIon. BesIdes havIng a federal Iy-appro~d Coastal Management Program, North Carolina also has thr .. habItat programs (Nursery Areas. Research SanctuarIes, and Underwater State Parks) and numerous flshl~g gear regulations (15 N.C. Admin. Code 38). 7.4.7 South CarolIna 7-9 .", South Carolina also lacks direct coral management or protection laws or regulatIons. General ~abltat progr .. s are I n operation thrQlgh the Herl tage Trust ~rograll to protect natural c1reas or featlres (S.C. Code §51-17-10). A state coastal ~nagement progre1m with sections on wi Idllfe and fIsheries, dredge c1nc1 fill, and geograph lcal c1reas of part leu lar concern, among others, has been c1dopted and received federa~ c1pproval In 1979. RegulatIons fol" fishing gear (S.C. Code 150-17-1000), pollution of ocean watel"'S (S.C. Code §45-1-13) and the use of polson, eleerrlclty, and explosIves (S.C. Code §50-13-1420 and 1440) also may provIde some protectIon to coral. Texas has no direct coral protectIon Ic1WS nor any habitat progralls of relevance to coral resources. The ·~te does, however, have regulations on fIshIng (Tex. ~&W Code S77), ocean pollution (Tex. water Code ;26), use of electroshock (Tex. ~&W Code S66), and dredglt and fill activities (Tex. ~at. Res. '-33). The Texas Coastal ~anagement °rograll has completed a revIsed plan but has nat yet submitted It for federal approva I. 7.5 Local Authorities AS mentIoned above, of the states In the study area, extensive coral habitats are found only In the territorial seas adjacent to Florida. "urt~ennore, within the territorial seas adjacent to Florida, extensive coral habitats are limited to the southernmost area of those waters. Therefore, only In southernmost Florida could local authorIty to manage coral resources be asserted. Within Florida, the right to regulate the taking 01'" possession of saltwater fish Is expressly reserved by the state (Fla. Stat. S370.102). However, since the definition of saltwater fish does nat Include coral, a county or other local 3Qverrment in FlorIda coul:! assert the authority to regulate the taKl"9 of 01'" provide for the protectIon of coral resources [Fla. Stat. §370.01(2)1. As of the present time, no county In Florida has chosen to do so. PrIor to the passage of the state coral protection statute In 1976, several southern Florld8 counties, Including Dade and !4onroe Counties, had considered legIslation designed to protect coral resources. It was decided, however, that .statewlde protective legislation woul:! prove more effective. Although local fIsheries reguatlons have been pre"'pted by stc1te law sl nce 1973, general state laws of local applicatIon were nat affected. In fact, In many Instances the state code has adopted what .ere previously local regulations as state laws of local application. An example which may be relevant to coral resources, Is the prohibition on spear fishing In certain areas of Collier and ~onroe Counties. Spearflshlng Is pronlblted within the boundaries of John ~ennakamp Coral Reef State ~ark, al I watel"'S of Collier Coun"ty and the up~r Keys In Monroe County, whiCh Includes all saltwater-s beginning at the county line between Dade and ~onrOi Counties and running south, Including al I of the keys down to and Including Long ~ey (Fla. Stat. S370.172(d)(I)I. The large number of local regulations and general laws of local application, together with the ambiguous language used in many of these statutes, often makes It difficult to detennlne exactly which regulations are applicable at the present time. For example, the possession of any fishing seine or net In any coun"ty In which such possession Is pronl blted Is also II legal by state law [Fla. Stat. 1370.08(1)1. From conversations .Ith state c1nd local officials, however, It does nat appear that any other regulations are applicable to coral resources. 7-10 8.0 DESCRIPTION OF FISHING ACTIVITIES AFFECTING THE STOCK(S) C~ISING THE MANAGEMENT UNIT 8.1 Hls~y of Exploitation 8.1.1 Development of the Industry Historically, the collection and sale of corals fram dom.stlc'waters has been centered around t~e coral r .. fs and patch reefs of the Florida ~eys. ~here else within the geographic boundaries of t~e United States' FCZ Is coral diversity and abundance as high, nor coral cammunltles so close to snor .. Commercial Interest In FI~rlda corals Is a relatively recent phenomenon. Although Indian middens scattered throughout Florida contaIn coral frag nts, the .flrst acknowledged market for shells and corals (which are nonnal Iy categorized together In the curio business) was In' 1829 In Key ~est. The Industry expanded In proporTion to the tourist busIness. Since the onset of a real coral fIshery, a ,tIme somewhere post-1900, corals were collected prImarIly as bycatch wIth fish and assorTed shellfIsh (Iotaters and snapper, mainly). Even during the peak In Florida coral marketIng, no more than thr .. or tour people earned the bulk of their Income fram corals. Col lectors were often the dealers sInce the Industry was sma I I and undlverslfledo In the 1930s and 1940s, coral harvesting was poorly mechanIzed and highly labor Intensive. The most canmon gear was a draggIng hook towed fram a small boat. Jobst partiCipants In Florida were blacks, 50lIl8 displaced fran the 8ahanas. Divers exIsted but technology 111111 ted their success. By the 1950s, the Industry had expanded only slIghtly. Most harvesting and marketing was seasonal, I 11111 ted to the wInter months of peak tourIsm. Even at this tIme, the Miami area could sUPpOrT only thr .. wholesale dealers. Those dealers concentrated on six Atlantic species: elkhorn (Acropora palmata), staghorn (Acropora cervicornIs), fIre coral (Mlllepora alclcornls), flower coral (Eusmilla fastlglata), pillar coral (Dendrogyra cyllndrus), and lettuce corals (Agarlcla agarlc/tes). Corals w,ere received fran the domestic sector vi a small boats fran the Keys or fran the 8ah s as a bycatch on a variety of fishing vessels. An expansl~n of the coral Industry fran the IIIld-1950s to the present accanpanled the perfection of canpressed air or SCU8A diving syst.s. Stili, most corals were collected parT-time by people using then as an Incane supplement. Inves1ment for special vessels or equipment was low. Use of the diving gear made dives to exploitable areas as deep as 30 III (100 ft) routln.. The extent of the harvest Is unknown because no statistics .ere recorded. Until the 1970s, the vast maJority of coral collections were Intended to be marketed as curio It.s. Usually, the pieces .ere cleaned .Ith bleach and dried to enhance the Intricate coral skeletons. IlMIIdlately preceding the Ftorlda la.s, about 18 to 20 divers supplied shells and corals to retailers In the south FlorIda area (Casey, 1979, personal eanmunlcatlon). Corals were sold mostly (85 to 90 per cent)- to tourists for both aquarium and cu,.io use. Jaep (1979, personal eanmunleatlon) oble,..,ed collections of Agarlcla agarlclte., Eusmilia fastigiate (flowe,. coral) and Acropora palmata f,.em Eastern SMibo Reef. Recent markets, lIowever, have been altered I n respOnse to state and federal la.s (see above, Section 7.3 and 7.4). Legal prohibitions on coral eol lectlon In al I Federal waters (prior to the United States v. Alexander deelslon) as wei I as Florida's state waters have essentially ended collection of eorals In the management area for sale as curios. ~oncern lias been expressed that a black market Industry continues to exist based on corals poached fram the Florida reef tract and sold In U.S. shel I shops; however, little hard evljence exIsts to substantiate these elallllsG However, Davidson (1979, personal eanmunleatlon) has observed ~ha~ Acropora palma1a 'elkhorn coral) has been poached at Sambrero Re.f In the Florida I(eys, primarily by local residents and not tourists. lo4any danestlc corals a,.e the sMie as CarIbbean speCies, and Identification as to origin Is difficult. s-~ Agatlzed coral Is dredged from a smal I offshore area on the west coast of FlorIda. PolIshed pIeces ~t the fossIlIzed coral are ad~rtlsed as har~sted "freSh dally" from Tampa Say and sold as I~ampa 3a~ Coral." PrIces of the earrIngs, necklaces, pIns, and other jewelry Items range trom S5.00 to $15.:0 per piece. ~ small commercIal fIshery for octocorals was de~loped by marIne lIfe collectors In the late 19705 for II~ exhibIt In prl~te and publIc aquarIa. Small, specImens were utIlIZed, and the known nar~st Is probably under 6,000 colonies per year (H. ~eddern, 1979, personal communIcatIon). 8.1.2 CollectIon Technlgues and PractIces IntervIews with particIpants In the coral Industry permIt reconstructIon of a typical collecting ~nt~re. A reef zone with merketable size and QualIty corals would be located by a dl~r team, ~ften towed behInd the boat by a rope or In an underwater dIvIng sled. The selected area would then be ~rked by buoys. usIng the boat as a base, di~rs would proceed to collect ten to 30 pIeces of coral dependIng on size and weIght. It was generally accepted that a slIghtly smaller catch would reach port more safely than a larger catch due to reduced breakage In transIt. gecause aesthetIcs are of prImary Importance In marketIng coral, collectors ha~ always claimed to be extremely selectl~ In pIckIng coral specImens. ImmedIately precedIng the 1976 FlorIda ~oral law, hIghest prIces were always paId for symmetrIcal head corals and complete branched specIes, whIle medium sIzed pieces suitable for aquar~a or shel~s commanded most of the market. WIth these constraints, dl~rs reportedly rejected 60 to 80 percent of the livIng corals, usually because of asymmetry or size o~r the desIrable size and weIght lImit of about 40 cm (16 In) dIameter. The hIghly sought medium-sized pieces, 15 to 20 em (6 to 8 in) In diameter, commanded prices ranging from S5.00 to SI.OO each at retaIl, while wholesalers reportedly ranged from S.20 to S.35 per pound (Perez and Dewyer, 1979, personal communIcation). During a collectIng dl~, most d.i~rs used a small crow bar, poker, or saw to dislodge the coral pIece. Saws were especially useful In removing branches off elkhorn and stagho~n corals. After cutting or prying loose the coral pIeces, they were either pIled in a central locatIon and a net or bucket was lowered to brIng the take aboard ship, or each pIece was taken to the surface as collected. ~urlng transIt to the cleansIng and processing tacllity, all pieces were covered by wet burlap to pre ~nt deSiccation. ~st collectors In Florida sold clea"ed corals to dealers. After returning to port, pieces were soaked In freShwater and/or bleach to remo~ the polyps, and dried. Cleaned pieces brougnt hIgher pri ces than raw corals. Generally, the freShwater soak lasted one day, followed by one-half day In bleach (sodium hypochlorIte). Corals collected In Florida were usually channeled to customers by the collectors themsel~s, or by small trUCking firms. Dealers from elsewhere In the UnIted States often ~ntured to the Florioa docks where trailers and trucks were filled with freshly cleaned pieces. ~egardless of the technIque, the fragIlity of ~oral usually resulted in an UnKnown percentage of breakage durIng transportation. ~any corals sold In domestIc curIo ShoPS originated In foreign waters. Shop owners frequently imported Stocks from Haiti or the Philippines. The continued a~i laoil Ity of ~hllippine corals is in douot due to tne apparent decline in their coral stocks and possible restraints on co~al exports (Casey, 1979, personal communication). Coral har~stlng In FlorIda proceed eo unrest~alned trom Its oeglnnlng until 1976, whereupon the :u~er Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) regulations prohiblt~ tne destruction, alteratIon, or collection of QOral assocIatIons In federal waters. Inside state waters (3 nm.or 4.8 km on the Atlantic coast, 8-2 9 n. or 1657 ~ on the Gulf of Mexico coast), collectIons were legal except In Florida where a series of successively strlcteF laws were passed in the early 19705. The federal and state laws served to prcnlblt coral harvestIng wIthout a permit and, hence, collapsed the Industry. e.2 Domestic Commercial and Recreational FIshIng ActivitIes Whereas the precedIng SectIon e.1 slnllllrlzed the hIstory of dom.stlc fIshIng for corals. thIs section shal I address al I current actIvItIes. Since state and federal law has untIl recently prcnlblted col lection of corals In most of the management area (unless a permIt Is obtaIned), thIs dIscussIon Is necessarIly brIef. . . 8.2.1 PartIcIpating User Groups Prior to the decIsIon of Unl'ted Sta'tes v. Alexander In Septenber of 1979, all user gt"CllPS collectIng corals legally wl'thln the :nanagemen't area did so by permIt fran the Bureau of Land Managemen't (BLM; under regula'tory au'thorltles of the Ou'ter Con't I nen'tal Shelf LandS Act of 1953), or 'the Florida Oepa~nt of ~a'tural Resources (~NR; FloFlda Statu'tes. SectIon 370 •• ,4). CollectIons authorIzed by a federal permIt are slMllllllrlzed In Table e-l. Note that Table 8-1 also Includes actIvItIes permlt'ted for altering (e.g., dredgIng) regIons In which corals are known to exls't. All user gt"CllPS eIther collected or Inadl4rten'tly disrupted corals for sclentltlc s'tudles. WI'th 'the exceptIon of the two permIts granted 'to Texas A&M UniversIty, whldl supplIed corals to sImilar con'tracts, no busIness or econanlc relatIonshIp exIsts between the permits or user gt"CllpS. FlorIda permIts have been Issued on 24 occasIons as of December, 1979 (Futch, 1979, personal canmunlcatlon). Each of those permIts (see Table 8-2 for examples), was Issued to Individuals or InstItutIons assocIated wIth teac:nlng and/or ,..eseard't. For example, universities and public aquarIa owners have been pen'llitted to collect ,..epresentatlve specImens of the Florida coral canmunltles. [Note tha't aquarIa owners, e.g., Sea World Shark Institute, are turnIng IncreasIngly to synthetic corals cast of concrete or plastic to avoid permits and to extend the "life" of their dlsplays.1 Another user grCllp with unquantlfled but which could have slgnltlcant Impact on the resource are recreational and can rClal collectors not holding a valid permit. In Florida, this Is an offense and Is most canmonly enforced In managed areas, such as ~ey Largo National ~arlne Sanctuary, where II legal 'taking accoun'ted tor 8.6 percen't (seven of 50) ot the Inf,..actlons In 1978 (Qil len, 1979, personal ccmmunlcatlon). Spearflshlng and possession ot spearflshlng equipment accoun'ted for 73 percent of the 60 arres'ts. A similar ratIo of coral to total arrests was reported In John Penn~amp State Park. Poaching has been ascrIbed 'to both small-scale ,..ecreatlonal and large-scale canmerclal takIng. Recreational harvests are mostly by dIvers and snorkelers who collect pieces of corals as moeentos. Conversely, canmerclal collectIons could be 1i,..ec:t supply channels to shell shops. Very limIted data exist on either facet of the poachIng Issue. No data are avaIlable on the legal harvest of corals In the FCZ since the United States v. Alexander decisIon relIeved BlM of Its broad authority to Issue coral permits. Because the decision and Its effect on federal regulation Is not ·"Ijelt known, there has been" ttle evIdence of reslnptlon of coral harvest In unregulated federal waters. MarIne lIfe collectors, are presently taki~ some unregulated octocorals fran Florida's terrItorial sea and adjoinIng f~eral waters. The colonies are usually collected by SCUBA divers, maintaIned alive and distrIbuted In the aquarIum 't"'ade.along wIth marIne trcplcal reef fishes. ~t of the prOduction Is utiliZed domestIcally, thOugh 8-3 ·\ one coll.ctor reports Europ.en seles. Collectors recelv. one to two dollers per colony fran who Ie selers. CollectIng Is reported fran off Pelm Beech end Ft. Pierce, Florida. Swlftla end Nlcal la era r8ClOI"'ted by divers to be "cantTCn off ?elm Beach In dusltles of 75 to 100 IndIviduals In e fifty-foot SqUilre a,.ea. The collecto" estimates that only five percent of the Individuals present a,.a a.st.,atlcally sui table fo" aqua,.'um exh Ibl t. Off ~alm Beach, these d.epwete" go"gonlans (Swlftla, Nlcalla, Olodogorgla, end lophogorgl.) ;,.ow ~n areas of e,.odad solid ,.ock ridges .ssentlal'y devoId of stony corels. Th.s. go,.gonlens do not usually occu,. on the shal low hlah-p,.oflle ".efs and a,.e not used es shelt.r by fishes, sInce they off.,. scant p,.otectlon f,.an t'l. constant wet.,. cu,.,..nt of the Gulf Str ... flowIng across the ar.a. Otne" Inshore sj)8cles ar. coll.cted off the FlorIda Keys and In Dede end Broward Counties, Florlde (Henry Fedde,.n, 1979, personal ;anmunlcatlon). Although SOf'IIe specl.s may OCCU'" just below the low-tlda IIna, epparantly most of the collecting Is done at j.pthS nea,. 60 fe.t and In the te,.,.lto,.lal sea. Two ot the collecto,.s Indicated t,at they used limited quantltl .. of ,.ose corel, Menlclne aerolata, In acclImating butte,.flyflsh to labO,.etory foods (see also Appendix 0). Quantltl .. used wa,.e ,.eportedly "ve,.y sma I I" but unspecl t I eel, and none wes offe,.ed for rasale. A I I th. co I lecto"s su,.v.y.d are .ngag.d I n thai r t,.ada on a yeer-r~nd bas I s. Weathar does not s.an to int.rfe,.e with thel" coll.ctlng operations or thel,. marK.t dlst,.,but'on actlvltl ... In addItion, no sl;niflcant s.asonal variations In product supply 0" demend were evident. Othe,.. Industry studl.s suggest that the :rost intanse collecting activities occu,.. thra"ghout spring, SUlllllllr, end fall, although demand tends to decrease ber. •• n June end August (Hess and Stevely, draft manusc,.'pt). A bycat;h ot ~ctoCO,.aI5 and occasionally stony co,..als Is mad. by vessels t,.awllng for shrimp, gra"nd fiSh, and scallops. l.ptogorgle (sea whips) and Renilia (sea pansIes) may be abundant on the trawling groundS. Whll. sh,.lmpe"s so,.t thel" catch and dlsca,.d the unwanted byeatch promptly, groundflshermen and scallope,.s most ottan land totel catches unso,..ted. In the lett.r cases the eo,..als e,.e killed. Th.,..e j 3 no .stlmata of the co,.el catch f,..an these vessels. Ttler. ar. epproxlmat.,y 40 seellop and groundtish v.ssels In the management area. B.2.2 V.ssels and Fishing ~r As evIdenced by permits fran the 9lM (Teble B-1) and Florida ONR (Teble B-2), corals and ot~e'" benthos a"'e collected by t,.awl, dl"edgl, 01" dlv.r (sa-, hllllrnel" and chls.', cl"owbal",hand), bye varl.ty of sclentltlc endeayors on v.ssels ,..anglng trom sma I I fishing boats to large" r ... arch yessels. Sottom tra-Is In the ~anagement area oft.n entangle some plecas of co,.als but nea,.,y elways et the expense ot the net In the Instance of stony corels. !J,.edges e,.e slmllerly Inefficient and damaging. In sumll'llry, diYers opel"atrng from small creft, oft.n with privet. ownership, appeer to be the major coll.cto,.s. 8.2.3 Employment In Recreational and Commel"clel SactOI"S The cOl"al-r.'ated Industry wIthin the ~anagement area Includes seve,.al co,.al use,. g"oups: 1) shel I and co,.al shops which sell :!I)stly Imported co"als; 2) glass bottom boats; 3) snOrKel, end dive boats; 4) tl"OP I ca I f I 5h bus I ness; and 5) pal"ty boats that depend gl"utl y upon "v I ng corels end cOl"e I reef S. Since t"ese s.ctO,.s a,.e altTCst ant,,..,y nonconsumptlve ,.esou,..C. users and a,... I"elated to the .conomlcs and business aspects of the industry, as w." as flshl"9 activities, they a,... discussed below In Section 10.1. Table 8-1. SUmMary of coral per.lts Issued by the Bureau of land Management. 1977 to 1919. GROUP PERM I TTEO Texas AAM Unl~rslty College Station. Texas e Texas Instru.ants. Dallas. Texas. Texas AAM Unl~rslty College Station. Texas. u.S. Geological Sur~y Mla.1 Beach. Florida. EFFECT~VE EXPIRATION DATE OF PERMIT 10/21/11 7/21/78 8/18/78 8/21/78 DATE OF PERMIT 10/27/78 COLLECTION/ALTERATION MEA E. Flower Gardens offshore shelf of Texas/louisiana 7/21/19 Southeast Georgia E~y nt 8/18/79 Northwestern Gulf of Mexico hard banks 8/21/19 Offshore Key largo. Florida Continental Shelf Assoc. 9/19/78 Tequesta, Florida. 9/19119 Southeast Georgia E~y nt Dauphin Island Sea lab Dauphin Island. Alabama 10/ll/78 10/ll/79 Florida Middle Grounds Source: Adams, 1919. personal COMmUnication. ", QUANTITY EST. SPECIES (kg) USE VALUE Madracls .Irabilis Montastraea ca~rnosa Montastraea annularls Dlplorla strlgosa 18 Bioassay: research on $100 9 behavioral and mortal effects of drilling fluids on corals. no collection proposed, only alteration Olplorla spp •• Montastraea 2 spp •• Colpophyilia SPPOD Porites spp •• Madracls spp •• Millepora spp. Montastraea annularls no collection proposed. only alteration. unspecified corals l60 25 Dredge and trawl studies of eplbenthlc and de rsal biota. Study of the geology. ecology, hydrography. and che.lstry of hard banks. Cores of coral heads to study growth rates and Indices at stress. Dredge studl es of ep 1 benthos and lithotype of substrdte. unspecified studies o o o o COllECTION GEAR 01 \len, by hand BottOIi trawl and tu~ler dredge. 01 \ers, by hand Corer Dredge 01 ~rs, by ha r and chisel table O-l. SUlIIIMry uf ruprulientdtlllO l:urdl vormlh Issuul.l by tllu florldd OupdrtRJ:tllt of Ndturdl Hesuun;us, l'J/b tu I'JI'J. EnECTI VE DATE Of GUOUf' PEHM I r no PlHMI r John C. Noyo!i 7/26/76 fl!ih Col htct<>r ft. lau~erddle, florida Robert Ginsburg. Ph.D. 5/19/70 Unl IIOrsl ty of Miami Miami. florida [!iter C. Puturs 7/7/7tJ Unl wrsl'y of Suuth ~ lorida ~t. Pu lur sburg. flor Idd Hober t Mann I x fI orl da Oepar t ID:In t of Transj)ortdl Ion Marathon. florida Hrucu Chal"ur, Ph.D. Unl wrsl ty of Mldml Mldml, Ilorida Charlus Morrison, JalD:ls l!ipy, anll Mabel Miliur (] permits) 7/2117tJ 7/U/"l0 lO/bl7tJ Oadu Counly Public SChools En Ifl runRJ:tntd I. Educdtlon Cellter M I dml, f lor I dd EXPIRATION OAIE Of PEHMlf b/lO/"l'J 6/l0/7'J 6/J0/79 6/30/79 b/jO/"lIJ 6/l0/JIJ Soun:u: t .. h:h, I 'J II), VUI sund I (;()/IVIIUIII ca I 1011. COLucr ION AUEA Pdtch ruets oft IIrUOIIdrd County, florida Huu's and hard grounds nuar Ta IIOrn I ur Key Atlantic side of Wust SUlMI8rlanl.l Keys; reefs and patCh ruef s ott Ktiy Wust ~hdllow flats In Mc.rathon area Kuy Laryo, pUlIsd(;ola. and P,,"alild Cit Y Not listed QUANT IIY SI'lCll:S ("!:II Nol specified, but Not to ex(;uud "Slild II II 110 }o spec I RJ:tns svu(;lmuns" Mdlllcina aerolata About 4.0 ,,!.) of and other sclerdc- each spudus tlllians Acropora palllldta,~. Not /lVru than cur Ifl corn Is, 0 I (;ho- 0.9 "!j vur (;OtIn I a stokes II, spucl us Q.!.J~lorla labyrlnthl ~~~~, I-"vla frd~um, ~~~lllIa dlt'usd, M,uil c lila aruo I at a, Muandrlna mudndrltus, Porites spp., Molltas ~ spp., Siderastrea spp. Manlclna aerolata 16 IIIdture specllllUlls pur /lVn th USl In displays dt the Nu", England A~uarlum, &5 ton, Massachu~etts Scientific rusuarch a!ld education Scientific research on coral pathology As a food source for IIIdrlne species being malntdillud In laboratory Molltastraea spp. Nut to uxceed "Scientific Porites porites. 25 specJlD:lns; purposes" A(;ropora cervicorniS, I kg toldl wet Mc.nlclna aerolata weight per trip Only dead coral Not speclflud Place In salt wd'ur ~uar I a COllEcrlON TlCHNIQUE Collect suml annual I y Not nt lonud Not listed Not Iistud lJy hdnd with hdllllllUr Not II stud There Isno direct .. ployment In collecting, processing, or marketing domestic corals. Scientists and vessel crIWs InvolYed In penaltted coral collections do not participate in the fIshery on a fur I-time, c~rclal, or recreational basis. Harvest of octocorals by marIne lIfe collectors Is In conjunction with fIsh collection. 8.2.4 FIshing and Landing Areas UtilIzed Throughout the Range of the Stock(s) Permitted collections .Ithln the management area are concentrated In several zones as determined by scientific Interest and bIotIc dlversltyo As noted In Table 8-1, BLM permIts IndIcate Interest In t~e hard banks of the nortn.estern Gulf of MexiCO, the Florida Middle Grounds of the eastern Gulf, and the Florida reef tract. Secondary Interest Is apparent on the Blake ?Iateau off the southeast United States but research there Is directed at eplbenthos and finfish, with corals assuming an Incidental role. Corals collected by permit are usually landed at the home port of the research or educational InstItution. No port Is dltterentlated fran another on the basiS of. fishIng areas or other factors. ~arlne life collectors of octocorals are mostly restf"lcted to south Florida. 8.2.5 Conflicts Among Domestic Fishermen Involving Competition for Fishing Areas, Gear Damage, etc. Several conflicts Involving corals have ,been Identified. Section 6.2.1 on fishing relationships, discusses some potential repercussions of various man-made Impacts on the biotic canmunlty. Confllc Including canmerclal and recreational fishing directly over coral assemblages, r..oval of animals, a~ many related Impacts are discussed in this section. Other potential conflicts among users .oulj Include those between consumptive and nonconsumptlve users. gecause corals In tha area described In this FMP are unmanaged except for stony corals and sea fans In Florida's territorial sea, a resumption of harvest In the FCZcouid bring about major Interest conflIct between these two groups. Even a moderate level of harvest by canmerclal and recreational collectors could destroy the aesthetic value for the nonconsumptlve users (diver photographers, glass bottom ~t viewers, and other coral. and fish watchers). This Is an example of short-term versus long term benef I ts due to the slow recovery rate of coral. 8.2.6 Amount of Landings/Catches Coral collections governed by permIts specify the amount of corals to be collected and where the collectIon wi I I oCQ.lr. among other Information. Using that Information, some landl ngs data can be generated for e4dt species and landl ng area. Bureau of Land Management pennlts show a total harvest of about 387 kg (851 IbI) fran at 'east six speCies, Includll1g one Milleporina and five Scleractinia (Table 8-3). Florida collections. lIsted as pieces on some permits and weight on others, .ere 77 pieces and 46.1 kg (101 IbI) fran about 28 s~ cles (Table 8-4). This harvest was eonduct~ over a three-year period and was used for scientific and educational purposes. A small canllltrcial harvest of octocorals by marine II fe flshennen for use In the aquarium trade has been Identified through an Informal survey of the membership of the Florida ~arlne Life ASSOCiation, Inc. by Dr. Henry Feddern, 1979 (personal canmunlcation). Approximately 75 percent Is estimated to come fran Florida's territorial sea, and tne remaining 25 percent fran the adjoining FCZ. On an annual basis the catch Is estimated to be: 8-7 Leptogorgla vlrgulata Brlareum asbes~lnum Telesto rllsel Renilia mullerl DIOdogorgla nodullfera Nleella set,."I~~1 S.I f~ I a exser~a Lopnogorgla eardlnalls Lopnogorgl a ~ Totals Number eolonles per year .!2!!l. 250 120 2cO 1,250 1,140 510 1,100 1,200 2! 5,845 fB. 63 30 60 313 285 129 275 300 ~ I.C63 The same group of flsneMft8n had also eol le~ed a sma I I, unquantltled amount of rose eoral for use as tood tor juvenile tropleal fishes. Other small stony eorals .ere eollected for aquarium dl splay. 8.2.7 Assessment and Speclfleatlon of the U.S. Estlma~ed Domestle Annual Harve.~ The harvest of coral can be aeeanpll shed fran small boats as .ell as larger vessels. Divers and s.l:n :tiers .adlng tran shore are also able to take coral. OGmestle users have the capacity and are fully able to harvest the amount of or as Is provljed by this plan. The expeeted domestic annual harvest Is that ~unt provided as optimum yield. 8.3 Foreign Fishing Activities There Is currently no foreign co~al fiShing within the management area. Table 8-3. Summary of eorals to be collected by 'speeles and state (as of ~ebl"'Uary " 1979). Species Se leract I n I a: ~adraels mlrab"'s ~ntastraea cavernosa ~n~astraea annularls Olplorla SPP. Colpopnyilia sPP. Porites sPP. ~adrae Is sPP. Mil leporl na: MI Ilepora sPP. Unelasslfled: "assorted species" Source: Tab Ie 8-1. Approxl'Mte A.Inount l.anded (kg) 18 9 369 <I <1 <1 <1 <1 2l about 423 8-8 StateCs) l.anded Florida, Texas Texas Texas Texas Texas Texas Alabama 8.4 In~erac~lons aeTween Domestic and Foreign Participants aecause there Is no foreign fishing ac~lvlty, there are no Interactions between t~e forel,;n and danest Ic fish I ng seeton. 8.5 Domestic ProcessIng Capacity The processing of stony corals for exhIbit or display Is a simple process .hlcn may be done aboard smal I boats or in the back yard. The dOlMtstlc annual processing capacity exceeds the present available supply and that .nlcn Is to be available as optimum yield. Domestic proces31ng relies heevi Iy upon Imported cot:'als for ornanental and pharmaceutical use. 8-9 ./ TABLE 8-4. Suumary of corals collected under Florida OHR penults based upon penuit applications. NlJTIbers are approximate. Colonies or pieces referred to in each column are from different collections (!)ata fr(),1 Fu tCil, 1979, persona 1 COllnun i ca t ion). No. to be L~ei9ht to be No. to be Weight to be Collected Collected Collected. Collected Species (if specified) (if specified) Species (if specified) (if specified) Hi lleporina Montastraea cavernosa 1 Millepora alcicornis 3 'OCUI ina varicosa 6 ~i llepora s,quarrosa 2 Oculina diffusa 1 Hi 11epora coolplanata 2 Colpopnyl1ia amaranthus 2 Colpophyllia natans 2 Scleractinia Solenastrea hyades 6 Cladocera arbuscula d Favia fragum 2 1 Pori tes spp. 7 Phyl1angia americana 2 Acropora cervicornis 3 1 rtanicina areolata 5 3 Ac ropora pa lma ta 1 1 Scolymia lacera 2 Siderastrea siderea 6 1 Di~loria lali~rinthifonllis 1 1 Siaerastrea raaians 9 1 tteandrina meandri tes 1 Dlc~ocoenia stol~esi i (j 1 Agaricia agaricites 2 Gorgonia 2 Montastraea annularis 1 1 Unspecified 6 241 ,- ---.--------- 0.1 2 TOTALS No. to be Collected (if specified) 77 pieces Weight to be Collected (if specified) 46.1kg l. Including Montastr.ae.a. annularh .. , H. caveroosa, PorHes porHe~. Aerppora cerVlcorn1s, ~od Man1cina areolata. r1easured in wet welght. . . I Including ~. annularis, ~. cavernosa, ~. porites, and A. cervicornis. neasured in dry weight. , . 9.0 OESCRIPTION OF ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FISHERY ANO RESOURCE 9. 1 DoIlIesi'I c Use Sector The co,.al ,.esou,.ce dlffe,.s ,t,.an the traditional tlshe,...,. resource because Its principal value lies In nonconsumptlve u$es where It provides habitat tor other tlsne,...,. resources and recreation f~" coral watchers. '4uch of the data used tor preparing this section were ol:Jt'alned 1'nra..gh Infonnal telephone l:"Ite,...,'.,s tailored tor use with each business type 0" user gra..p. Table 9-1 Illustrates the 100 percent tar38t survey sample (138 tlnns) as well as those parties contacted (58 or 49 percent) and finally Inte,. vl"ed (53 or 38 percent). The Councils attempted to contact appro lmately 87 tlnns. These busI nesses were selected randanl'f fran telephone directory yellow page listings and supplemented by additional refe,.ences provided by survey ~articlpants themselves. Appro lmately 78 percent ~f tne coral user gra..ps cont~ed were Inte,...,l.ed. Table 9-1. Use" 9ra.. p (f Inn) sample, cont5Cts made and Inte,...,l.,s conducted by state within the managelll8nt a,.ea$ FIRMS FIRMS .ill.1]. TARGET SAMPLE ~ CONTACTED- ~ I NTERV I EWEO" (No. Localities) " B C ~ A B C 0 A B C 0 N. Carol I na Z 2 2 7 0 0 (2) s. Carol I na 2 2 Z 2 8 0 0 0 0 0 a ( I) ~eorgla 2 .3 .3 9 2 .3 7 1 2 (I) ~ lorida 25 18 14 17 75 14 9 5 8 35 12 9 2 8 ( 14) ~Iabama 2 2 2 2 8 4 0 0 0 0 e I) "4i sslsslppl .3 5 0 .3 0 (3) ~oulslana .3 5 t) 0 2 .3 0 0 0 2 (3) Texas 6 4 5 4 19 4 3 2 2 II .3 2 2 TOTAL. 41 33 .30 34 138 21 16 12 19 68 14 15 7 17 48 percent ~f Target Sample (does not include al I attampted contacts) 41 percent of Target Sample Legend: A - Tropical Specllll8n Enterp,.lses B - Diving Shops and Schools C - Charterbcat Jperators o - Coral Wholesalers and Retailers ~ .3 5 31 0 2 8 53 . 9.1.1 Har ... st and Consu!!!ptl ... Uses A~llable data Indicate the present har~st of corals from the fishery described wlthl~ t~ls plan In~I~S scientific and educational use, and some limited commercial use of octocorals In t~e aquarium trade. The potential exists, ho ..... r, for her ... st of corals from 1'1'1. FCZ where not prohibited oy Florida's possession law. 9.1.1.1 Sclentlflc and Educational Har ... st Based on permitting systems which provided for most of the known use for scientific and educational purposes during a three-year period, the har~st of stony corals Is only abOut 140 kg. per year. ~nother 2,500 colonies of octocorals Is estimated to be used annually for this purpos •• The ~Iue of the IndIvidual colonIes ranges from SI.50 for sea pansies to much higher prices for stony corals depending on the sIze arid condition (see Table 9-7). There Is a potentIal use ~f ocTocorals In the pharmaceutical Industry where research Is presently underway. Prost~landins, typIcally mammalIan compoundS, were a major dlsco~ry from a gorgonlan (Plexaura homomella). They are among the most potent biological materials known. Upon purificatIon, these remarkably ~rsatlle wIde spectrum drugs stimulate uterine contractIons to Induce labor and/or therapeutic abortion, speed healing of stomach ulcers and rellerse effects of cyanotic congenItal heart disease. They may Oe used In the future to Induce heat in IllIestock, treat nasal congestIon, asthma, and rheumatoId arthrItis and lower blood pressure (Arehart-TreIchel, 1975). PIke (1974) remarked that In considering the merits of obtaining a drug from the sea, It Is worth weighing the ecological factors agaInst the potential benefit. The dl5Co~ry that three species of Pseudoplexaura contain compounds actl~ agaInst human carcInoma of the nasopharynx and lymphocytic leukemIa Is also slgnlflcont. ~esearch on these compoundS contInues to I,crease exponentIally. Current le~1 of collectIon Is generally undocumented. l1ar~st of 1:. homomalla .as discussed during the 1974 prost~landln symposium. ~easlbll Ity of a ton a month, or ten tons a year of f.. hOlllOmella was suggested for short term needs. Opresko stated his data from Sache Shoal Indicated four acres of whole.!. homoma I I a co I on I es wou I ~ ha~ to be cleared to maet that req u i r .. nt; I f co I on les were on I y pruned. required acre~e would Increase ten fold or more. 9.1.1.2 Aquarl um Trade Har ... st Some nine species of octocorals aquarIum trade (Section 8.2.6). from S2.00 to S15.00 each. The S25.000 per year. ha~ been IdentIfIed as beIng har~sted commercially for the marine DependIng on sIze and quality of the specimen. the ~Iue may range ~Iu. of the known fiShery Is probably In the range of S15,000 to 9.1.1.3 Other Commercial or RecreatIonal Har~st Since 1979 when the court declsl.on In effect left corals In the FCZ without man~ernent or protection, .th. stocks ha ... been open to har ... st. Flo~lda's prohibition of ~ossesslon of uncured specimens 15 the prJnclpal deterrent to a wholesale har~st of corals from tne Florida reef tract beyond the teril torlal sea. This iesource has the potential to fill 1'1'1. market ·jemend now provided by Imported speci mens. Because of the slow. growth of most stony corals, howeller, the ieSOurce cannot be consldeied to be renewable In the sense of other flsheiies. Its exploitation would be ~re comparati~ to a one tlma extraction as In mining. 9-2 \0 I \.oJ TABI.E 9-2. Selected data frol:1 interviel'/s with charter boat operators in the management area, April - July, 1979. UTfN' Of I CORAl IRIPS 10 (Sf. TI)IAL RnAJlP NO. rAVORII( SIAll/rlRH COOl IYPE AGE WIIAl AREAS ANNUAl. 'NcOlt: INUIII (I!st) (HPlOYHS WAIIHR RAJCS WRAl ARUS· olllr R RUtARkS I. II Uri.ld II. ~pu .. t fishing nla rl!llularly n/a 1111 '.11),- 1/2 day ($160) n/a peak load: 200 run full A)' (1250) peop Ie/week grouper c4tch II. r.ld,~-""I1/1Q1 11/01 1011% II/d 1011% 5-6 56 tdp kl!Y I.argol 60-1~.OOll cuslo ""'I'I"Vd I iOlld I kl!Y Wl!st III!rS per an opt!n III yl!U 2. I"'d~ /I. Piving & SI'0rt II !oOI SCUIIJI $10,000 nla 2 S 1I18/l11el!kend nowl!r Gardl!ns 11000-1200 passl!n (lshln!J (1'1000 nl!t) gl!nlyr"; JUIII!I July;Auqust pl!ak; Sponsors package lours to Caribbean sl!rves broad region as "rkl!t. O. Spur,t fhhlll'l nlil ~I! 1li0ii.; 2 Il/iJ 11111111011 nil n/a Jll!1" )'I!dr 1. Hjs~h~il'l'j A. Sport f isilillY 22 Indicentall), II/a IIllIi ... 1 $JOO/da), llorn Isllnd Pass 100 chartl!rs/),l!dW' wlli II! flslllng (8 peopll!) (20%1 4. Gl!orllid A. Spurt flslling 1 Irrl!gular n/a" .lnl .. 1 f.II),- SZlO/Ay 35 .1. Sf of 951 fhllln9 charll!'"s run (6 persons) Savannah Rl!d snal'Pl!r Is I'0jJU Iu sllt!des; Peak Hilnh-Octobl!r. II/d ' lIul dVdildbl1! • ehd"'er UI'ldills will seldull. if I!Vl!r, dlsdo~1! thl!lr favoritl! flshlnl) yroollds. '-·'4 9.1.2 Recr .. tI onaI and Other AssocIated Nonconsumptlve Uses of Coral 9.1.2.1 Charterboat Operators ThroughoUt tile IIIIInag .... nt Ir .. boat dlarters are ava I I ab Ie for sport f I sllennen and divers .110 des i ... e access to offshore recreational Ictlvltles. In tile .aters from ~orth CarolIna through Olde :oun~y. FlorIda, some 620 charter boats have been Inventoried (Sout!! AtlantIc Fishery Manag .... nt ':ouncll, 1978). ThIs does not contaIn Monroe County .hlch Includes the FlorIda ~eys. WIth tile exception of FlorIda, however, very few trIps are aImed explIcitly toward coral habItat areas. Assemblages evijen~ else.here are nonnally disperSed and faIrly 5/l1li11, far enC1lgh from the I1IIIlnland to discourage wldespreed publIc use, sItuated It depths often prohIbItIve to casual dIvers, and subject to rather unpredIctable .eather condItIons. Few deep-sea fIShIng charter operators frequent known or suspected coral reef and hard bank areas and then only If theIr tradItIonal trollIng areas prove unproduc~lve. Hard bottoms such as ~ray's Reef otf~eorgla, and the contInental shelf west of FlorIda, provlje "'01'"'1 substantial fIshIng areas. The most popular and productive sport fIshIng reportedly occurs arouAd artIfIcIal reefs, 011 rigs, and sunken shipwrecks. Off Texas, for example, artificial underwater structures collectIvely accounted for more fIShIng use than natural reef or bank sItes, even though fhe latter ar .. s were fIshed by approxImately 87 percent of all trIps (Jltton and Graefe, 1978). Of the prImary four user groups, this Industry sector has been the most dIffIcult to cover adequately .Ith the finn survey Instrument, especl.al'y In the State of Florida. In part, the recent comf!'8ncanent of ~11h tourist activity (late AprIl to September), has pressed charter operators Into peak action such t!!at personal In-dept!! Interviews .Ith ooat captaIns were diffIcult to gaIn. Seven charter operators - one of "hlch takes people out to vIew coral In shallOf waters t"rough a 9 lass b~~om boat - have been cont3Cted. Tab Ie 9-2 portrays selact busl ness cnaracterl sties of these commarclal enterprises. The majorIty of flnns are strIctly sport fIshIng-orIented, and only one reported havIng a dual fIshIng a"d dIving function (thIs fInn also claims to be the prImary supplier of trips to offshore coral assemblages In the entIre Gulf of Mexico). It Is likely, however, that Il1051' charter operators consIstently servIce more than one user group. Except for the lone glass bot Tom boat respondent, charter OI,Itflh appear to be small, and predomInantly famIly-run businesses emPloyIng no more than two to thr .. persons. 'Jesplte the laCk of Income estimates In virtually every case sampled, a clear ImpressIon was conveyed that barely "breakIng even" is all too often t!!e domI nant financial characteristIc of this user group. SeasonalIty of ~uslness and, In effect, cart-time Income earning capabilltl .. , may be the major reason for thIs sentiment. Other studies of charter operations have IdentifIed sImIlar structural conditions In this Industry (see ~ybaS, 1978). Sport fIShIng charter schedule. ranged from one-half and al I day offerIngs to two-day weekend trips to zones quIte far from shore such as the Flower ~ardens 200 km (110 nm) off Texas and LouIsiana. Oally charter charges quoted were varIable, but hovered at between S210 (six persons) and S300 (el3nt persons). ThIs price nonnal Iy Included necessary equipment and belt, but not food and refrestwnents. Although exvessel values Ire dIffIcult to attach to corals, some data do exist on the fees for vIsItIng livIng coral communItIes. In Texas, .here the Flower Garden Banks are loceted over 200 ~ (108 nm) offshore, dIve boats wI th about 40 passengers charge S 1 00 per parson for a two- or tnr~day trIp (9100d, 1978, personal communication). ·01/here corals are nearer shore, as In tile Florida reaf tract, charter fees average about 520 but ,..eacn S40 per person for a dally trip. Snorkelers are usually chargad about 510 to S20 for a half-day trip. Scenic glass bottom boat cruises average 53 to S10 for a three-hour trIp. At tnase rates, ~ny shops carry 20 to 100 charter divers to the reats each day during the peak seasons of uacember to April, and June througn September. Such shops may operate two or tnr .. boats slmultan8Q.Isly. 9.1.2.2 Diving Shops and Schools Offsno,.e a,.eas along the entl,.e fll8negement a,.ea's coast a,.e becanlf'19 Increasingly popular for a I~e range ot SCUBA and snorkeling activities. Outside ot Flo,.lda, dives to coral habitats stil I appear quite limited and ar. nonmal Iy Incidental to other underwate,. explo,.atlonal actIvities. This Is not only due to the paucIty ot siZeable assemblages oft other Gulf and south Atlantic states, but also because of the'" distance t,.an the malnlando Off Texas, for example, the Flower Ga,.den 9anks lie some 110 nm (200 km) and ten tr-Ip hour-s tr-an th. nearest port (Port Arthur). Fa,. III)re dl vi ng In neal"'Snore zones Is conducted a,.ound 011 r-Igs, Shlpw,.ecks, and other artificial ,..ets than coral assemblages per sa (Pybas, 1978). A slmlla" situation Is found In south Atlantic states north of ~Iorlda. In southern Florida, however, abundant coral tle"s ot .,arylng species types and sIzes are far ,TOre accessible. In fact, some areas can be reached easily by wading fram snore. ThIs one factor alone nelps to make Flor-Ida a primary destInation for divers or-Iglnatlng not only tr-an FlorIda, but also from th,.oughout the ~negement area and tne otner sections,of the country. The economic value derived fr-om co,.al resources Is exemplified by the fol lowing data from Monroe County, Flo,.lda, encompassing al I ot the Keys. Intormal Interviews with operators r.vealed a total of approximately 44 dive sl'lops operate In that county, Including 14 that run once or 1"Iflce dally during the season d i v I ng and snorke" ng charters to co,.al re.f s. Numerous other pr I vate cl t Izens of fer d i v I ng, snorkel I ng, and g I ass bot1Qn boat excurs Ions to .. eet s. "last of these shop s and serv I cas are located i" thel<ey West, "'ar-atl'lon. and I<ey Largo a,.eas. In tne latte" local., IIIOst boats visit the adjacent John Pennekamp State Park and Key Largo Marine Sanctuary. Numerous r-estaurants, hotels, trailer parks, campgrounds, and souvenir sl'lops parallel the main roads "ear the dive snops; these businesses claim a neavy dependence upon tourIsm gene,.ated by corals and coral r .. t resources. ~s Table 9-3 Illustr-ates, diving equipment outlets (mainly retail) and professIonal Instruction flnns are freque"tly Integ,.ated within one business. DiversifIcation Into salvage and underwater construc tion operatIons Is a characte,.lstlc ot ver-y few enterprises; howeve,., many shops throughout the manage ment area regularly sponsor package diving tours ot either .eekend 0" ful I week dur-atlon to coral sites In Florida. This al I-InclusIve type ot service appeals primarily to out-ot-state diving clubs and schools. For example, Davidson (1979, personal communication) estimates that 50 to 65 percent of his trip clientele In the Florida mlddlel<eys are students from hi;h schools and colleges ho cane I" organ I zed groups. Florida and otne,. Gulf states are also the main damestlc st~lng points for dIve tr-Ips abroad thl"oughout the Car-Ibbean r-Iglon (e.g., San Salvador and tne 9rltish VIrgin Islands). Howeve,., most firms sur-veyed IndIcated that th .. e tr-Ips do not contribute sl;nlflcantly to thel,. total l'ncOM, espe cial Iy when compared to equipment sales. WIthout continued opportunIties fo" dIving i~ hl;h qualIty coral areas, It Is likely that Flo,.lda's enterp,.lses ·.auld suffe" /IIO,.e ser-lously (In economic terms), than tnose located In other- man~ement a,.ea states. DI,.ect equIpment sales or ,.entals as .el I as dIve boat :harte,.. (I •••• flnn-owned boats) specIally designed fo,. coral enthusiasts ,.apresent a significant po,.tlon ot their trade. ~rofesslonal Instruction and certificatIon functions supplement this Income to a great extent. Respondents f,. .. quently Indicated that out-ot-state participation In al I these ~rkets has been expanding rapi~ly ove,. the last few years. ~Ithough sout~ern Florl~a dominates tne p"ovlsi~n ot jl.,lng access to coral a~eas (e.g., the Keys), there a,.e Indications that recent extraneous facto,.s could cut Into market demand In the future. In number of Interviews, r-eterenc. was made to t,e potentially adverse Impact of escalating ;asollne ~ri­ cas upon frequeneles of dive t,.lps Into SOut, Flo,.'da and t,e I(eys. ~pparently, wauld-be customers (especially fram out-ot-state) a,.e al"eady maki~ fewe,. ful I-length t"eks and. as an alte,.natlve, are 9-5 c: o 2 u !.II C1J > ~ !.II -Cj > • ~O'I C1Jr.... ..... 0'1 C:. a~ ~ == ...... ~ I'I:S I ..., I'I:S ~. ~ "i~ ..., U C1J1'I:S GI C1J1.. VlI'I:S = '!! o .... :.. ... • I ~ .. ... 0 ..... ... '" .:~ "'. ... .. '" .. , ... -.:0 .. '" '. = ~ ill = ~ ... ~ ... ::0 ... .... - t:f"I .... c: c: ... ... ~~ '" o 3 =. .... '" ~ .. ..... e: .. ...... c: .. , ... o • ...... c: , ",co. ",0 ... .<: 0", .. co.-.. c: :I.~ ... '" ... = '" .. ~ .. 0" ~ '" '" ~ .. e: 101'1 :0 e: .. . ""~ ....... ~~ "';' '" .. ...... - ... -.. e:" .. 0"' '" -"'. = = '" ... ...... c: ..; ",,, . .<: ... .-... --.. " "'I . .. 0 ~ • .. e: ... ~-~ ... '" e: e: .. -.... 0--e: - ~ e: .. .. .Q .:0 '" .. ... ... .. ..., .. ... ..... e: o '" ...... e: • ..... e: ... ... 01 " .. ~ .., ;.1"1; e: <II .... "" ..... .. ..... e: ..., , ... ... o ~ ..: 5 :.i:= 9-6 <II ! e: • ..... e: .. ..... e: '" <II ... .. ~ .. '" ..... e: • ..... e: .. o '" ! <II '"' Q '" .., '" '" '" '" • ...... e: .. ...... c: • ...... c: ... "' ... ::. = ; 01-.- '" .... "'-...-.... ec: :.. .. <. •• c: c: ~3 .E ="; ;.; . z-'c .. ..... c: ... "? ., turning to noncoral dIvIng sItes situated further northward (e.g., on wrecks and artIficial reefs). So, while there has been no sIgnificant decreese avera I I In coral-related diving to date, Individual divers seem to be gradually shifting tnelr actIvIty to the more accessible coral areas In the north of tne state. Group actIvities are Increasing In frequency (Oavldson, 1979, personal communication). Besides out-of-s~ate consumers, many local dive clubs and associations utilize shops and schools throughout tne management area. Club Ill8lllbershlps affiliated with retail outlets are especially popu I ar and often carry certa I n· d I $Count benef Its on eq ul pment either bough l' or r.nted. IJt~er Ift)re I :"Ifor mal Iy organIzed groups are linked to both forel;n and domestic package travel tours sponsored by dive shops. 9.1.2.3 Tropical ~arlne.Llfe Enterprises Throughout the management region, both IndIviduals and commercial firms are active In the collection, shipment and/or marketing of tropical ~rlne flsn, Inverteor3tes and (to a considerably sma I ler degree), octocorals, and plants natIve to coral 3reas. ~ tew enterprises deal In specImens which are Imported tromabroad, but transactions are at tne wholesale level. Pet shops function as the chief retail jlstrlbutor of tropIcal fish to tne general public. In addition, many people esc-cal led "jobbers") dive for speCimens Independent of any formal business affiliation (on a full- or part-time basis) and regularly sell tnen to wholesale operations or pet shops, whO carry out further :Mrketlng functions. Public and home marine aquaria ar. t1'1e ultimate destInations fo,. most specllftens collected and sold com!nlt-:lally, and serve a variety of ornanental, scientIfic, and educational purposes (Hess and Stevely, draft manuscrIpt). Exclusive of sout~ern FlorIda Croughly tne coastal zone south of Fort Pierce on the east and below Tampa on the west), tnere are few, If any, specimen col lectors wno take coral-associated specIes. T~~ majorIty of partIcipants In tnls user group are concentrated .Itnln Broward, Dade and Monroe Counties. Tne remaInIng portIon of FlorIda, as wei I as the otner seven management area states, mey support tro pical collectIng businesses, but certainly none quite as dependent prlmar/ly upon livIng coral asseno lages. ~onroe County, encompaSSing most of tne Florida Keys, Is an especIally active commercial collection .zone Can estllftated 50 full-time collectors In 1978), due to Its proxllTllty to extensIve reef and hard bottom assemblages. Shallow Inshore areas, for example, yield maInly Invertebrate species, wnereas bridge pilings nave long been popular COllection sites for angel fishes, surgeon fishes, and wrasses. Inshore coral neads also frequently nave tropIcal flsn densities suffIcient enough to justify commer cial collection. Perhaps the best collecting areas lie on the Atlantic Ocean side of tne Keys along nearshore channels and oute" reefs. Ironically, nowever, certain a,.eas of extensive coral ;rowtn (e.g., Sand Key, Loce Key) are often less productive In terms of collection due to tne availabIlity of a multItude of hiding places for fIshes. Even tne wldes~ead usage of quinaldine, an anesthetic drug whIch slows fish movement to facilItate capture by clear plastiC nets, cannot totally neutralIze the reef's function as a provIder of cover. Stll I, coral r .. f assemblages offer the best opportunities to collectors In and around tne FlorIda Keys (Yess and Stevely, draft manuscript). Table 9-4 Illustrates a few of tne more commonly collected reef fishes In Monroe County. ~ngelflsnes, damselflshes, and butte'" I y-f I shes cont I nue to lead all ot,er specl es I n terms of catcn reacn I ng market; between 1974 and 1977, their percentage snares ranged from 25 to 30 percent, 12 to 15 percent, and 10 to 14 pe,.cent respect I vel y. Recent I ndustry growth trends observed I n Monroe County ITIIY be expected to approximate - I f not to " exceed - comparable development patt.rns tor otner prImary collecting counties In soutnern Florida. ~fter a 75 percent Increase In commercial and recreational quinaldine permits granted nere between 1974 and 1975, grOwth In registered col I.ctlon efforts by this method decreaSed to only 1"wo percent 9-7 betw .. n 1977 and 1977. ea.~rclal use (I.e., actl~ltles Invo'~lng col I act Ion of ~~e tnan 100 fish pe~ penwlt yea~) alona raea less sharply o~e~ each survey Interval (33 pe~cent and 20 pe~cent). rwo final Flo~lda Keys trends of particular relevance to tne entl~e management area a~e an apparent Inc~ease of noncounty r .. ldent collecto~s and tne persistence of nl;h turnoye~ ~ates In tne Industry as reflected by requests for penw/t renerals (HeSS and St.,ely, draft manuscript). In addition to t"'e Indl~lduals and flnns harvesting fish and I;nvertebrates :J1~ectly fran coastal watel"'S such as those surrounding the Keys, one canpany In FlorIda also collects reproducIng stoCks of 1Iarlne fish for use In aquaculture operations. ~Ithough out-numbered by actual collecting canpanles, t"'ese recent aquacu Iture ventures have I ndl cated t~at reasonab Ie prof I ts lIIay be recOYe~ed fran labora tory tropical specimen ope~atlons without continually having to visit and harvest In coral a~eas. Howev.~, at thIs time, ~ny p~oblems stll I exist In the culture techniques of "raiSing tropical fisnes (e.g., "'trogen waste poisoning, cannibalism, and nutrition). Table 9-4. Examples of canmonly collected reef fishes In Mon~oe County, Florida. Family Chaetodontldae: ~ngelflshes and 8utte~flyflshes Queen angel fish Blue angelfiSh Rock beauty French angel fI sh Gray angel fIsh Four-eye butterfly Spottln butterfly Sanded butterf I y Reef butterf I y Famll y Serran Idae: ~roupers and Sea Basses "iarlequl n bess Toteccof I sh Butter hallliat Barred hallli et Slue hamlet Source: Hess and Stevely, draft lIIanuscrlpt. Holacanthus cillaris 1:!.. bermuden I s 1:!.. tr I co I or Pomacanthus paru f.. arcuatus Chaetodon caplstratus .£.. ocel latus .£.. str latus .£.. seCentar I uS Serranus trl9rlnus 1.. tabacarl us Hypoplectrus unlcolor !:!.. puella !:!.. gelllll8 As shown In Table 9-5, traplcal speci~en col lectors contacted during t~e Councils' I "fonnal Florida survey depend verl' heavily (50 to 90 percent ,f catch) .Jpon "co~al areas" (I.e., coral reets, nard bottoms, solitary corals) for thel~ fish collections. ~st ot tne ani~als captured are sold to whole salers or retailers (shipped via air frei;ht) outside Florida, altnough t~ls trend was found to be variable between collectors. Several people also regularly export anllllais to customers In Canada and Europe. Employment In the Industry Is quite limited; :nost businesses sel,jan employ more tnan one o~ two people. Gross rncane estimates cons i stentl y ranged fran about 520,000 to as lIIuch as 550,000 per annum; "et Incane quotations, on tne ot~er hand, declined sharply (to only 20 to 50 percent ,f ;ross on ~~e average) largely due to outlays fo~ :Jusiness expansions and other capital Improvements. 9-8 TAHLE 9-5. Selected data frOl,i interviews uith tropical specimen collectors in florida, April - ,July. 1979. All collectors resided in Broward, Dade, and '·lonroe Counties. [HPLOYHS flAH I COLL[CTrO III 5£A- APPRO •• GROSS COO( 8101A (OtHellO c;oML AIIlAS IMAkE T UT£Nl HAAU I TYPE S ANNUAl. SOfW. ANNUAL SALlS A fhh •• n es. 95% on hlrd bot t AI.ast III ShipPed 851 wholeulers 0 $40,000 9ur,,"nltns. wonas, (corlls. roels. to other slltes In 151 rrtiliers sponges. pltnts. and r&j)b!e. etc.) .anag~t Irel. In I,() .. nr Invertebrdtes. U.S., elporled; <5% I In stde. I,() 8 fish I Invertebrates. 15% In (orals n/a n/I n/I n/I C fish (SO%) Ind 98% In live corlls 1M out-ot-stile, 1001 to reulJen 0 SlO.OOO Invertebrltes (SOl) or hlrd bottOM 251 ellport; 51 Ind wholesllers In florida 0 fish I Invertebrale$ 60s In corals, 401 1001 In Florl~. 1001 to Nholesllers 0 S20-3O,OOO In 9raues .,stl, In IN. (ly •. [ fish' invertebrates su.e f~ reefs I About 1]1 In stlt •• 1001 for dbplay or 5 0 n/a gr.assy nelS 611 outside ..... g .. reselrel! (Ibout 2000 t lrel IIsh IMlNlly) f rhh 151n) Ind About SO-601 of fish GeonJII, l'lIu. All ..e.oleslJe now. 2 0 140-50,000 !nvertebrltes (50:) Ind Inwertebrltes Loulsllna And els.- 'Gr.r', reull fra. corll IrelS .... ,.. In U.S.; c.udl n/I • not availlble. • At the lower end ot this InCCNe seale, reported net figures compare favorably .Ith annual ~roflts calculated by Hess and St.,ely (draft rnanuscrlpt) from a SIIIIIII survey of ~onroe County collectors. ~et Incomes .ere projected at S9,5oo for an average yearly work effort of 2,000 hours or ~ 54.75 per hour. Together, fixed and variable expenses totaled $3,900, thereby reducing annual 3ross dollar returns on catch by an estlrnated 29 percent. Except for cert~ln uncommon species or foreign varieties which must be Imported, ~Iorlda's domestic collection Industry clearly functions as a ",ajor tropical specllft8n supplier for ead'l of tne renal n l'19 states adjoining t!le manag8lft8nt area and tl'1e rest of the cc:untry. ~ost collectors contacted anphaslzed a marked preference for 5II1II11 business hierarchies. In many ':ases, by doing al I the collecting, shipping, and /llarketlng, they are able to earn substantially hl;ner tnan average Incomes; however. they IIIUst also work long hours. The latter element seans to effectively 11",lt new Industry entrants and to dr-Ive many /llarglnal oper-atlons away fr-om the collecting sector-. ~any r-espondents heve established extensive supply channels .Ith foreign markets (e.g., Canada, England). other- collectors .ho dive elsewher-e In Florida, com~r-clal flshennen Ce.g., tr-awlers who Incidentally catch marketable anllllals), and certain retail outlets. A final noteworthy characteristic of Florida's tr-oplcal specl n collection Industry - as well as compar-able businesses located thrc:ughout the remainder of the management area - Is their subjection to Incr-eased pr-Iclng competition from forel;n Imports. Exotic species originating from the ~aclflc region, for- example. continue to arrive on the American market sometimes ~re cheaply than domestically-caught fishes, alt~ugh they IIIay be different species. loIowever, due to air shl~nt times and t~e use of drugs, forel;n stocks often arrive In poor condition. To date, therefore, Impor tation has been pursued In or-der to alleviate domestic supply shortages, to provide different species, and not ~ur-ely due to for-el;n mar-ket pr-Ice differ-entlals compared to American tr-oplcals. On the contr-ary, some of the mor-e rare and exotic species bring premium prices. 9.1.3 Associated Businesses The cor-a I ~r-ket Is deeply Intertwined with tr-ade In seashel Is from forel;n Importation stages r-Ight thrc:ugn wholesale distribution and retail sales processes. To a lesser extent, the specialty je.elr-y sector- Is also linked to tr-ade In coral products, but primar-lly for "finished" items. Close proximity to thriving coral assemblages has historically ser-ved to concentrate most coral .holesaler-s and retaller-s i~ Flor-Ida. aesplte the fact that Incr-eased r-ellance upon Impor-tatlon theoretically fr-ees businesses located elsewhere In the Gulf and south Atlantic area from bel~ dependent on tnese suppliers, both marketing traditions and the ability of Florida wholesalers to Import In lar;e (and ther-efor-e r-elatlvely economical) quantities helps to maintain their lead role In regional distribution. These wei I-established operatIons also heve reliable Impor-t connections, a critical factor in a time when rumored tl'1reats of foreign coral export restrictions are regularly surfaCing among domestic users. The Inter-vlew data (see Table 9-6 for select Inter-vlew details) Indicate that there are a handful of coral .holesalers In the manag~nt area who control most large-scale IIIIportatlon and distribution functions. One of the largest Is located In Florida, employs over 100 people, and has an annual total sales figure of .el lover SI mil lion; however, coral-related income comprises only el;ht to ten per cent of this particular firm's gross income estimate. On the other hand, some smal I (largely two to three person) wholesale businesses continue to survive, although their- dealings In coral appear to be declining, both In absolute quantity and as a percentage of annual firm Incane. \lost retail outlets surveyed reportedly derive a slIIall portion of their sales Income (;enerally, less than 15 percent) from coral product trade. Gift shops In particular tend to deal In only a few pieces of polished coral or coral je.elr-y settings at ~ny one time and sel~ Import those dlr-ectly. ~t surprisingly, those firms sel "ng directly to the public and whiCh r-egularly Import fr-om abroad lllal~ tain more extensive stock levels and estimate hl;her coral-related incane contributions. 9-10 \D i 0-..... TAIU.E 9-6, Selected data from intervieus with cordl ~Iholesalers and retdilers in the rtana')emen t I\rea. Apr i) 1979, ~IAI[/fIRH (00[ IYP( I. Flodd. A. n. f. II. I. I,·u\ A. 8. 1. Hissis\il'l.i A. 4. I uui\i .. llo1 II. o. !>. NlJrlh I.~""! iUd 6. 1~'u"'li.1I A. o. *11 ""ulesale~ Hedh.-slled wlioles41"fI' I lin", Ipi,l i I~r 11,'1,1 i I \ .... 1. I I .. iled .. IMlle~.s II'; s,- ,·el.sil Gifl \hop Ill' I" II \hIIl' lie 1,1 i I shUl' lIel .. 1i 1 ... .-iU \hul' RI'UIi'liH \1101' Rel.1I '11tt sl.,I' Rl'llIil 'JiH .1 ..... Alit I ~ 11M If II SIIII S l/lflllI. (lRAl IOIAl RUAII 0 20 560-100,000 I~ R/. R/a R/a 40 over SI .111100 11-10'1 40 S 1411,0118 10" WIIIII IHI'tIRIAIION 01 IAII S IJo,X Phil 11'1,lnes; !IX lia III 'l'iX Phi 1II'I,ln,,\ (lti"" II ILl II I I'h II il'loilll'\ U In ,11'.' wllrth I"'" 11111"'" lin' Phi I il'l,ille ( " '. ,111111/ r".11 ) II 11/. .. Inis<ull' ""'"' simI' 1'111 n/. S IllO ,flOP 1/1 R/. n/;» n/. 1 II? SllO,nOIi n/. $711,0110 4 .. /. 2:t l!il 11 IX 11 I: 111- ",I. nUlle; vi. whole \ .... ·r ;'4 I Urf' Io,n < ouo Ides; .'111111), 1 .... 111 & I'lidfic I'oll\heol \1'11 Inqs (f",. 11.1)') Hone dlrell (via "" ... I.".ler !MinI' oIirl!(1 (vi. wllo'ps.ler) IIIIIII! .. it'ec I Iv I. whlllp\lIl .. d "'''"' ,Ii. f" I (vi .. wh"I, ..... II'.·) U/d ,"'1 " ... ,1"1.1,, IIf , •• , .. .,,1 i, <1,.1 •• , '--- '.'/ ["PIOY[I S SI A I'RIHAIIY HARJ(II NOIftAI SUNAl OlllfR RlHARkS florida 'Jlft 1-1 \IIo"s Rel.11 outlf'Is. I~ ',01 in-sUlf'; 'oOloul-ot-H.I" i lu,'lda and \uulhe4sl USA lUll' I lorida lour i~l !I-Ii ",·IA ..Inly In- sidle 10e.1 tour I s. other relallen; lourlsts loul loul loul !t01 lou I; !l01 lourlst 10 •• 1 lourhlll :? II Ii n/a 1 1 4 Wlllllf>\.le sea\h,,11 uo'l,mled I in. (or41 jrwelr), oui .. !r (oral Jewelrv onl, tU'1I1 ....... I.l .. \ 4nol lu\IOO. j ........ r The primary Import source for wholesalers and ~etalle~s alike continues to be the ~aclflc region, with most coral products originating In the Indian Ocean and ~hlllppln .. vIcinitIes. Custom-ordered cases are •• ported to the United States by boat for destInations at select west coast, Gulf and sout, Atlantic ports of entry, with the exception of speCial pleca orders and already polished jewelry set tIngs. ~I I Is the study area's prImary offloadlng poInt. Coral nonnally ar~lves In Its rtJtI COl'" at most ~Inl~al Iy cleaned) form, thus escaping Import dutIes. OccasIonally, Import crates contain various combinations of shel Is and coral ~Ixad together. ~holesalers In Florida eIther do thel~ own cleaning prior to distribution, or alse I"'esel I unp~ocessed coral cases to smaller wholesalers and I"'atallers who, In turn, prepare ~oducts for sale thamsel~s. The technology of ~rocesslng Is fai~ly simplistic and relatively InexpensIve. Depending upon tha particular retail ma~ket destined to be servad, coral Is offared for sale alther as unmounted pieces, or In a variety of more stylIzed Ca.;., polished. InlaId, etc.) product forms. Income gene~ated f~om coral sal.s varies accordIng to volume and the type of coral sold. Corals vary In price depending on the species and sIze of the pIece (see Table 9-7 and teKt). An aesthetic factor 15 doubtless also Involved In price setting. Generally, wholesale prIces are marked up two or three times over prices paid to col lectors, with the latter receiving about 51.00 to S6.00 per piece. Highest prices are commanded by selected plecas of elkhorn (Acropora. palmata) and colonies removed .Ith bases Intact so they can be used as centerpieces or In aquaria (sea also discussion In Section 8.2). 9.2 Domestic ~~ocessln9 Sector Most of the businesses Involved In coral Industries .Ithln the management area process their own corals, because Imported corals are much cheaper .hen rtJtI than .hen cleaned and bleached. In addi tion, processing of raw corals Is a low technology activity. Thus, the damestlc sactor can process as ~uch of the resource as becomes available to It. It Is expected that the damestlc sector .11 I process a vol.Jme equal to OY plus Imports. 9.3 International Trade 9.3.1 ~I"'esent Status The domestic coral Industry within the management area Is supported by corals from the caclflc, the ~editerl"'anean, and Haiti. Although a smal I percent~e of the coral jewelry Is made f~om domestic pre cious coral stocks In Hawaii, all othar corals are foreign Imports. The results of a random sampling of tan daalers and Involcas revealed that the ~hillpplnes are the primary source of Imports (Table 9-2). Further discussion of cora' Imports and sales Is presented in Section 10.1. ~aclflc corals are Imported primarily from the chlllppines, where coral abundance and the costs of labor have combIned to ylald much lower prices t"an existed ·in Florida before the coral law of 1976. Table 9-9 IdentifIed tha mora comlll)nly Imported species. Ot.,el'" economic data on Philippine Imports (amount and value of corals on Involcas, relative Importance of ~aclflc corals to the Import markat, and tha mean wholesala prlca of corals by speci~ and size) are presented In Tables 9-7 to 9-10 • . Wails (1981) reported oval'" 1.6 mil I Ion kgs .of coral Imported into t'e Un I ted States from the PhIlippInes over tha three-year period 1976 t"lrough 1978. These stony corals ara p~lmarily for sale as curIos. ~wevar. a recant Interview .ith Phlllppina officials Indicates that the ~hllippines have rest~lcted coral exports (PhIlippine Embassy, 1979). A small amount of coral ramalns available but may be II ml ted to that a I ready harves ted. "'editerl"'anean corals, red corals (Co~allium ~ubrum) from Italy and Itt:"!e !4edlter~anean Sea" were seen In several FlorIda, -;eorgla, and. !4aryland jewelry stores as pollsl'led beadS for bracelets, necklaces, rings, and ear~lngs. 9-12 Table 9-7. wholesale price Ils~s for Caribbean corals from domestic or Haitian waters based on 197L and 1973 Invoices reviewed during Informal Interviews of Florida shel I shop personnel. Elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata Fire coral, Millepora alclcornls Lettuce coral, Agarlcla agarlclte. 15 em pieces S 1.50 to $ 3.00 35 em piece. 5.00 to 10.00 60 em pieces 10.00 to 21.00 15 em pieces S 1.00 to S 3.00 50 em pieces 9.50 to 19.00 15 em piece. $ 1.00 to S 30 00 46 em piece. 10.00 to 20.00 15 em pieces S 1.00 to S 3.00 Eye coral, Ocullna arbuscula Brain coral (Includes Dlchocaenla, Dlplorla, Meandrlna, Montastraea) Sma I I pieces 6 to 8 em In diameter $ 4.00 to $9.00. Pillar coral, Oendrosyra cyllndrus 15 em piece' $ 1.50 to $ 3.00 30-63 em pieces 4.50 to 23.00 Other Caribbean corals that sporadically appeared In the marketplace In si~llar price ranges .ere: Flattened pieces of low bral~ coral, Dlplorla cllvosa Eye coral, Olchoeoenla stokes I I Delicate finger coral, Porl~les furcata Regular finger coral, Porltles porltles St~r coral, Eusmilia fastigiate Encrusting fire coral, Millepora complanata ~tlantlc cluster coral, Ocullna dlffusa ~oon coral, Colpophyilia natans Stump coral, Solenastrea hyades Source: Thomas, 1979. personal cOmmunication. Table 9-8. Compilation of dealer InvoIce data tor corals I~ported Into Miami, Florida, befYeen October 1976 and October 1978 by ten dealers. Period Jealer Total Invoices Coral Invoice. Coral Invoices Covered by I Invoices w/Coral from Philippines from ~altl Invoices l 46 14 11 3 4/3/76 - 9/4/78 2 39 8 8 0 2/8/77 - 9/21/78 3 103 8 8 0 ~y 1977 - 9/13/78 4 58 21 20 1 4/12/77 - 9/19/78 5 57 12 II I 6 20 II 9 2 12/21/76 - 4/4/78 7 23 7 5 2 8 23 2 2 0 10/1 1/76 - 9/7/78 9 31 14 10 4 10/11/76 - 10/15/76 10 59 22 22 0 6/29/77 - 10/31/78 Proportional value of Pacific coral to ot,er Itams (shel Is, curios, etc.) on the Invoices: range - 23 to 100 percent mean - 59 percent HaItIan corals represent the only sIgnifIcant ~ecent sou~ce of ~tlantlc specIes to the domestic market. However, as shown In Table 9-8, domestic Imports fran 'ialtl nave been greatly curulled by a 1976 HaItian goverrtllent ben on export of corals. Hence, althougl'l an Indust~ of collection and snip ment thrIved wltl'l the clQlure of FlorIda g~ounds, there Is cur~ently no legal coral flsl'lery In ~altl. Table 9-9. PacIfIc corals Imported fram tne PhIlippInes Into tne UnIted States. Tab Ie 9-10. Quant I ty Fish and FInger: Branch: 8rusn: .. Cluster: L.ace: O~gan l=Ii pe: B i rdnest: 9lue: 80wl: Cau II f I o.er: Catspaw: MusnrOQn: and va I ue of Acropora mlllepora Acropora a~cuata Acropora vaugl'lanl Poclllopora verrucosa Poclliopora ~ Tublpora muslca Serlatopora compresca Favona vaugl'lanl Paranalomlt~a pl'll"ppensls Poclllopora sp. Unknown FungI asp. Imported corals as "sted on 15 I nvolces on file .11'1'1 WildlIfe Sel"Vlce 1:'1 Mi3ll1, Florida. Invoices cover 1976 to 1979. tne U.S. I nv. I P I aces of Co~a I Dollar Value Value pel'" ;l i eee 1 11,509 S2 ,347.80 SO.20 2 20,360 2,168.80 0.11 3 1,0,555 1,603.45 0.15 4 3,402 703.43 0.21 5 4,465 716.35 0.15 6 23,315 3,687.80 0.15 7 34,422 3,286.40 ).09 8 9,802 2,520.45 ;.26 9 17,602 1,928.25 0.10 10 11,236 1,848.52 0.16 11 9,554 1,909.05 0.20 12 15,456 4,509.05 0.29 13 10,187 1,678.50 0.16 14 13,750 1,574.50 0.11 15 3,446 '.'43.45 0.33 TOTALS 199,161 S31,526.15 Mean prIce/pIece for al I InvoIces • SO.16 Source: Thomas, 1979, personal canrnun Icatlon. 9-14 9.3.2 Future Projections With tne severe decline of Philippine and closure of Haitian stockS to exports, tne sources of ~st corals sold In tne management area are apparently no longer available. The most II~ely result ot tnese export laws ".111 be a shift to undeveloped /!IIIrkets elsewnere In tne Pacl flc and/or ·:arlbbean. Increased poacnlng presslre on domestic stocks /!Illy also oCaJr rf torel;n stocks can not support demand. In addition, It foreign supplies are severely restricted. tnere Is a large potential for Increased pressure to harvest domestic corals~ 10.0 DESCRIPTION OF BUSINESSES, ~ARKETS, AND ASSOCIATED ORGANIZATIONS WITH THE RESOURCE 10.1 Relationships Among Ha~vestlng, B~oke~lng, and P~ocesslng Secto~s The ha~este~s and nonconsumptlve use~s were described In Section 9.0. The commercial 10mestic nar vest "as been described as small with the product used la~gely in the scientific and educational fielj or In the aquarium trade. In The aqua~lum Trade, the live p~oduct Is usually sold to retail aqua~lum shops by wl'lolesalers. Some dlve~-coll.CTO~S who p~ovlde specimens to biological supply neuses and pharmaceutical companies in t~e scientific and educational use, also se~e as .holesal.~s. So fa~ as is known, the specimen stony corals In shell shops is imported. It' Is conceivable t"la t so~e is Taken from t"e FeZ off Flo~ida and sold in violation ot state law, but the .xtent of this is proD ably small. From conversations with Flo~ida coral distributo~s and retalle~s, iT seems that many co~al-assoclated businesses situated out-ot-sTate annually make a vacation trek southWa~d (du~lng Thel~ off season), at .hich time bulk suppl ies of co~al and shells are purChased. In addition, so-called coral "jobbers" originaTing in Florida a~e also known to conduct wholesal. ma~k.tlng tou~s In south AtlanTic coastal resort areas and cities on a ragula~ basis. Ve~y tew Flo~lda-based wholesale~s otf.~ large order shipment/delive~y se~ices themselves. cerhaps tne most si3nlficant business trends in this user g~ouP relate to a g~adual movemenT out of ."olesaling functions accompanied by tne expanded stOCkpiling of coral p~oducts to support reTailing operations. In pa~t, this retied's an undercu~rent of suspicion - particula~ly by major .holesalers that existing fo~ei~n supplies may soon j~y up completely. Consequently, bulk co~al SUPPlies are reportedly in some instances being increased to last at least two to th~e. yea~s. "4ost small ~et~il tir~ respondents, howeve~, even tnose imporTing co~al directly, expresSed little conce~n over supply endangeMent and to date have eric:xJntered no ;lroolems (except fo~ steep price rises) in 3etting ~st all co~al species tney requi~e. In Florida itself, tne coral ''!I8~chandising "Iarket has had several years to adjust to the 1976 law pr~ ~ioiting most taking in state wate~s and possession ot most uncured specimens. While it is li~ely that certain .holesale~s and ~.taile~s (especial Iy o~e-pe~son ope~ato~s) ~ay have left the coral ~arketing sector in the Int.~lm, no d~astic alterations in business entry or exit rates nave yet been reported. ~st firms appea~ to have compensated for the loss of an easily accessible domestic fisnery by Increasing foreign Importation and expanding t~e scale of their sea shel I sales capacity. The relationship among the nonconsumptive users is less clearly defined due to the absence of a Tanglbl. product follOWing a t~ade route. Individuals who patronize charTer bOats and dive shops may combine thei~ coC"al watChing with othe~ recreational activities SUCh as fishing o~ photog~aphy • . In addition to the use~ g~oups desc~ibed above, one othe~ industry sector is indirectly dependent upon tne management of living co~al assemblages tor economic ~evenue. The Newfound Ha~bo~ ~a~ine Institute (~HMI) operation at 91g Pine Key - a private, nonp~oflt, SCientific and educational, and rec~eational organization, - offers one of the most comprenensive ma~ine educaTion oppo~Tunities in tne entire Florida ~eys. Founded in 1966, ~HMI's diverse year-round p~og~ammatic offerings range from summer camp, resea~ch, and community educaTion efforts, to workshops and i~Tern prog~ams fo~ boTh students and teachers aT all instructional levels. Special emphasis on most ~HMI prog~ams Is placed on coralS and coral reef resources (Becker, 1979, personal communicationl. Nea~ly al I ~HMI p~ograms evenTually focus upon the nea~by, ~ooe ~ey co~al reef's eCOSySTem as .el I 3S other assemblages located in tne ~en.r~1 vicinity. The oppo~tunlty' to make day-long diving trips :Jut 11).1 to coral habitat areas for educational, recreational and sclentic purposes is undoubtedly a key fac tor In NHMI success and expansion over the last 13 years. Clearly, a substantial portion of t~ei~ operating Incane Is dependent upon continued access to, and cautious activity In and around, tnrilli"lg coral eoneentratlonso 10.2 CooperatIves and AssocIations Collectors of tropical reef fishes. bot~ professional and amateur, utilize the coral ~eefs as a !'laoi tat source for specimens. Many of the professionals are members of the Florida "'arlne Lite AssociatIon. however, almost al I market their catch Independently as wholesalers. Amateur col lectors may often be members of tropical aquarium societies which sponsor tiel~ collecting trips to coral reef areas. There are also local and statewide associations of charterboat operators, divers, and recreational 3nd commercial fishermen. AI I of these may be at some time nonconsumptlve users of the coral reets. 10.3 Labor Organizations Survey respondents reported no tormal affll lations wl~- any state, regional, or national labor organizations. Along with the apparently deliberate preference for nonunlonlzed labor by firm owners, this finding reflects the predominately smal I size of coral resource-associated businesses located within the management area. 10.4 Foreign Investment In t~e sensa of there being parent companies based outside the United States which own, or substan tial Iy cont~ol, domestic, commercial enterprises associated with coral resources, no evidence of forei3n investment has been determined. 10-2 11.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE SOCIAL ANO CULTURAL FRAMEWORK OF USER GROUPS AND THEIR COMMUNITIES AS desc~lbed above In previous sections, the~e Is not a dl~ect co~al fishery nor any associated Indus~l .. that ~aly upon harvested domestic co~als as a major Income source. The~efore, instead of discussing tha social and cultu~al cha~acte~istlcs of coral fishe~n, Section 11.0 Is necessa~ily redIrected toward the va~lous use~s of the resou~ce (dive~s and sno~kele~s, Gllve shops, Shall shops. visitors to cora.l assemblages, e.g., party boats, tropical specimen collectors, shall collectors, lobster fishermen) and the general population of the coastal a~ea. In lieu of tabulating data on al I counties In the management a~ea, 15 rep~esentative coastal counties near Onslow Say (North Carolinal. G~ayts Reef (South Carolina and Georgia). the Florida ~eef t~act (Florida), the Flo~ida ""iddle~rOc..lndS (Flo~lda), the topog~aphlc highS and corals of the eastern Gulf of ~ .. ico (Alabama, ~Isslssippl. LouiSiana, and Texas), and the Flowe~ Ga~den Sanks (Louisiana and Texas), have bean selected (Figu~e 11-1). Ext~apolations of these data to all coral user'S o~ to all coastal counties In the management a~ea must be made wi th caution. Little detailed Info~tlon exists focusing on the soclo-cultu~al f~amework of coral use~ g~oups. Nene theless, this section of the plan can, to a I imited extent, desc~lbe these groups and outline ~elevant social statistics. For example, the significance of SCUBA divers and snorkelers Is port~ayed In Table 11-1. Clea~ly, portions of the management a~ea, especially those nea~ corals, a~a favorite destina tions of diving enthus·iasts. Supportive users and Indust~les such as dive shops, shell shops. charter boats, and the hotel/~estaurant trade also benefit econamlcal Iy from the attractiveness of coral a~eas to tourists. T~opical specimen collection, an Indust~y valued In excass of one mil lion dol lars annually in Flo~ida (Sright and Jaap, in press), relies heavily upon ~.ef fishes. The fol lowing discussions must also be qualified to ~eflect the relationship between the general popu lation of the coastal counties and coral use~ g~oups; direct pa~a'l.'s are difficult to esUbllsh. Secondly, many users may not live in the coastal counties. ""ertens (1977). fo~ example. found that ~nly four percent of 191 respondents to a charter fishennen survey in Texas resided in coastal cOc..lnties. excluding Houston in Har~is County. Some businesses indirectly dependent upon coral. e.g •• hotel owners near the Florida reef t~act, may n8Ye~ visit the corals personally. Other use~s may derive only a portion of thei~ total g~oss income tram coral-~elated activities yet visit coral assemblages ~egula~ly. 11.1 Ethnic Cha~acte~, Family St~uctu~e, and Community O~ganlzatlon 11.1.1 Ethnic Cha~acter The ethnic characte~ of the general population within states bordering the management a~ea is Included In the 1970 Census of Population camplled by the U.S. Department of Labor. Generally, the populations In the 15 selected coastal counties are American-bo~n and white (Table 11-2). The ethnic mix varies between states with blacks, Cubans, and ~exicans camp~ising most of the minority populations in South Carolina/Georgia, Florida, and Texas, respectively. Populations of ~rench descent are uniquely cammon In the delta region of Louisiana. Specific Into~atlon on the ethnic cha~cter of most coral user g~oups is lacking. ~any user'S a~e tourists originating fram outside the state (e.g., divers visiting the Florida ~eys (see Skin Olver Magazine, 19791) or outside the coastal county (e.g., charter bOat passengers (see 01 tton,-;tar:: 19181). Hence, county ethnlcity data i, Table 11-2 may not accurately portray some us.r groups. Furthennore the ethnic cha~acter ot the tourists has not yet been assessed. Unfortunately, there have ~ .. n no user group studies that identify botn origin and destination. Based upon limited observations and info~al i,terviews, many Florida shel I shops (retail sales of snsl Is, corals, and other items) appear to be owned, managed, and/or operated by American white tamilies. Collectors of the shel Is and cora,s may be members of a minority or national group other 11-1 Ij ,- 80.-- ,~ IU > vi 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1- ,. j -,- r I [... I ' I /---. -' lOS M~PIIC 100 8. Pasco Co., Fla. 9. franklin CO., Fla. 10. Caldwin Co., Al. 11. Jackson Co., Miss. 12. Terrebonne Co., lao 13. Jefferson Co., Tx. 14. Galveston Co., Tx. 1'5. Brazoria Co., Tx. 1 \ I I I I I I, 1 \ \ \ " \ \ \ 95 90 85 80 I \ . \ \ .----" \ .' \ \ . \ t ---: \ ... .,,--, .. -... \ , \ • \ \ I <a .. 15 ----. .-. . . --- . IGURE 11-1. Coastal counties in the states under Gulf of ltexico and South Atlantic Fishery t1andqemcnt Counci I jurisdiction that are sUlllmarized in Sections l1.i-iii on social and cultUrdl characteristics. '1, J' • " IJ \ \ 1.15' 1, Table 11-1. A1!!..!!.~~agazlne national poll of 2,451 subscribers (1,424 respOnses) reveIIled ""Ie follOWing breakdown by state of where rellders travel for out of state dlYing tri~s. 9esed on multIple answers (adapted fran ~~ MagazIne, 1979). DESTINATION in management area F lor I da coas l' FlorIda Keys Texas North Carol I na outsIde l'IIanll9ement area Calltornia - south north offsllore ~ew Jersey 'III i scons i n New York !.Iichl;an ~hode Island III i noi s Mas sachu setts Connecticut MaIne "ash i ng1'on other ( Ins i::le or outs I je "I1anagement area) PERCENT ''''He TRAVELED 32.9 35.6 6.3 4.1 '14.6 6.2 8.8 9.9 5.4 7.2 5.1 5.4 3.0 5.1 2.5 1.8 3.3 20.2 Total~ationwide Percent Travel I ng Out-ot-State on Dive T,...,ps Annually 38.8 DestInation not stat~speci flc, e.g •• "to Great Lakes" or "to Gul f of !.IexicO" 1'han American wh ite, e.g., Ph III ppl ne coral colleaors, Cuben shell collec1'ors. Simi larl y, d i ... e sllops are mos1'ly whit~owned throughout 1'he Florida Keys. Reviews of historical reco,...ds, ledgers, and DookS In the sou1'h Florida area revealed that American blacks, CuOllns, 9ahamians, and Haitians were aalve to va,...ylng extents In legally harvesting corals wIthIn the fIshery conservatIon zone be1'Ween 1890 and 1970. Monroe and Dade Counties In FlorIda adjacen1' to the reef tract and coral-related industries, Include several e1'hnic or minority groups (see TaDle 11-2). The 1970 population of 52,586 in Monroe County Included 4,222 blacks (eight percent) and 5,650 residents with Spanish surnames (eleven percent). Dade County includes a higher percentage ot ethnics, primarily of Cuban descent. Among spIny lobster fIshermen In Florida, data on state licenses ;ran1'ed in 1977 to 1978 sllow 24.1 per cent of the 1,701 lIcensees 1'0 have a SpaniSh surname; In 1965 to 1966, the seasonal percentage as only 8.2 percent (Centaur Associates, Inc., 1979). ~st licensees lived and fished in the ~iarni, Maratllon, and Key west areas of ~ade and Monroe Counties. 11~3 Table 11-2e General population ethnic characteristics tor 15 coastal counties adjacent to t~e F:Z.. :)E:RCE~i COUNTY F'OP'JLAT ION ·ORE:I IN COUNTY, STATE TOTAL DENSITY/mI 2 WHITE SLACK OTHER 3OR~ Onslow, North Carolina 103.126 134.8 86,516 15.180 1,430 1.3 Seaufort, South Carolina .51,136 88.3 33,864 16,868 424 I.J Chatham, Georg i a 187,767 421.9 123,295 63,676 796 I • I Palm Beach, Florida 348,753 172.4 286,460 61,015 1,278 7.9 Dade, Florida .. 1,267,792 620.9 1,071,662 189,666 6,464 24.2 "'on 1"08 , Florida 52,586 50.9 42,690 4,222 674 5.3 Pinellas, Florida 522,329 1,971.1 478,043 42,765 1,521 7.5 Pasco, Florida 75,955 102.4 71,924 3,781 250 7.3 Franklin, Florida 7,065 13.2 5,730 1,323 12 1.4 3aldwin, Alabama 59,382 37.6 48,650 10,569 163 1.3 JaCkson, "'ississlppi 87,975 119.5 73,547 14,258 170 0.9 Terrebonne, louisiana 75,049 55.6 52,251 11,423 2,375 0.4 Jefferson, Texas 244,773 257.4 183,100 61,064 609 1.2 3al."esTon, Texas 169,812 425.5 135,480 33,314 1,018 2.7 3razoria, Texas 108,312 76.1 97,685 10,137 490 1.5 Sour::e: AdapTed from ~.S. ~eparTmenT of :ommerce, 1973 - Tables 9, 34, and 43. Table 11-3. General populaTion characteristics related to family structure of people In 15 coaSTal counties from North Carolina TO Texas. TOTAL TOTAL F'ECPLE IN COUNTY, STATE F'OPULATION HOUSEHOLDS MALE FE."'AlE Onslow, North Carolina 103,126 77,409 53,567 39,459 Beaufort, Sout,.. CaroHna 51,136 41,579 29,517 21.519 Chatham, ~eorgia 187,757 182,929 89,940 97,827 Palm Beach, Florida 348,753 342,380 166.382 182,37 I Dade, Florida 1,267,792 1,244,337 602.095 665.697 "10"1"08, FlorIda 52,586 48,549 28,181 24,405 Plnel'las, Florida 522.329 51 3.834 240,397 281,932 Pasco, Florida 75,955 74.589 36,387 39,118 Franklin, Florida 7,065 7,057 3.429 3,536 Baldwin, Alabama 59,382 58,772 29.032 30,350 Jackson, "'isslsslppl 87,975 87,458 43,898 44,077 Terrebonne, Louisiana 75,049 75,788 37,822 38,227 Jefferson, Texas 244,773 241.239 118.638 125,090 ~al \/eSTon, Texas 169,812 167,346 92,884 95,923 Brazori a, Texas 108,312 104,015 56,357 51.955 Source: AdapTed from U.S. DepartmenT of :ommerce. 1973 - Tables 9. 34, and 36. 11-4 11.1.2 Family St~ucture T,he only Information avallabl. on family st~uctu~e pertains to the general POPulation, summe~ized Mere for 15 coastal counties (Tabl. 11-3). Those census ~ata show over 90 percent of tne ci tizens to be livIng In households In all counties except Onslo ..... ortn Carolina. and Beaufort. Soutn Carolina. In Dade and Mon~oe Counties. Florida, the 1970 Census of °opulatlon listed 329.695 and 13.565 tamil ies o~ mean family sizes of 3.8 and 3.9. respectively. Poculation ~atios of ~ales to temales vary between counties but fal I .Itnin national ranges; temales Sllghtly outnumber males (Table 11-3). Among divers, 90.2 pe~cent of tne ~espondents to a national survey .. ere male (lli!!..£!.:!!!:.Magulne. 1979). Nearly hal t (49.4 percent) of those same respondents we~e ~r~ied. 42.4 percent single. and 8.2 pe~cent .Ido.ed or divorced. Tne 1970 Census of F'opul'atlon also tabu.lated indicators of-economic .ell-belng'on a county basis. These data a~e summarized in Table 11-4 tor tne IS-county sample and presented In greater deptn tor Dade and Monroe Counties (near tne Flo~ija reef tract) In Table 11-5. Table 11-6 lists the housenold incanes of divers (SCUBA and snorkel) trom tne 1979 nationwide survey. Over 64 pe~cent of tne recreational diver ~espondents .e~e membe~s of nousenolds ea~ning over S20.000 per year .nlle nearly 30 percent made more tnan 535.000 annually. Among cnarterboat Client's in Texas. "'ertens (1977) ~eport8d that 78 pe~cent earned ove~ S20,OOO per year and 21 percent over S50.000; tne ave~age Income was S33,OOO. Inferences to tne various othe~ co~al user ;roups in tnls management area must oe made caut iousl y trom tne general I ntormat ion pr'!sentad here. Table 11-4. ~edlan and per capita incomes in the 15 sample counties adjacent to the management area. COUNTY. STATE "lEDIAN INCOME (S) PER CAPITA INCOME (S) 01'1510 •• North Carolina 6.471 2,205 3eaufort. Soutn Carol I na 5.590 2~243 Chatham, Georgia 8,245 2.671 ~alm 3each. Florida 9. 112 3.893 Dade. Florida 9,245 3,467 "'on roe, Florida 7 ,334 2.842 F'inellas, Florida 7,642 3.300 Pasco, Florida 4,998 2,342 Frankl In. Florida 4,338 1.554 Saldwln. Alabama 7,338 2,268 Jackson, ~isslsslppl 8,548 2,528 Terrebonne, Louisiana 8,338 2,182 Jef ferson, Texas 9,024 2,928 .Galveston, Texas 9,778 3,036 Srazorla, Texas 10,435 2,964 Source: Adapted from Tables 44 and 124 fran U.S. Department of ':ommerce, 1973. 11-5 Tabl.,'-S. Income breakdown tor Monroe and Dade CountIes, Florida, for the total populatIon. ~ERCENT BY I NCC»tE LEVEL DADE COUNTY "40NROE COUNTY a - 1,999 5.2 8.5 2,000 - 4,999 15.8 20.5 5,000 - 5,999 13.0 18.4 7,000 - 9,999 19.5 20.5 10,000 - 14;999 23.9 19.5 15,000 - 24,999 15. I 9.3 25,000 - 49,999 5.1 2.4 50,000 - :nore 1.3 0.5 Source: Adapted from U.S. DeparTment of Commerce, 1973. Table 11-6. Household incone of ~i',ers res;lOndi"9 to a nationwide survey conducted for 1!.!.!!.~ "'agazine (1979). HOUSEHOLD INCOME BRACKET U~ER sa,ooo 8,000 - 9,999 10,000 - 11,999 12,000 - 14.999 15,000 - 17,499 17,500 - 19,999 20,000 - 24.999 25,000 - 34.999 35,000 - and up Median Household Income: S24,479 11-6 ~~~CE~T OF ~ESPONOENTS 5.3 2.3 3.7 8.2 5.9 8.4 15.3 1a.7 20.5 11.1.3 Community Structure User groups near coral resources Include residents, In-state travelers, and out-of-state tourists. Areas of highest coral-related activity (fishing, diving, snell shops, etc.) range fran residential canmunltles with strong fiShing Influences such as "4arathon and I(ey West in Monroe County, Florida, t~ tourist/recreation centers like I(ey Largo. More Indirect coral users such as canmerclal flshi~ ~oati tend to concentrate In the northern and eastern Gulf of ~exico (e.g., Apalacnlcola aay and tne ~ijjle Grounds) and off Georgia and South Carolina. Throughout the management area, canmunity structure dynamics reflect shifts In business opportunities and econanlc development. Many of those changes have occurred over the last census decade. Canmuni~ changes have been very··evldent in the popularized retiranent centers In Dade, Pinellas, and Pasco counties in Florida (see median age data In Table 11-7). In Monroe County, the I(ey West population decreaSed 18.8 percent between 1960 (33,956) and 1970 (27,563), due primarily to a decreased ~ersonnel canmitment at the military installation. "larathon and I(ey Largo, although too small to be listed in tne 1960 census, contained 4,397 and 2,866 people In 1970 and abOut 10,000 and 12,000. respectively In 1978 (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1973; I(ey Largo, Florida, Chamber of Commerce, 1979, personal canmunlcatlon; "4arathon, Florida, Chamber of Canmerce, 1979, personal canmunlcatlon). Table 11-7. General age and education prof i les for the total population of 15 coastal counties adjacent to the manaanent area. TOTAL AGE "4EDIAN IolEO I.AN COUNTY /STATE ~PULAT I:lN JNDE~ 18 18 - 65 55-OVER AGE SOoIOOL YEARS Onslow, North Carolina 103,126 33,249 67,555 2,322 21.1 12. I Seaufort, Soutn Carolina 51,136 18,651 30,199 2,286 20.8 11.9 Chat~am, GeorgIa 187,767 66,554 105,609 15,604 25.9 11.6 Palm Beach, Florida 348,753 103,547 184,791 60,415 35.5 12.2 Cade, Florida 1,267,792 370,656 724,419 172,717 34.2 12.0· Iolonroe, Florida 52,586 15,701 32.389 4,496 27.3 12.2 Pinellas, I='lorida 522,329 120.167 248 ,239 153,923 48.1 12. I Pasco, Florida 75,955 16,032 35.902 24.021 53.4 11.3 Franklin, Florida 7,065 2.455 3.525 1,085 30.9 10.2 BaldWin, Alabama 59.382 22,047 31,002 6,333 27.7 I 1.0 Jackson, "'Isslsslppl 87.975 36,523 47.179 4,273 23.3 12. I Terrebonne, Louisiana 76.049 33,543 38.622 3.884 2 1.5 9.8 Jefferson, Texas 244,773 86,212 137,456 21.105 28.1 11.8 Gal veston. Texas 169,812 61,506 95,578 12.728 27.6 11.6 Brazoria, Texas 108,312 40,909 61,657 5,746 26.0 12.1 Source: Adapted fran U.S. Department of ·:crnmerce, 1973 - Tables 35 and 120. 11-7 "~2 Age and EducatIon ProfIles 11.2.1 Age Select county age profiles (Table 11-7) show median ages ranging from 20.8 to 53.4 In the 15 sample countIes. ~t surprisingly, areas with aged retirement communities tended to be concentrated near ~iaml (Cade County) and Tampa-St. Petersburg (Pasco and Pinel las Counties). Cetal/ed data on age dIstributions of coral user groups In the management area. ho.ever, are lImited. In the diving sector, 74.6 percent of the respondents to a nationwide 1979 survey .ere younger than 35 years old (Table 1/-8)~ ProchaSka and Cato (/977). In a survey of commercial fisheries boat cap tains In Florida, calculated an average age of 48 years (Table 11-9). Another canvas by Mertens (1977) of Texas charterboat fishermen revealed an average participant age of 45 years (range: 14 to 79). 74 percent of the respondents .ere between 30 and 59 years old. Educational achievement tables derIved from the 1970 Census of populatIon show a rather unIform medIan school years-attended fIgure ranging from 9.8 to 12.2 years (Table 11-7). In the above-mentioned diving sector. 72.7 percent of the respondents reportedly had attended college or better (Table 11-8). Table II-B. Age and education statistics for SCUBA and snorkel divers responding to al!.!.!!.~ Magazine (1979) survey. :.Jnder 18 years 18 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 49 50 - 54 55+ "'ed i an Age: Average Age: EDUCATION 28.0 years 29.5 years (Orade School Attended/AttendIng HIgh School Graduated High School Attended/Attend I ng College Graduated Col lege Post-Graduate 75.5 percent have attended col lege or better 11-8 TOTAL RESPONDENTS 9.0 27.9 37.3 20.7 4.7 J.4 1.2 10.9 12.3 37.4 18.8 19.4 , Tabl. 11-9. Ag. and educatIon profiles for can.rcial f i sher-t boat capta i ns in Florida. AGE (yrs) 16 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 61-ever Distribution by age 4 7 18 24 28 :9 Years of SChool canp leted 12.7 12.5 11.8 II .2 11.6 8.7 11.3 Employment Opportunities and Unemployment Rates The econanlc structure of the sample of coastal counties in the management area varies gr.atly, as evidenced by incane levels and employment opportunities (see Tables 11-4 and 11-10). Generally, tne 1970 data aggregated in tl10se tables disguise the fact that great differences In the employment market e~ist between counties. Urbanized areas such as Chatham, ~alm Beach, ~ade, Galveston, and Brazoria Counties, have conslderabl.y greater Mlployment opportunities than semi rural 0,.. rural a,..eas like Onslow, 1.10nroe, and Terrebonne Counties. Conversely, canmerclal fishing jobS are far less numerous In urban areas (Dade County - 552 poSitions in 1975 or less than 0.1 percent of the work force), than in more rural areas (Monroe County - 3,096 positions in 1975 or 13.6 p.rcent of the total work force) (Table II-II). And, as noted above, these same fisheries positions normally result In e~panded employment in related secto"'s (restaurants, supplies, etc.) th,..ough the so-called "multiplier effect.,i Employment trends (1971 to 1975) in fishi'lg and all other sectors of the econany are presen1'ed In Table 11-11. The data sl10w tna1' in commercial fishing total employment has decreaSed in Dade :ounty, Florida, since 1973 (-37.6 percent) and increased Slightly In Monroe County (+6.6 percent). Total numbers of proprietors and employees have risen marginally and decreased Slightly, respectively, over t~at same time period. Ditton, et al. (1976) identified 68 charterboat businesses In the coast!1 counties of Te~as, .Ith concentrations in tne ~ort Aransas (~ueces County) and Freeport (Brazoria . County) regions. In tne spiny lobster fishery, the number of licensees Increased 60 percent between 1971 (1,149) and 1975 (2,0671 (Centaur Associates, Inc., 1979). UnMloloyment rates throughout most of the management area have paralleled national trends (Tables 11-10 and 11-12). For example, Florida data in Table 11-12 sl10w 1'he seasonal progression i, unemploy ment wi.th highest rates In the fl,..st Quarter. Since no single unemployment rate can realis1'ically :>e applied to the coral fishery. no canparison is made between different fisheries. In the Texas charterboet user sector, customer demand is concentrated in the summar months, especially June to August (Oitton, .1' al., 1978). The lobster fishery is seasonal, peaking between August and November (Centau'" Associates, Inc., 1979). "'ost other coral user greuElS are tourist related and therefore paral 'el the peak tour I 51' seasons in winter and spr i 1"19. Trap i ca I fish and shel I co I lect i ng users may operate yea,.. ,..ound but weather ~a~1'erns often limit dive time in .inter monthS. These seasonal trends may have Important repercussions on such Indirectly related user groups as hotels, restaurants, and tlshlng tackle suppl iers. 11.4 Recr.atlonal Us.,-s AS noted In SectIons 11.1 to 11.3, recreational activity is th. major use of cor~1 and coral reef resources. ""ajor partIcipants ar. divers (S:U8A and snorkelers), glaSS-bottom b04tS, charterbOats, and oth.rs. Where possible, data on each group is summerl,Zed below. Supplementary information on marine recreation Is also offered as an introductory not •• 11-9 Table 11-10. Employmen? and unemployment data from Table 44 of the 1970 Census of ~~pulation for 15 coastal countlesG COUNTY, STATE Onslow, Nortn Carolina Beaufort, Soutn Carol I nil Chatnam. Georg i a Palm Seecn, Florida Dade, Florida Monroe, Fiori da Pin.1 las, Florida Pasco, Florida Franklin, Florida Baldwin, Alabama Jackson, ~Ississlppl T.rrebonne, Louisiana Jef terson, Texas Gal .... ston, T.xas Brazoria, T.xas NONWORKER: WORKER RATIO O.SS 1.07 1.49 1.53 1.32 1.29 2.00 2.90 1.70 1.74 1.70 2.15 1.57 1.46 1.61 Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerc., 1973. UNEMPLOYIo£NT RAT:: FOR CIVIL LABOR FORCE 6.5 5.4 4.3 3.0 3.5 4.3 3.5 4.8 3.7 4.3 4.6 3.3 4.3 3.7 2.9 Table 11-11. Population and employment trendS in Dade and Monroe Counties, Florida. I. Population l II. Employment (total) 1 Propr i .tors I Farm ~onfarm wage and Salary Farm ~onfarm Goverrwent Prl ... ate I II. Cammerclal FIshermen2 Regular3 Casual 3 Crew 1971 1,301,700 625,S13 45,106 762 44,344 580,707 4,490 576,217 75,549 500,668 53Y 106 39 386 DADE COUNTY 1973 1,37',400 714,957 46,811 741 46,070 668,146 4,616 663,530 83,787 579,743 8S5 99 45 741 1975 1,438,600 676.577 46,983 699 46,284 629,594 3,425 626,169 96,643 529,526 552 65 18 469 MONROE COUNTY 1971 1973 1975 52.300 23,530 2.437 6 2.431 21,093 5 21,008 10,603 10,48' 2.060 448 114 1,498 53,900 24,138 2,531 6 2,525 21,607 5 21,602 9.242 12,360 2,904 599 338 1,967 51,400 22,699 2,542 6 2,536 20,127 4 20,123 8,142 11,981 3,096 796 544 1,756 Obtained from U.S. Department of Commerce. 9ureau of ~conomic AnalySiS. Regional EconomIc Information System. 2 ObtaIned from U.S. Oepartment of Commerce, ~ational ~arine Fisneries Service, unpublIshed jata. 3 Regular fIshermen are defined as those earni~ 50 percent or more of their incane trom tishi~g. while casual tlshermen earn less tnan 50 p.rcent of th.l,. Incane trom fiShing. Source: Add;ted from Centaur Associates, Inc., 1979. Table 11-12. Un ployment ratlS for Dade and Monroe Counties and the State of Florida at two-year I nterva Is. PERCENTAGE UNEMPLOYMENT ~UARTER Annua I Area/Year First Second Third Fourth Average :Jade County "- 1971 5.2 1973 4. I 1975 11.5 13.5 12.9 12.2 12.5 1977 .10.0 9.4 8.1 8.1 8.9 "Ionroe County - 1971 2.8 1973 3.8 1975 10.4 10.5 9.5 10.4 10.2 1977 11.0 8.7 7 • .3 8.4 8.9 Florida - 1971 4.9 1973 5.3 1975 10.2 11.2 10.9 10.4 10.7 1977 9.4 8.9 7.6 7.4 8.2 Source: Adapted from Florida Division of ~mpljyment Security statistIcs. Soecific data on recreational activities have been summarized In surveys conducted by the U.S. Fish and wildlife Service (U.S. Department ot the Interior, 1977). 90th national and state surveys apply to recreation in general, not ~eople ijentifled as users of corals. From that research, Table 11-13 summarizes the socioeconomic structure of marine anglers in Florida and in the general management area. ~st users are male, less t~an 40 years old, and middle Income wage earners, althOugh these ;eneralizations could De somewhar Skewed since t~e survey population was of predominantly middle i ~come ~eop Ie. rhe occupational ~ix of recreational anglers in the southeast has been shOwn by Horvath (1974) to be ~uite di,erse (Table 11-14). Over 90 percent of the res~ndent household's members were employed, with professional, management, and skll led crafts personnel numbering more than 36 percent of the sample. A 1!.!..!!. Olver Iolagazlne (1979) national reader survey addressed tne issue of multiple diver activities, including "reef exploration" and several others directly applicable to coral assemblages (Table 11-15). Nearly 94 percent of the respondents partiCipated In "speCial interest underwater activities" during the previous 12 months; almost 90 percent of the divers participated In other water-sports. '3lass-bot1'cm boat operators are restricted Jeographically to areas adjacent to shal low-water corals namely the Florida reef tract. Most of t~is type of sight-seeing use Is concentrated near Key Largo, Florida, and the state park and marine sanctuary. The charter and party boat Industries are two ~uasi-recreational user groups that otten utilize fishery resources near corals. In 197J, an estimated IS percent of the sPOrt flshennen In the Gulf reg i on used a charter or party boat at least once; charter fees exceeded 520 mil I ion (Sureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 1972). These users also generate considerable income splnotf effects In the process of ~reparing for charter~t trips, 9special 1'1 where they remain beyond one day, e.g., con sumption at hotels, restaurants, equipment shops, etc. II-II Table 11-13. Socioeconomic data on percent participation of marine recreational ~nglers i~ Florida and I n the management area general Iyo SOUTH ATLANTIC AND AGE GROUP FL.ORIDA GULF OF MEXICO ~E:;IONS 9- 17 17.6 20.2 18 - 24 10.8 12.2 25 - 34 27.6 24.9 35 - 44 12.7 12.0 45 - 54 8.5 14.4 55 - 64 13.4 10.3 65 - older -1:.! 6.0 100.0 100.0 ~ Male 73.4 72.6 F8IIIate 26.6 ...lli! 100.0 100.0 INCOME Under S2,OOO 6.6 9.4 S 2,000 - 4,999 6.0 6.6 S 5,000 - 7,499 4.7 7.7 S 7,500 - 9,999 21.4 14.0 S10,OOO - 14,999 21.8 17.2 S15,OOO - 24,999 25.9 25.7 S25,OOO - 34,999 12.1 13.9 $35,000 - 39,999 1.3 2.8 S50,OOO - or more ~ .-l.:J... 100.0 100.0 Source: Adapted trom U.S. Department ot the Interior, 1977. Table 11-14. Occupation, distribution of marine recreational anglers in the southeast. OCCUPATION PE~CENT OF HOUSEHOLDS SURVEYED Protesslonal 13.9 Technical 6.8 Manager-Forenan Clerical Sales Service Fanner-Ranc:her Construction Laborer Skilled Cratts Operative Proprietor Student Armed Forces Retired· Ful I Time Homemaker ~ot in Labor Foree Other Source: A~epted from Horvatch, 1974 11.4 3.4 5.8 5.6 3.1 6.2 3.9 11.5 6.1 7.9 1.1 2.8 7.6 1.8 I • 1 2d 100.0 Because the many benefits of ~ec~eatlonal use a~e at least In pa~, Intangible eommodltles, tney are dltfleult to assess objectively. Miong othe~, they may be psyehologleal (a desire for solltudel, emotional (the thrll I of catching a t~aphy fIsh), monetary (eateh fIsh o~ enhanee business assocIatIons), or eomblnatlons of al I three. SpauldIng (1970), for exampl.,. ~anked tne "fishing expe~l.nce" as the fo~emost ~eason why recreational fishermen pu~sue tner~ nobbV. Charte~ fisne~n rank "having fun," "relaxation," and "being wIth friends", as key ratlonal.s fo~ ehartering a day of f Ishlng (Me~ens, 1977). As an example of the econanle worth values of these activities to tne fishermen, Horvath (1974) noted a 1971 study that valued saltwate~ fishing benefits In soutneas~ern U.S. waters at S59.80 pe~ fishing day. Table 11-15. ~a~lepatlon of divers In (1) related aetivltles and (2) other .ater sports, based on mu I t ip Ie' ans.ers (adapted f~an~.2.!.!!!:. Magazl ne, 1979). 1. ~ARTICI~ATION IN DIVING-RELATED ACTIVITIES ~eneral Ree~eation Reef Exploration Shel I Collecting S pea~f Ish I ng Underwater ~hotography Lobster o~ Abililone Wreck DivIng Cave Diving Treasure Hunt I ng :'ropleal !=ish Collecting Competitive Diving 2. PARTICI~ATION IN OTHER WATER SPORTS ~isning 80at i ng Water Sk i I ng Sa III ng Surfing S TOTAL RESPONDENTS 81.1 48.1 34.5 32.5 29.7 32.3 36.7 11.7 11.0 5.8 3.4 73.2 71.9 57.3 36.9 9.4 11.5 Eeonomle Dependence on CommercIal or Recreational Fishing and Related Aetlvltles Within the management area, no one person or firm is totally econanieal Iy dependent upon harvesting or harvested eorals. However, numerous businesses derive slgnifleant portions of thei~ income fran ~oat rentals, gea~ sales, dlve/boat trIps, trapieal fish sales, shell/eoral sales, and ~elated hotels and restaurants that cater to users of corals o~ coral ~.ef resources. A prIme example of the dependence of an area upon eoral resources is Key Largo, Florida. Due in lar~e pa~ to the offShore ~eefs, John Pennekamp Coral Reef Stat. Park and Key La~go Ma~lne Sanctua~y. tne Key La~go vicinity suppo~s 34 boat ~amps, 22 ma~inas, 13 dive shops, and 22 dive boats; pa~ facili ties alone can accanmodate up to 529 dive/sno~kel/glass bottom boat custome~s pe~ day (Office of :oastal Zone Management, 1978). In total, the State Park and Ma~lne Sanetua~y are visited by .el I over 400,000 use~ each yea~ (Gil len, 1979, pe~sonal communicatIon), ~ny of whom spend at least several days shopping In adjacent busIness distriets. Similar, tnough sma I ler poCkets of coral-related Industries exist nea~ Maratnon and Key west, Flo~lda. Altnough tne total monetary benefit of tnese visitors has neve~ been assessed, It Is undoubtedly ve~y significant to local, county, and even sTate econany In Florida's case. 11-13 O.splt. the abs.nc. of a coral harvesting Indust~YD eorals are dl~actly related to nume~ous commercial fisheries. For.most among Individual fisheries Is the spiny lobster In southe~n Flo~lda. an Industry that has an average annual harvest value since 1972 of nea~ly S10 mil lion (Centaur Associates, Inc.). Mackerel, yellowtail snapper, and some grouper, are also taken f~om patch and coral reef areas. 0n hard groundS, sponges a~e collected fo~ market. Sh~lmp Is the majo~ fishery f~om soft bottom near Jry Tortugas. Throughout many co~al communities, tropical fish consltltute anothe~ ImporTant fiShery. The r.4a~/ne Extension ServIce of "'on~oe County, Florida. In Key West. has estimated that tropical fish ~ap~esentad S389.979 In 1974 value to col lecto~s. This is a low estimate of the real valu. sInce it Is not retail. and sInce It excludes plants and inverteb~ates which the Florida ~a~lne Life Association calculates to be worth about one mil lion dollars. WithIn the purvl .. of the Flo~ida coral law (see Section 7.4) and ,the Florida Depa~tment of ~atu~al ~esou~ces. some t~op/cal fIsh col lectors a'so co/'ect and sel I live and d~led go~gonians (othe~ than sea fans), fo~ aquaria (Causey, 1979, per senal communIcatIon; Feddern, 1979. personal communication). Many of these "ceral uses" exhibIt no significant seasonal variation In popularIty. St" I. some fisner/es may be more economIcally lucrative at some times (e.g •• lobsters and shrimp). and others (e.g •• tropical fish) may be landed on a nearly year·round basiS. The nearbv presence of domestic corals also plays an important reI. In g.ne~atlng Interest in shel I snops throughout the management area but especially in tne Florida Keys. 80th tourIsts and residents purchase shel Is. cerals. and other marine specimens from tne numerous sma I I shops sItuated in coastal areas (see also discussion in Section 10.1). ~/though corals sold in th.se shops are nearly al I imported (scme gorgonians are collected and sold legally withIn the Florida coral law (Causey, 1979, personal communication», interest in domestic corals may be a majer reason for their popularity. ~Iass-bottom boat proprIetors depend neavily upon coral reseurces. although many owners also operate jive boats or work. in unrelated tle/ds. Some ~oats charge SIO to S20 per person. take up to 125 people per trIp, and make an averag,e of two or three trips per day to coral areas. The indirect economic dependence of Florida ~eys motel/hotel and restaurant owners on living coral resources Is enormous. ~any such businesses are cencentrated quite near to the offshore corals of Key Largo and Key West; a third area near Loce ~ey is currently expanding at a rapid rate. Elsewhere in the management area. tourist-related enterprises abound but cater largely to parties other than coral ent'us/asts, e.g., tnose seeking amusements, large cItIes. sports events. sun, fish, etc. 11.5 DistrIbutIon of Income Within the User Community General distributions of IncaMe In communities which include coral users may be derived from census and economics statistics rneln"talned by the' 3ureaus of Census and Economic Analysis, respectively, wi"thln the U.S. Department of Commerce. At tne county level, personal income Is categorized ~th by type of payment Ce.g., wag. and salary, nonfa~ proprietors, and others) and by Industry. Within the la1'1'er class. private sec1'or Incane in "wholesal9 and retail trade" and "services" probably best refl.cts Income generated in shel I shops. rest~urants, boating, and other coral user-related busInesses. A broad category termed "other" includes forestry. agriculture, and fiSheries; In some coastal regions, such as Monroe County, Florida, fisheries may be assumed to contribute most of tne "other" incane due to the absence of much si3niticant forestry and agriculture work. In the two counties within the management ar9a that are most dependent upon income derived from coral users, "wholesale and retail trade" and "servi.::es·' constitute the majority of earned personal incOlle Tn the private sec1'or (Table 11-15). "'lost ot this income Is paid by direct wages and salaries .. Government Income Is also Important to ceunty economies but Is unli~ely to be related to cora/so Government-generated monies to user groups via sma I I business loans and tourist development may alSO contrl~ute to commU~ity Income structure. 3etween 1971 and 1975 Income in t,e trade and services classes has ris.n significantly. Tab Ie 11-16. Personal Incane In Monroe and Dade Counties, FlorIda. by type of payment and type of I ndus'try tor 1971, 1973, and 1975. DADE COUNTY "IONROE COUNTY 1971 1973 1975 197t 1973 1975 TYPE wage and Sala~y Disbursements 4,326,584 5,688,500 6,220,418 134,543 160,311 155,718 Other Labor Income 230,874 322,955 395,070 3,569 5, I 18 5,454 ~ropr i etors' Incane 406,446 495,561 493,891 10,432 13,266 13,150 Farm :57,782 40,409 37,559 1/1 152 182 Nonfarm :568,664 457,152 456,332 10,321 13, 114 12,968 BY I/IIlUSTRY Farm 50,716 55,673 54,778 125 169 2'JI Nonfllrm 4,913,188 6,453,343 7,054,601 148,419 178,526 185,121 Private 4,245,426 5,596,169 5,937,577 67,679 94,179 99,482 Manu factur I ng 567,744 775,336 812,162 COJ (D) 5,773 MI ni ng 14,989 25,645 30,623 (D) CO) (L) Contract ConstructIon 394,026 591,037 413,388 7,803 16,607 9,177 '~holesale and Retail Trade 1,013,386 1,306,5n 1,452,621 21,844 27,340 32,385 FIn., I ns. and Real Estate 385,118 514,815 551 ,567 4,867 5,583 7,044 Trans., Comm. and Pub. utilities 726,717 912,678 1,007,188 6,162 7,073 8,743 Services 1, '30,407 1,449,715 1,648,874 20,986 27,617 31,304 Jther' 13,039 20,371 21,154 1,702 9,476 5,056 Goverr"lllent 667,762 857,174 1,117,024 80,650 84,347 85,539 =ederal, Civilian 151,71 v 178,479 217,901 15,913 16,040 18,201 Federal, MIlitary 80,503 92,377 106,006 49,808 48,279 41,774 State and Local 435,549 586,318 793,117 14,929 20,029 26,664 TOTAL 4,963,904 6-,509,016 7,109,379 148,544 178,695 185,322 CD) ~ot sho.n to avoid disclosure of confidential information. el) ~ess than S50,000. Includes fisherIes harvestIng sector. Source: Adapted from Centaur AssocIates, Inc., 1979. 11-15 12.0 (PTIIoUC YIELD 12.1 Problems In the FIshery The Council nas developed management object Ives and rnanagement rneasl.l"es to address '1'''' fo I'owl ng problems associated .Itn the coral resource. (1) Degradation of stocks thrQ.lgh na1'1Jral and man-made oCQ,lrrences. Corals and coral reefs In the management unit are frequently plagued by a .Ide variety of Impacts, ~s detailed in Section 6.2.2. The cumulative effect of these stresses has apparently been a ~egrada~lon of stock size, areal dlst~lbutlon, and coral ~ealth generally. ThiS problem ~ampers efforts to st~dy tne resource and to ascertain Its sui tabl I Ity for harvest. (2) ~Imlted scientific Information on many species and many sections of the management unit, which Includes t~e Inability to assess tne Impact of coral narvest. The existing biological data presented in Section 5.4 show t!'1at there Is very little Information on 3l"'owth, 'IIOrtall ty. abundance, and rec:ru i ~nt for the management un I t. Th I s I nfonnat Ion 01'" ca tch effort fran a directed fishery Is absolutely necessary to estimate MSY (and then on for each species. Without this Information, estimated ~SYs are uncalculable. (3) Susceptibility to stress because of ilany corals being located at the northern limit of their d I strl but ion. ~a"y corals In the ~nagement unit are located at the northern end of their natural distributions. This means tnat tney are subjected to water temperature extremes tnat stress them to the limit of their ability to survl"e. In tact, In some Instances water temperature drops and/or other natural occurrences (such as hurricanes), ~ave killed large segllllnts of reefs In t!'1e management unit. These nat;JraJ stresses are uncontroJ lable by rnan. '"Io •• ver, because of these natural stresses, corals In the management unit are mere susceptible to man-Induced stresses. (4) Inability of corals to escape stress because of their Sedentary nature. Corals, unlike finfish, crustaceans, and most 1IOllusks, cannot !!lOve to escape stress. Instead, t!'1e polyps must retract. Resulting disruptions I., energy flow .'nay Interfere with nonnal biological func tions such as reproduction and feeding. (5) Canplexlty and Inconsistency of exlstil'l9 'IIi!Inagement regl .. ".s. ~s summariZed by Shinn (1979b, and 1380). tne ~anagement area Is covered by nU/lllrQ.lS federal and state autnorltles with jurisdiction over coral and coral r~ef resources. This presents problems In over lappJng authorltl. (Stat., BLM, OC:ZM, FWS, etc.I, differing regulations (e.g., concerning tropical fish collecting In Florida Keys parks, 'IIOnumen~s. etc.). and mere. The reSulting regime Is canplex, burdensome. and Inconsistent; a single coordl1ating authOrity such as ~OAA may offer a solution via the FMP within the mandate of the FCMA. (6) !..ack of adequate public understandi ng of the Importance of cOl"al and cor-al reefs. ~ead coral Is sold extenSively In t~e ~anagement area both tor use as curio Items and aquarium decorations. On t!'1e other hand, Ilvi~ coral is I~portant both ecologically and economically to t!'1e I118nagement area •. Llvlng coral provides habi tat tor many species of finfiSh and s"ellflsn. ~ny of tnese speCies are canllllrcla"y valuable. Living cor-a 1 al.50 provides a major tourist attraction to sout~ Florida and to a lesser extent In other states. (7) Pr .. ent lack of JuriSdiction over most coral and coral reefs by a federal agency which has tradi tionally executed authority and juriSdiction. In a recent ~clslon (U.S. v. Alexander) the court ruled that the Bureau of ~and ~anagement 'Only ~ad authorIty to menage corals threatened by 011 lease operations. ThiS declsl~n nas left tne majority 'Of coral and coral reef resources In the FCZ unprotected and unmanaged by any federal regl~. ~ch of FlorIda Reef Tract fram AmerIcan Shoal off Sugarloef ~ey to Star Reef off Key Largo lies In t~e FeZ. Thus, spectacuJ-ar assemblages of corals are afforded lIttle protectIon fran ~arvest and no pretectle" fran dlllberate destructIon by human actIvIty. FlorIda law ~see SectIon 7.4.2) allows possessIo" of cured coral after what can be an on-board process of ~Ieacnlng and does not pronlblt the destructl~n of reefs beyond tne territorial sea. 12.2 Recommended Management ObjectIves 12.2.1 Recommended General Management Objective OptImIze benefIts generated fran the coral resource while conservIng coral and coral reefs. ThIs Is both the short-tenn and long-tenn overall objectIve of 1'1'115 fishery management plan. The ceral resource in the FCZ of the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic CouncIls Is unlQUI In the cont i nent~1 'Jn I ted States. Corals I n the management area tend to be at the nortnern II ml l' of the I r range; 1'1'115 makes these corals nore susceptIble to envlroMental stresses than the sane specIes lecated i~ nore tropIcal clImates. The coral resource also makes a sl;nlflcant contrIbutIon to the econany In the ",anagemant ~rea. ",ddltlonally, the p,.esence of coral assemblages att,.acts many tourIsts to t~e a,.ea. Co,.al and coral reef assemblages also provide necessary habitat for many val'Jable specIes of shellfIsh and finfish. 12.2.2 Recommended SpeCifIc Management Objectives The gene,.al objective Is, In effect, a stateme"t of the concept ~f OptImum Yield as embodied itt t,e Fishery Conservation and Management ",ct. The specIfic management objectIves recanllllnded below appl., to coral and coral reef resources In tne fIshery conservatIon zone of the ~ulf of Mexico and South AtlantIc FIshery Management :ounclls. (I) Oevelop the scIentIfIc Infonnatlon necessary to detennlne the feasibIlIty and advrsablllty of harvest of coral. ~s Is dIscussed in SectIon '.4, the scIentIfIc data necessary to calculate relIable (or even adequate) ~SYs for coral and coral ,..sources do not cur,.ently exIst. The ~SY caloul~tlons (requIred by law) show" In SectIon '.4 are based upon data fram incanparable areas and assumptions that rende,. the caleulatlons canpletely unreliable for guldl"g management unit OY and harvest ~eclslons. The :ounclls Intend to develop the scientific data necessary to detennlne the optImum level 'Of harvest if any, COIl slstent with long-tenn conservation of the coral resource. "chievement of tnls objective I~vol~s both the ImplementatIon of a monItorIng systam and a recanllllndation to the ~atlonal Marine FiSherIes ServIce (NMFS) that coral ,.esearen be given priority. This ObjectIve addresses problem (2) above. (2) !4inlmlze, as approprIate, adverse humen I",pacts on coral and coral reefs. gecause many corals In the management unIt are at the northern lImit of theIr distribution, they are unusually susceptible to stress. 9y mlnl1llzi"g stress resultIng fran controllable human activities, the effects of natural Impacts should be decreased. ThiS objective add"esses p"oblams (1), (3), and (4) .. bove.' (3) P~a¥lde, .hare appropriate, for special ~nagement for coral habitat areas ot ~aFtleular concern CHAPe). Provide specl al lllanagement flleaslres for se'ected, local I zed co~al a~eas wh Ich the Councils Ident I fy as sensitive, partlcula~ly significant, or susceptible to elthe~ present or potential damage. This objective add~esses p~obl .. s (I), (3), and (4) abOve. (4) Inc,.ease publiC awareness of the Importance and sensitivity of coral and co,.al reefs. Infonft and educate the gene,.al public conce,.nlng the Importance of the co,.al ,.esource In the ~In­ tenance of habitat for other fisheries and in the econamlc blse of the states.adjacent to the menage ment area. Th Is object Ive addresses prob I ern (6) above. (5) Proylde a coordinated management regime for the consel"Vatlon of co,.al and coral r .. fs. There presently exists no consistent or un I fonft management of co~al and co~al reefs In the FeZ. Va~lous agencies exercise responsIbility In limited areas. This objective addresses problems (I), (3), (4), (5), and (7) aboye. 12.2.3 Alternative ~anagement Objectives Considered But"Not Recommended During the development of thIs F~, the CouncIls considered tne fol lowing management objectIves but, to,. the ,.easons Indicated under each, did not recammand thern at this tIme. In some cases (rejected objectives (2), (4), (", (6), an.;t (7» t"e rejected objectives were reworded as recammanded objec tives o~ I ncluded as management :neaslres. ( I ) A I low unrestrl cted hal"Ves l' of co,.al. ThIs objective Is not recammanded because there are not enough scientIfIc data on the population dyna mics of the coral resource to detenftlne the Impact of unrestricted hal"Vest. Adopting this management objective would sel"Ve to aggravate problems (I), (2) and (6) identified In Section 12.1.1 above. ThIs objectIve does not addr ... any of the aboye p,.oblerns. (2) Allow limited hal"Vest of corals while maintaining habitat and aesthetic values In co,.als' natu,.al envl~ol1ll8nte ThIs objective was moved and revised to objeetlves (I) and (2). ThIs objective would address problems (2) and (6) but waul·j agg~avate p,.oblem (I). (3) Protect co,.als fram na~al environmental events. This objective Is not recammanded because t~ls p!an cannot change or Influence natural ~ccurrences. (4) Presel"Ve co,.al and co,.al reefs& 12-3 . j This objective was moved and revised to objective (2) for two reasons. First, just as data do not exist to support unllmltld harvest, data do not exist to support a total prohibition of narvest or Impact. Second, total prohibition of harvest or Impact on coral could cause severe economic impact on at least recreational diving. fiShing. can,.rclal lobsterlng, and shrlmplng sectors. This objective addresses problems (I), (3) and (4) above, but would prevent addressing problems (2) and (6). (5) Permit limited harvest of corals tor scientltlc/educatlonal purposes. This objective has been reworded and becane Management ~easures (I) and (2). (6) Emphasize coral habitat management. This objective was revised to objective (4). (7) Establish a monitoring system capable of determining trends In the health and condition of vital coral resource areas. This objective was eliminated after detennl:'1ed to be too costly. (8) Establish a permit systan tor harvest of octocorals. This objective Is not recommended as a separate objective because It Is Included In specific objective number (1). 12.3 Description of ~Iternatlve Optimum YieldS 12.3.1 Recommended OY for all corals Is the level of harvest speci tied or as may be authorized pursuant to the penni tting criteria established In this plan. BaSed on available data it is the Councils' intent to al low the existing level ot legal, reported harvest consistent with the objectives of this plan. OY tor stony corals and sea fans Is to be zero (0) except as may be authorized for sclentitic and edu cational purposes. The current and expected level ot harvest tor this purpose is estimated to be about 140 I(/Iograms per year. OY for octocorals Is the amount of harvest which is authorized pursuant to this plan. It Is to be al I octocorals (except sea tans) that are harvested by U.S. tlshennen. Qctocorals, except tor sea fans, are Identltled as presently being harvested without apparent stoCk damage (Section 8.2.6). Present and expected level ot harvest Is estimated to be about 5,845 colonies annually, 1,463 ot which cone fran the FCZ. Because of the value of $Om8 species of oct~corals as a source of hormones, there exists the potential for localiZed or even widespread overtishi~g (see Section 5.5). For this reason, the Councils are proposing that the condition ot the stoCks and the harvest be monitored so that the Secretary may take appropriate specified action should there be an impending threat of overtiShing. This Optimum Yield Is recommended for several reasons. First, because of their slow 3rowth and value In non-consumptive capacities, stony corals and sea fans may be considered for practical purposes to be non-renewable resources which should not be harvested. Second, as Is discussed In Section 5.4.8, there Is not enough knowledge ot corals in the management unit to calculate MSY. Theretore, pennirs 12-4 are recan,.nded for scientific and educatlo"al harvest of prohibIted species In order to nelp devel""" the necessary Information, as .el I as to restrict the harveste Third. tnere Is a relatively sma I I C~­ merclal harvest of octocorals "OW takl~ place. This FMP recognIzes and .11 I al Jow this narvest in order to maintain this Industry and gather the Information necessary to evaluate Its Impact. 12.3.2 Alternative Optimum Yields Considered But Not Recommended Establlsn a series ot separate OYs for al I Individual coral species or groups or separate areas. This alternative would al low tne Councils to recognIze differences In tne OYs for different specias of coral. However. It 1.5 not recann'8nded at 1'1'115 tIme because tnere are not enougn data to ca!:ulate MSY tor eacn specIes; reasonably specific OYs can not be establlsned for al I species because t~e environmental consequences are not fully understood. Establish a si~le OY that applies to al I corals. This alternative Is not recann'8nded because different species of coral nave different growth, reproduction, and mortality rates. Thus, sucn species wi II have a different MSY. Usl~ a sl~le OY for all coral species Is therefore not scientifically defensible and could lead to serious overnarvest of some species while underutillzation of others. Establish an OY of zero (0) for al I corals. This alternative is not recann'8nded because t,ere are not enough data to suggest that It Is necessar or advisable at this time. It is possible that under this alternative Incidental catch would be pronlblted. This could cause serious econanl: impact on some flshl~ activities. There is a sma I I existl~ fishery for octocorals which is sustainable through natural 3rowth and recrul1'ment. Set OY for rose eoral at 100 kg (220 IbI) per year; Set OY for gargonlans (except sea fans) at 2,000 Individuals or 260 kg (527 IbI) per year; Set OY at zero (0) for all other corals. While Industry sources Indicated that these amounts could be used each year, this alternative is not recann'8nded at thIs time because data do not exIst to support these levels of OY. The growth of rose coral Is not known and the reeource could be damaged by overflshlng. Octocorals, except for sea fans, are generally abundant and can sustain the present level of flshlngo· Establish an OY of 1,463 colonies of nine species of Octocorals. This option was rejected because the current level of harvest gives no evidence of overflshl~ of stoCkS. These species are difficult to identify so few Individuals would know tne species harvested. Harvest is unrestricted In the territorial sea. 12.4 AnalysIs of BeneficIal and Adverse Impacts of Potential Management Options This section and Section 12.5 evaluate economic, socIal, environmental, and biological Impacts of t~ proposed and alternative management measures listed below and relates the Councils' rationale for pr posing certain measures and not proposing the alternatj·.es. The sections fultll I the requiranents 0 Executive Order -,2291. The procedure used In estimatIng the Impacts I~cludes a systamatic discussion 01 both adOPTed and rejected management measures o The analysis is based on the best avaIlable I~tor­ matlon 1n al I Instanc.so 12-5 ExecutIve Order 12291 ftFlderal Regulatlonft establIshed guIdelInes for promulgatIng new regulatIons and revIewIng exIstIng regulatIons. Under th .. e guldelln .. eaen agency, to the extent permitted oy law, Is expected to comply wIth the followIng requlraments: (1) admInistratIve decIsIons shal I be oased on adequate InformatIon concernIng the need for and consequences of proposed government action; (2) regu latory actIon shal I not be undertaken unless the potentIal benefIt to socIety for the regulation out weIghS the potentIal costs to socIety; (3) regulatory objectIves shall be chosen to IMIxlmlze the net benefits to society; (4) among alternative approaches to any gIven regulatory objectives, the alter native Involving the least net cost to SOCiety shal I be chose~; and <,) agencIes shal I set regularly priorities with the aIm of· IMIxlmlzlng the aggregate net benefIt to socIety, takl"9 Into account tne conditIon of the particular Industrl .. affected by regulations, the condition of the national economy, and other regulatory actions contanplated for the future. In compliance with Executive Order 12291, the Department of Commerce <DOC) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (~OAA) reQuire the preparation of a Regulatorylmpae1' ~evl .. (RIR) for all regulatory actions whIch eIther Implement a new fishery IMInagement plan or signIfIcantly amend an existing plan, or may be significant in that they affect Important DOC/NOo\A policy concerns and are the object of public Inter .. t. The RIR Is part of the process of developing and r .. dewlng fIshery management plans and Is prepared by tne Regional Fishery Management Councils wIth the assistance of the NatIonal Marine Fisheries Service (~FS), as necessary. The RIR provides a comprehensIve review of the level and Incidence of Impae1' assocIated with the propoSed or final regulatory actions. The analysis also provides a review of the problems and policy objectives prompting the regulatory proposals and an eveluatlon of the major alternatives that could be used to solve problems. The purpose of the analysIs Is to ensure that the regulatory agency or Council systematically and comprehensively considers al I available alternatives so that the public welfare can be ennanced in tne most efficient and cost effective way. The RIR also wil I serve as the oasis for determinIng whether the proposed regulations Implementi"9 tne fIshery management plan or amendment are major/non-major under Executive Order 12291, and whether or not the propoSed regulatIons wll I. have a significant economic Impact on a substantIal number of smal I entitles under the Regulatory Flexibility Act (, U.S.C. 601 et seq.). In order to achieve t~e management objee1'ives of thIs plan and an optImum yield, the CouncIls have anal yZed the etfee1'S of varIous conservation and management measur .. and recommend eight measur ... Measures Recommended by the Councils Measure I: ?rohlblt the taking of stony coral or sea fans or destruction of these corals and coral reefs In the FCZ of the Gulf and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils' geographical are of authority, except as provijed for by permit In this plan. Should harvest of other octocorals become accelerated and. which In the Council's judgement Is threatenIng the habItat in localiZed or widespread areas, the CouncIlS may request the Secretary to take available measures designed to elIminate such threat of damage to the resource and flsnery habl tat. The fol lowing procedure may be used: On tne advice of Its Scientific and Statistical Committee or other sources that Jne or more specl .. of octocorals may be endangered from widespread or localized depletion trom overnarvest or threat of overharvest, the Councils may notity the Secretary of tne ~nreat and recommend tnat he take one or more of the followi"g actions. 12-6 a. Rest~lct by ~egulato~y amendment or through promulgation of emergency regulations the har~st of one or more species of octoc~als to a recommended le~1 or amount. b. Restrict by regulatory amendment or through promulgation of emergency regulations The area from which one or more species of octocorals may be taken. c. Restrict by regulatory amendment or through promulgation of emergency regulations t~8 method of har~st by which one or more species ot octocorals may be nar~sted. d. Utilize any procedures other than regulatory amendment or promulgation of emer~ency regulations which may be .Ithln the real~ ot authority of the Secretary and .nicn .il I achle~tne results of action proposed in options (a) throug~ (c) abo~. ~nalysls: Corals, especially most of the stony corals, grow slowly; though growth rates for many spe cies are not .el I documented. ~ principal ~Iue of coral and coral reefs IS In a nonconsumpti~ capacity .here they ser~ as an aesthetic resource and provide shelter and habitat for other marine animals. This measure would al low the known existing le~1 of har~t, which wll I not endanger the stockS or the aesthetics of the resource. This measure would prOhibit the destruction of coral reefs for unauthorized har~st or the sal ~ge of artifacts. This measure is Intended" To prohibit the use of explosl~s, dredging, or 11ft ~umps to remo~ or displace coral reefs. It is not intended to restrict the use or remo~1 of marine equipment [such as that used in petroleum extraction) on which corals may ha~ recently grown. The Councils ha~ deter~lned that the present le~1 of har~st of other octocorals supports a smal I fishery .hlch does not threaten the stock, and it should be allo.ed to continue so long as O'4rtishi"'g does not occur. The framework measure to provide tor regulatory amendment wll I provide a safeguard to pre ~nt I oca I or widespread dep let i on of octoco"ra IS. The Counc I Is recogn I ze that some sc lent i f r c collecting activity does not fal I. within the regulatory juriSdiction of the ~FCMA (see Measure 2 below). The alternati~ action "d" abo~ is therefore included to guide the Secretary to use any other authority to protect the resource and habitat from destruction. This measure addresses the gene~al management objecti~ and Objecti~ (2). Measure 2: Establish a permit system tor taking prohibited corals tor SCientific or educational purposes. ~nalysls: The Regional Director should be authorized to allow the collection ot the prohibited spe cies (stony coral and sea fans or all corals In protected areas) for these purposes. The Councl Is recognize that scientific research activity conducted by a scientific research ~ssel is specifically excluded from tne term "fishing" In Section 3(10) of the Fishery Conser~tlon and Management ~ct of 1976. It should be noted, howe~r, that the following specific activities are considered to be " fishing within the meaning of the ~ct, and. therefore require a permit: Any activity Involving the catching, taking or har~sting of fish in commercial Quantities, or the use of gear capable of catching, taking, or har~stlng fish in commercial ~uantitres, InclUding: 1) the conducting of tests of tlshlng gear; or 21 fishing carried out for tne purpose of training fisherman. It is the Councl1s' desire to provide guidel ines for otner" simi lar COllecting whleh fIIIlIy be equally justified. 12-7 Council PermIt Guidelines: (a) Scientific and educational permits are permits which may be Issued for taking pronlbited species of coral or corals from protected areas such as HAPCS f~r the purpose of 3alni~g knowledge of coral for management and for the benefit of science and humanity. Stony corals or sea fans Cor parts thereof) which are taken for the purpose of sale snoulj not be construed as having been taKen for scientific research. This is not intended, howe¥8r, to pre¥8nt a contractor or agent from collecting corals on behalf of a researcn or educational Institution holding a scientific or educational permit. Cb) ~ermlts Should· not al low local ized or widespread depletion of stockS. Cc) ;:lermlts should require mandatory repor"ting of har¥8st on a tl".ly besls. (d) ~ermit issuance should be fair and equitable. Ce) Incidental catch of prohibited species does not require a permit SO long as It Is returned to the water In the general area of capture as soon as ;:losslble (In accordance with Manage".nt ~easure 3). The reef building stony corals and sea tans are protected In Florida waters where they occur in their greatest abundance In state waters withi"n thlsmenagement area. Although they are not presently pro tected in the FCZ, this tact Is not 3eneral Iy known. there are reports, howe¥8r, of reef ~amage from collectors CFuss, 1981, personal co~nlcation). j:)ermlts would ;:lrovide har¥8st data presently not available. This ".asure addresses the -;eneral 'Mnage ,.nt objecti~s and Objectl~s (I) and (2). ~easure 3: Stony corals and sea fans taken incidentlly in other fisheries must be returned to the water in the Jeneral area of capture as soon as possible. An exception Is provided for the aroundflsh, scallop, or other similar fisheries where the entire unsorted catch Is landed. In such Instances the corals mey be landed but mey not be sold. Analysis: The Councils recognize that an una~idable bycatch of some corals occurs with bottom trawls used to take groundtlsh, scallops, and Shrimp. The catch of the latter Is USually sorted with unwanted bycatch returned to tMe water. In t'e 3roundflsh and scal lop fishery, howe¥8r, the entire catch Is usually landed without sorting. So". corals occur on trawlable bottom and halle been taken ·and landed without apparent damage to t,e stock. T~e :ouncilS do not wish to disrupt these fiSheries; howe¥8r, they do not wish to provide a legal opening for the de¥8lopment of a fishery for pronlblted corals. This measure addresses the general IIIIInagement Object I ¥8 and Objectl ¥8 (2). Measure 4: Prohibit the use of toxic chemicals in taking fish and other merlne organisms .hlch inhabit coral reef areas except under permit as mey be specified in this plan or any other fiShery manage".nt plan. Establish a permit system for ~se of toxic chemicals In collecting fishes in coral reef areas • . "na I ys Is: Th I S ".asure I s I ntended to prot;tct cora I S from death or damege from tox I c chaml ca I s used in the collection of fishes and other merine organisms in coral reefs .• So". tropical fish collect:)rs 12-8 utilizi cne-icall to r.-avi 'Plci .. n. frOM within cor.l reef.. When ueed with clre the cne.ic.ls can be uaed ef'ectively with little effect an the cor.ls. I proper uae, however, can r'.ult in 10 •• of earal.. Rlltriction to PI~ittad us.r. would provide a degree of control to Ii it ue. to approved ch .. ical. and individual. knowled.gabll in th.ir u ••• The florida Depart ant of Natural Re.ources require. a pe~it for the collection of .. rine fishes with ch.-ic.l. and is ~evising the regul.tion. and procedure •• The, expected nunber of pe~it hold.r. is eeti ated initi.lly to be 40. to SQ (A. Huff. 1981, personal c~unic.tion). The Councils recomRand th.t • cOMp.tible per.it .y.t .. be dev.loped with the st.t .. where pr.cticable and that tho.e st.tes serv ... de.ignee. of the Secretary for issuanc. of per.its. This NI.sur. addr.sse. th~ gener.l •• n.gem.nt objective and Objective. (1) and (2). H •• sur. 5: Id.ntify h.bit.t ar •• s for corals which •• y be thr •• tened or subject to degr.dation and provide a .anag.-.nt program for the.. These habitat areas of p.rticul.r concern CHAPes) are r.cognized as providing habitat to valuabl. or sp.ci.l ..... bl.ge. of cor.l or coral r.efs. Sane of theae ar.aa are presently und.r jurisdiction of .an.g .. ent prograne. sa-e are und.r consid.ration for incluaion in such progr .... and others are pr •• ently without manag ... nt. Identifi.d coral habitat ar.as of particul.r concern: a. East and Weat flow.r Garden Banks (na.inated national .. rin. sanctuary). Within the HAPC defin.d as being th.t portion within the SQ-f.tha- contour, the taking or destruction of .11 cor.ls is prohibited excapt •• authorized by pe~it. Tr.dition.l. historic.l 'ishing methods are allOwed but the u •• of botta. longlin •• , tr.p. and pat •• and bottOM trawls is prohibit.d. Anchoring sh.ll .1.0 be prohibited within thi! HAPC ••• capt for vessels less than 100 f.et in registered length. (The proposed r.striction on anchoring has be.n disapproved by NOAA as being beyond authority of HfCHA.) Anslysis: These man.g ... nt .... ur •• are intended to protect the cor.l habitat area. of the flower Garden. Banks fra. d ... ge th.t would be c.used by nonhi.torical fishing activities and fra. anchor dam.ge caused by large ve ••• ls such as freighters and tankers (s.e Section 6.2.1). As far as is presently known, there has been no use of bott~ longline •• trap., pots. or trawls on the.e banks. There is. howlv.r, a developing botta- longline fishery for reef fishe. along the Tex.s coast. It is conc.iv.ble that thia g.ar could be used on the Banks and in doing so could d .. age thl cor.ls (see Section 6.2.1). b. florida Hiddla Grounda - the northernmo.t her.atypic (shallow re.f-type) cor.l ca .unity in the Gulf of Hexico. The HAPC (aee figure 6-10) is bounded by • line beginning .t Point A (latitude 28° 42.5' N, longitude 84° 24.8' W)g proc.eding due ea.t for approxi.ately 7.4 nm to Point B (latitude 28° 42.5' N, longitude 84· 16.3' W); than proceeding in a southeasterly direction for approxi.ately 34.6 ~ to Point C (latitude 28° 11' N, longitude 84° 0' W); than proce.ding due weet for approxi.ately 7 n. to Point 0 (latitude 28° 11' N, longitude 84° 07' W); then proc.eding in a north westerly direction for approximately 22.J n. to Point E (latitude 28° 26.6' N, longi tude 84° 24.8' W); then proceeding due north for 15.8 nm to origin at Point A. The taking or de.truction of all corals is prohibited within the HAPC except .... y be authorized by per it. Within the HAPC the us. of botta. longlines, traps and pots. and bottal trawls is prohibited to prevent damage to corals (see Section 6.2.1). Analysis: This area containing the topographic highs of th~ florida Middl. Grounde is a top producer of ree' fish. Electric reel. and handlines are most frequently u.ed by fiaher.en. The bottaa is very rough ~d not suitable for a standard bottom longline oper.tion or for use of standard otter tr.wls. 12-9 Although sal ... a bala trape are used in the gen.rsl er •• , there is no .yidenc. th.t th.y er. pre sently being s.t on the Middle Ground.. The Florida Middl. Ground. w.re ne.in.ted to be • ~etion.l M.rin. Sanctu.ry but are not an actiy. candid.t •• t this ti ... c. Oculina Bank. This faur by 2J ~ HAPC contain. cor.l r •• fs ~po •• d of banks and thickete of the ivory tree cor.l, Oculin. y.ricoaa. It is bounded by l.titud. 27' 30' N to l.titud. 27° 53' N, and longitude 79° 56' W to longitude eoo 00' W. Within the are. the us. of botte. tr.wle, bottal longlin •• , dredg." fish trep. and pots is prohibited in ord.r to protect the corel fro. ~ge (See Section 6.2.1). An.lysis: This fr.gil. cor.l is • unique cor.l form.tion, and it proyid •• v.luabl. habit.t-ror recre.tion.l and cOMmerci.1 fishes. Continued us. of the tr.ditional hook and-line fi.hing ge.r will inflict minim.l d.mege to the core Is while allowing h.ryest of the fish. The recent introduction of roller trawls and bottom longlines to this are. proyid •• the potenti.l for inflicting d ... ge to the fragile cor.l. Th. proposed me •• ure would re.trict the potenti.lly d .. aging gear fral the narrow strip cont.ining some of the outstanding example. of the Oculina for.ationa. HAPC boundary line. have been dr.wn to displace a minimum are. for the prohibited gear fisheriaa. d. Dry Tortuga. (Fort Jefferson ~ational Monument). This national ~ument is managed by the N.tional Park Service. No oth.r special man.gement ... sur .. are recOMmended by the Councils. e. Loae Key Reef (National Marine Sanctuary). De.ignated in January, 1981, this s.nc tuary con.ist. of five square nautical mil.a. Sanctuary r.gulation. prohibit or regu late anchoring, coral collection and damage, wire trap fishing, lob.ter fishing, tropical specimen collecting, spearfish, and di.charge of certain .ub.tancea. f. Biscayne ~ational Park. Man.gement is provided by the National Park Service. No additional man.gement me.sures are recommended. g. Key Largo Coral Reef National Marine Sanctuary. Designat.d in 1975 and ad.inistered by NOAA's Office of Coastal Zone Management. No additional management .... ure. are recommended. h. Grey's Reef National Marine-Sanctuary. Designated in January, 1981. This diver.e coralline hard bottom encompa.ses about 17 square milea off Sapelo Island, Georgia. Reguletion. prohibit alt.ration of seabed, discharge of c.rt.in sub.tance., bottom tr.wling and dredging, wire fish tr.pping, and marine specimen coll.cting. The establishment of the HAPC. would address the general man.gement objective and Objective. -(I), (2), (J) and (.). Special Rec~end.tion. of The Councils Measur. 6: Special r.c~endation th.t the Secret.ry establiah a communic.tion program to inform the public of the re •• on. for coral ~an.gem.nt and regul.tion. which protect corals and coral reefs. An.lysis: This, special recomm.nd.tion is m.de to the Secret.ry in recognition of the lack of public under. tanding of cor.ls. This public inform.tion progr.m would increa.e the public .w.reness of the importanc. and fragile n.ture of the cor.l reef ecosystem. Such action would decre.ae the enforcement requirement. while con.erving the re.ource. This .... ure .ddr ••••• the genersl ~.nagement objective and Objective. (2) and (.). 12-10 Measure 7: Special ~ecam~ndat/on that the Secretary establish a procedure to coo~dlnate co~al ~nage­ ment activities In the FCZ and territorial sea within the Counc"s' 3eog~aphical a~ea of authority. Iolemoranda of Unde~standlng or similar ar~angements among the Bureau of Land Iolanagement, and ~atfonal Park Service (Department of InterIor), OCZM, the Councils, and other approprIate state and federal agencIes could serve thIs purpose. AnalysIs: Each of the above entIties has some level of responsibility In permitting, administering, o~ ~Iannlng for the management of co~als. A unIform, coo~dlnated fede~al policy would p~ovide t~e public with mo~e effIcIent and consistent ~anagement of the ~esource. This measu~e add~esses th. gene~al management objective and ObjectIves (2), (3), and (5). Measure 8: Recommended that the states and NMFS monitor at least at the p~esent level of effort the condition of the octoco~als so that they may be able to detect and ~eport damage o~ th~eat of damage to thel~ habitat. The Councils believe that unde~ the exIstIng, Intormal monlto~lng ~eglmes these agencies can effectively ca~ry out thIs ~8Quest without an Inc~easeln costs. Analysis: ThIs special recommendatIon p~ovides data fo~ the trlgge~lng mechanism to Initiate regula l' Ion unde~ Measure 1 to p~otec:f octoco~al s f~om ove~harvest. ThIs measure would complement ~easu~e 1 and address Problems 1 and 2. Measures Conside~ed and Not Recommended By The Councils: ~easu~e 9: P~ovlde for a fiShery for ~ose coral. Analysis: ~ose co~al has been utilized by fish collectors as a food source for some aquarium species, partlcula~ly butte~fly fishes. Th!s smal I stony coral Is found on the flats where Its harvest by dlve~s would not damage co~al reefs. It Is. however, protec:fed from harvest In Florida waters. A t~ial fishery under permit could provIde data on growth and yield t~~ a fished population, however, data a~e not avaIlable to al low for an open fishery without risk of local depletion. This measure woulj address the general management objective and Objectives (1) and (2). Measu~e 10: ~o action. (No management or regulation.). AnalysIs: The problems which exist with this resource were described In Section 12.1. Corals and coral reefs In the FCZ have been vIrtually without protection since 1979. While the resource does have a salable commercial value, Its prlnci~al value Is In nonconsumptive use. To maintain the corals and coral reefs and prevent their mutilation and destruction a management regime providing regulation Is required. The regime proposed p~ovides for the needed conservation of this resource which In turn provides habitat for other Important species ~f fish and Shellfish as .el I as recreation for noncon s umpt I ve users. This management option would address no management objectives or problems in the fishery. Measure 11: Include for specIal ~anagement purposes as habitat areas of particular concern the following: a. Sand Key and Sambo Reefs. Analysis: These ~I I developed coral reefs are part of the'Florlda reef tract and are located near Key West. While they are prime examples of the coral reef ecosystam, they are not Included as HAP~S 11-11 at this time because of their similarity and proximity to other HAPCs In the Florida reef tract and are both within Florida's territorial sea and are subject to state management. b. Onslow Bay, North Carolina. Analysis: A Ilv& bottom off Bogue Bank In Onslow 9ay Is an area of ecological Interest, particularly because of Its northern location. Available data are Insufficient to make a recammandation at tnis time tor Inclusion as a HAPC. It may be considered at a future time. c. Larger areas for the Florida ~iddle Ground and Ocullna Ba~k HAPCs. Analysis: The sizes of the areas were reduced to al low multiple fishery use In areas of lower coral denSity, thus eliminating unnecessary restriction of fishing activities whlle'meeting plan objectives. 12.5 Tradeoffs Between the Beneficial and Adverse Impacts of the Preferred or Optimal Management Options Optimum yield is to be obtained by tredlng off the short-lived gain ~rom the harvest and sale of stony corals and sea fans for a long-term nonconsumptlve use In situ. Because the extent of coral bottom 15 tor the most part unsurveyed, an estimate of the market value of stony and octocorals Is not known. Section 9.1 has described what 15 known of the extent of domestic use, both consumptive and noncon sumptive. ~rotection of corals and coral reefs as provided by ~anagement ~easures 1 through 4 would provide for maintaining the resource for nonconsumptive purposes while maintaining the smel I existing fiShery for octocorals at its present known level. This fiShery Is estimated to be valued at S15,OOO to 525,000 per year. The restriction of octocorals beyond the present sma I I fishery Is not deemed to be justified at this time. Localized depletion of species could occur should a pharmaceutical use be developed; however, this action could occur as the result of scientific research collection which 15 beyond jurisdiction of any F~. Furthennore, scientific collection of needed species may be taken from state waters where they are for the most part unprotected. The establishment of the HAPCs would maintain the status quo of unique areas providing habitat for corals. Five of the seven areas Identified as being worthy of special nanagement are presently under management of some approprIate federal agency. Two are unprotected and are SUbject to damage fram developing fisheries or other actIvities. At the present time, no existing fisheries would oe displaced. The establishment of a publIc Information program In Measure 6 to Inform the publIc of the nonconsump tlve value of coral would be a cost effective method of providing compliance with the regulations. As Indlv(duals become aware of the purpose of the regulations, the need for enforcement wil I lessen. Coordination of coral management activities among agencies with varying responsibilities would be c~t effect/ve by providing complimentary programs and eliminating conflicts and unnecessary duplication of effort. 12.6 Specification of Optimum Yield OY tor al I corals 15 the level of harvest specitied or as may be authoriZed pursuant to the permitting criteria established In this plan. Sasad on available data It is the CounCils' intent to al low the existing level ot, legal, reported harvest consistent with the objectives of this plan. 12-12 OY for stony corals and se. fans Is to be zero (0) except as may be authorized for scientific and edu catlon.' purposes. The curren? and expected le~1 of h.r~st of stony corals tor this purpose is estimated to be about 140 kilograms per year and for sea tans, less than 100 colonies per year. or for other octocorals Is the amount of h.r~st which Is authorized pursuant to this plan. It Is t~ be al I octocoral~ (except sea tans) that are har~sted by U.S fishermen. Octocorals, except for sea fans, are Identified as presently being har~sted without apparent stock damage (Section 8.2.61. ~resent and expected le~1 of har~st Is estimated to be about 5,845 colonies, 1,463 of which come trom the FeZ. 12-13 13.0 MEASURES, REQUIREMENTS, CONDITIONS, OR RESTRICTIONS SPECIFIED TO ATTAIN ~ANAGE~ENT ~8JECTIVES 13.1 P.,.mlts See Section 12.4, ~asures 2 and 4 fo~ Guidelines. Establish a pe~mit system fo~: A. the use of toxic chemicals In taking fish o~ ot~e~ ma~lne o~ganlSlllS which Inhabit co~al reefs, 9. fo~ taking stony co~als and sea fans and fo~ p~ohlblted co~als In HAPCs fo~ scientific and educational purposes. 13.2 Time and A~ea Restrictions See Section 13.5 fo~ special regulations applicable In habItat a~eas of pa~tlcula~ conce~n. 13.3 Catch Limitations A. Total Allowable Le~1 ~f ~o~el;n Fishing - none. The expected dOlll8stlc annual ~ar~st will equal the optimum yield. B. Types of Catch Limitations: I. J:lronlblt the taking of stony coral and sea tans (Go~90nla flabellum and 2,. ~ntallna)~r t~e destruction of t~ese eo~als and co~al ~eefs In tne FCZ of the Gulf and Soutn Atlantic Flshe~y Management Councils' ;eog~aphleal a~ea of authO~lty, except as p~ovlded fo~ by ~ermlt In t~ls plan. 2. J:I~ohlblted co~als taken Incidentally In othe~ flshe~les must be ~eturned to t,e wate~ In the gene~al a~ea of capture as soon as possible. An exception Is p~ovlded fo~ the g~ound­ fish, scal lop, o~ ot~e~ slmlla~ flshe~les, whe~e the entl~e unso~ted catCh Is landed. In such Instances the p~ohlblted corals may be landed but may not be sold. 3. Shoulj ha~~st of octocorals bec~ accele~ated whl~h In the Councils' judgement Is t~~eatenlng the habitat In localized o~ widespread a~eas, the Councils mey request tne Sec~.ta~y to take a~llable measures desl;ned to eliminate such th~eat of damege to t'e ~esou~ce and fIshery habitat. The following p~ocedu~e may be ~sed: On the advice of Its SCientific and Statistical :o~tt .. or other sou~ces that ~ne or ma~e species of octoco~als may be endangered from widespread or localized depletion from o~~ha~~st ~r th~.atof o ... ~ha~lIest, tne Counei Is may notify the Secretary of the th~eat and ~ecommlnd that he take one or ma~e of the fotlowlng actions. a. ~estrlct by regulato~y amendment or th~ough p~omul;atlon of ema~gency regulations the ha~~st of one o~ ma~e speCies of octocorals to a recommended le~1 o~ amaunt. b. Restrict by regulato~y amendment ~~ through p~omul;ation of eme~gency regulations t,e a~ea from whiCh one or mere species of octoco~als mey be taken. c • .Restl"'lct by regulatory amendment o~ th~ough p~omulJlltlon of ema~gency ~egulatlons t,e met~od of har~st by whiCh one o~ mare species of octoco~als mey be ha~~sted. 13-1 d. Utilize any procedures other than regulatory amendment or promul;atlon of emer;ency regulations which may be within the realm of ~utnorlty of the Secretary and .hl:" .11 I achle~ the results of action proposed In options (a) througn (c) abo~. 13.4 Types of Vessel, ~ear, and Enforcement ~evlces Prohibit the use of toxic chemicals In taking fish and other merlne organisms which l,haOlt coral reef areas except under permit as may be specified In this or any other fishery ~na9e­ mant plan. . . 13.5 Habitat Preser\l8tlon, Protection, and Restoration. Measures are proposed for the coral habitats of particular concerno A. East and west Flower ~arden 9anks (~omlnated National ~arlAe Sanctuary>. The taking of corals and the use of bottom longllnes, traps and pots, bottom trawls, and anchoring by Yessels 100 feet or more In registered length Is prohibited within the 50-fathom cont~r. 9. Florida Middle Grounds - tne northernmost hermatypic (shal low reef-type> coral community In the Gulf of ~exlco. The area 15 bounded by a line beginning at °olnt A (latitude 26" 42.5' ~, longItude 64" 24.6' W), proceeding jue east for approximately 7.4 nm to Point 9 (latitude 26" 42.5' N, longitude 64" 15.3' ~); tnen proceeding In a southeasterly direction for approxi mately 34.5 nm to Point: (latitude 26" II' N, longitude 64" 0' ~); then proceeding due wes? for approximately 7 nm to ?olnt J (latitude 26" II' N, longitude 64" 07' ~); then proceedln'.. In a northwesterly direction for approxImately 22.3 nm to Point E (latitude 26" 25.5' N, longitude 64" 24.6' II); then proceeding due north for 15.6 nm to origin at Polnt.\. '.lfthl, tne HAPC the taking or destruction of all corals and the use of bottom longllnes, traps and pots, and bottom trawls i.s prohiolted. C. Ocullna Bank. A four by 23 nm st~lp contal,lng banks and thickets of the I~ry tree coral, Ocullna \l8rlcosa, bounded by latitude 27" 30' N to latitude 27· 53' N and longitude 79" 55' ~ to longitude aO" OO'~. Within the HAPC the use of bOttom longllnes, dredges, bottom trawls, and fish traps and pots Is prohibited. 13.6 Other Measures to Achle~ OY A. Recommended that the Secretary est5bllsh a communication program to I,form tne public of tne reasons for coral management and tne regulations whl:h protect coral and coral reefs. B. Recommended that the Secretary establish a prOCedure to coord I nat, coral management activi ties In the FeZ and territorial sea .Ithln the Councils' area. c. Recommended that the states ar.~ ~FS monitor at least 5t the present le~1 of effort the condition of the octocorals and report damage or threat of jamage to their habitat. ~e belle~ under existing monitoring regl~, these agencies can ettectl~ly carry out this request without a significant Increase In current expenditure. 13.7 State, Local, and Other Laws and °orlcles The State of Florida has laws regulating t~e taking and possession of corals. These are expl~l,ed i, SectIon 7.4. Regulations of other federal agencies which a~ply to coral are contal,ed In the appendl'lc" 13-2 ; 13.8 LImIted Access Systems ~one. 13.9 De~lopment of FIshery Resources ~one. 13.10 ~anagement Costs and Revanues Estimates of enforcement and admlnlst~atlva costs .e~e provided In part by the ~atlonal ~rlne Fisheries Service. These cost estimates are necessa~lly based on ful I avallabllty of funds and eq u I ;lment. Actua I expend I tures I n the ~ea I .or I d can be expected to be lower., For deta II s see the Regulato~y Impact Review In the AppendJx K. Enforcement I. Enforcement of protection of the Florida Reef T~act (Measures I through 4): S116,5oo 2. Random pat~ol of Frowe~ Garden Banks and Florida Middle G~ounds (Measure 5): S 65,268 3. Random pat~ol of Ocul Ina Banks HAPC (~easu~e 5): S 25,165 Invastlgatlon of complaints: (NMFS) S 15,750 TOTAL ENFORCEMENT COSTS S222,683 Statistical ~eportlng and data collection S 1,700 Permit administratIon 180 An tic I pa ted d I ~ect re vanues none 14.0 SPECIFICATION ANO SOURCE OF PERTINENT FISHERY ~ATA 14. I General To keep ~ccur~te.records of the coral fishery and to help fll I data gaos, se~ral types of Inf~r~tlon shoul~ be gathered from Industl"'Y parTicipanTs. Per-TlnenT ~nd, up-to-date data from ~II SeCTOI"'S al"'9 a I"'equlslte for proper managemenT o~r the shorT- ~nd long-term time frame. PorTions of t,e l~f~l"'~tion may be gathered from t~e har~stlng or processing seCTorS; OTher faCTS must be generated tnrougn research. Each of these sources ~re descr I bed In tl'le fo II ow Il'Ig subsec1' lo'ns. Tl'le mechanisms of data ~91Iec1'lon ~I"'e vitally Important to tl'le success of 1'1'18 col lec1'lng effol"'t. Caution muST be taken to assure Industry parTicipanTs tnat: 1) tnelr cooperetlon Is vital to menage ment of tne resource, ~nd 2) their answers wll I remall'l confidential. Si~llarly, the wording of t~e permiT forms or reporting sl'IeeTs sl'Ioul~ be sl~ple yet tnorough. ~one of tne fishery data listed bel~ to be collec1'ed Is currently gatnered by any prl~te, STate, or federal agency. ~Istorlcal Iy, In the ~bsence of a coral fishery and Tl'le presence of laws protecTing many corals, no data at al I l'Ias been col leCTed; ~FS, usually tl'le major source of fishery data, nas no data on tl'le coral fishery. 14.2 Domestic and Foreign Fishermen As portr~yed by tne discussions of OY In Section 12.0, tne coral fishing Industry Is limiTed In slzr and quantIty. Hence, tne fol lowing Information need apply only to domestIc fishermen. ~ost of tne relevant flsl'lery data fl"'om flsnermen can be collected via tne mandatory permit reports recommended in SeCTion 13.1. Reports may supply: 1. Nama and address of permitTee 2. Nama and address of company, Institution, affiliation, etc. 3. Species collec1'ed 4. ~rea of collecTion 5. Collec1'lon technl~ues (~sse' types, 3ear, l'Iumber of trips, etc.) 6. ?uantlty of each species 7. Size of each-species 8. Jlsposltlon or use of each species 9. Otl'ler data as may be needed for management as determined ~y tne ~eglonal Jirector. Fishermen may also be able to provide observation ~ata 01'1 OTher aspec1's of the fishery as a result of ~Iuntary il'ltervlews: 1. Health (percent livIng) and size of coral beds 2. Existence of particular STresses' In spec flc coral beds 3. Evidence of standing stock changes as har~sts conTll'lue 4. Changes In level of efforT by species, area, or tIme 5. -?uanTitles of corals sol':I to .'0Io3saI9rs, retailers, dlrec1'I)!, etc. ~ddltlonal Information tl'lat coul~ strengtnen Sections 8.0, 9.0, and lu.O Caconomlcs, soclo-cultural. and business aspects) coul:j also be requested on a \oCL,mtary, InT.grvlew basis. Since 1'1'115 inbr'lll!lri .. Is crucial to calculating OV, moST par-ticlpants shoul:! respond posltr~I)I. Data could Include: 14-1 .\ 1. Econamlc dependence (percent of total earnings) derived from corals (for crew, owner, and vessel) 2. Outlook for future .xpanslon of harv.stlng 3. County of v.ssel reg I stratlon and res Id.nc. 4. ~g. of flsh.nnen S. Education stat\Js 6. Participant In oth.r flSh.rles 7. Crew slz. and variability (employment trends) 14.3 Proc.ssors Information on species and Quantities of corals handled by proc.ssors are as Important to resource management as flsh.nnen reports. ~wever, the lack of fisheries data ex~ends to this sector as .el I. Intormatlon should be gath.red from al I levels of the processor sector - cl.aners and bleach.rs. whol.sal.rs. retall.rs. Shippers, ellpor~ers, and Import.rs slnc. th.lr trade aff.cts the domestic mark.t so greatly. Wh.re appllcabl ••• ach fIrm Involv.d In proc.sslng (I •••• Invol~ In any ac~lvlty att.r coll.cting the corals) should supply the follCllflng InformatIon: 1. Name and address of the firm and respond.nt 2. R.port I ng p.rlod 3. Source of corals (harvested, purchased as .hol.sal •• Imported, .tc.), name of suppll.r, area collected 4. ~unt of corals processed by species 5. '1al OJe upon purchase and sale, i.e., value added 5. Type of processing done If any (clean, bleach. cut, polish. etc.) 7. Number of employe.s S. SeasonalIty of employment 9. Supply and demand trends 10. Location of outlets 11. Percent of ouslness related to corals o 14.4 Data Gaps The two Councils have Id.ntlfled numerous gaps In the ell I sting coral data. Some gaps may be bridged by Information 3en.rated fram flsh.nwen and proc.ssors as described In the preceding two subsections; other data will need to be coll.cted during detailed scientific studies. As noted belCllf, '!\any of t~e missing facts are crucIal to the preparation of tnis FMP. EaCh da1"a gap acknowl.dged below Includes recomlTllndations for research to fill 1"h. Informa1"lon needs and a r.f.r.nce to the partIcular FMP section to whiCh the new data would contrlbu1".. For ease In .stabllshlng future res.ardl budgets. the fol ICllflng data gaps are arrang.d In approllllllll1"8 d.creaslng order of prIority wIthin each s~bject area: scientIfIc, socIoeconomic/cultural, and manage 31/ administratIve. In SOllIe cas.s. the need for InformatIon negates a true prlorltlza1"lon since all needs ar. major. 14.4.1 ScIentIfIc 14.4.1.1 EcologIcal Data - Olstrlbu1"lon and Abundanc. Corals wIthIn the managemen1" area have been studied i~ disjunct areas for numerous researa, projec1"s. The n.t result has be.n an accumulation of sporadic data tha1" leaves many geographic areas, speCies, and topics unst\J~led. To solve this prOblem, and 1"0 provIde the data so vl1"al to the ~SY calculations 14-2 In Section 5.4 and OY In Section 12~', a thorough sur~y of the physiology. biology, and ecology of corals In the IIIInage nt area I s needed. DistrIbutIon and abundance data must be collected by field sur~ys. In IIIIny cases, the t!el·j col lec tlons ha~ been completed; samples now await Identification and analysis of distribution patterns. Where sur~ys are necessary, ettorts should concentrate In areas ~Id of exIsting Information (e.3., most waters In the management area deeper than about 50 m or 165 ft, areas of suspected deepwater banks, mucll of the south Atl.antlc region, tile continental shelf ott southwestern Florida, and ot~er smeller areas) and areas of special Interest such as habitat areas of particular concern (HAPes). Experimental design of the sur~ys wll I ~ry according to depth. In shal low waters. dl~r visits should provide mast of the necessary data. Howe~r, In progressl~ly deeper waters, more dependence must be placed upon submersibles rat~er than potentially damagIng gears sucll as trawls and dredges. In shallow regIons, dl~r sur~ys along transects as employed by Jaap and Whe.ton Lowry (In preparation) are highly advIsable. Such d.slgns provide continuous data acros.s nu rous microhabitats a key concern In communities with high dl~rslty and great ~rlatlons In phySical characteristIcs. Where ~ssel towed gear or submersibles are to be used, depth r.corders and bathy trle IIIIPS shoulj provide pr.llmlnary guldanc. for trans.ct placement. For example, to ~rlfy the occurrence of deep water bankS and Iithotherms In the Straits of Florida and Blake Plateau, a surface ~ssel sllould con duct a s.rles of transects from the 100 m (330 ft) contour to the edge of the IIIInag. nt ar.a. SImIlar trans.cts ha .... been run betore but collections ha~ not been classIfied. In' areas of special empllasls (500 to 725 mar 1,650 to 2,400 ft), a submersible with protractable collecting gear should be used. Limited distribution data could be d.rl .... d on the basis on occurrence In collections or dlr.ct slghtlngs. Abundanc. and/or d.nslty of corals Is best :al:ulated by dir.ct dl~r obser~tlon or, In de.per waters, by towing an und.rwat.r camera trom 3 ~ss.l. Submerslbl.s could also be used but the costs In~J~d are much higher than towing a camera. This Information could also contrlbut. to fll ling gaps In bIological data. 14.4.1.2 Biological Oata - Growth Rates, ~ortallty Rates, Age at Maturity, etc. In conjunction with the flelj sur .... ys r.commend.d In the pr.cedlng subsection on ecological data, 3 thorough r.vlew and study of growth, mortality, r.productlon, and other biological data Is n.ed.d also. Sinc. corals most lIkely exhibit specl.s and areal trends In th.s. parameters, significant portIons of the management area should be studied for many species. For .xample, ~Y data Is .xtre mely scarc. outsld. the Florida Keys for al I coral groups. .j Due to the size of this particular data gap, It .11 I mast likely be n.c.ssary to .stabllsh prlorltl.s In species, are.s, or parameters. Highest priority sllould probably be gl~n to species with acknowledged commercial ~Iue and those most s.nsltl~ to damage or subj.ct to collection (Appendix 0), to areas wllere r.search may be most .fflclent (n.arsllore ar.as, dense beds, on least studied specl.s, etc.>, and to data that are Is especially necessary to menage the resource 'eeg., growth and mertallty rates.of pr.clous corals, naturar mo~tallty rat~s of mest species. ~nd f.cundity). 'These data mey be generated by dl~r or ~ssel transects and field or laboratory res.arch. If labora tory studi.s are uSed, car. must be tak.n t~ enhance confidence .Ith fl.lj populations. Co~als studied In the laboratory may be col lected ~y trawl and held all~ 11 retrl;erated aqua~la fo~ o~r a y.a~. Us. of a radio beacon, as .mpl~y.d i~ j.ep.ate~ petroleum exploratIons, coulj Increase response time. Lastly, settling plates coulj ~e ~Iac.d n.ar lar~1 accumulations to measure growth and sk.le tal !:landing. wltn growth rates -and IMIxllllUm/mean sIzes, a ~·~gh estimate of long.vlty and mortality could be deduced. "ercent living and d.ad data (4.ntjnIJs, .1' al., 1978) Is helpful In MSY but mere precIse daTa of deaths due to natural ph.nomena and man-made Impacts are mer. applicable. 14.4.1.3 Fishery Conflicts - Territorial and Gear Issues One possible Issue within the fIshing canmunl1'y of the management area Is conflIct bet'lfeen various users of the resource. RegardIng corals. the absence of ~ubllshed reports has lImited the data ~se to observatIons and personal canmunlcatlons of users. As outlined In Section 6.2.2.1. conflIcts have al)perently arIsen be1"lfeen shrimp, reef fish (snapper and grouper). tropical speCimen. lobster. and scal lop flshenne~ and the coral resource. The extent of damage attributable to each fishery Is variable and in·some cases may be negligible. ~netheless. to manage. corals and the habItat thev create. Quantitative and Qualitative Information must be gathered. Each fishery should be contacted and theIr prime fishing areas and gears assessed for potential conflicts. 14.4.1.4 Natural and Human Induced Damage Co'"cldental with the above surveys of human-related damage. a study of background natural changes in coral health must also be InItiated. ~revlous studies have suggested that coral growth may be cyclIc and tnat natural stresses of temperature and storms may greatly affect overall resource health. The limits of such perturbations must be defIned. AnalySiS of natural stresses may be difficult. Portions of the work suggested above on ecological and biological data may accumulate some Information on the relationships of distribution to temperature. predator-prey relationships. and other natural processes. Larger seale processes such as Sedimentation. col d/wann tront movements. and sewage outfa I Ismay be stud I ed by satel "te; freq uent orbl ts and occa sIonal 3round trut~lng could provide both short- and long-term Info~tlon. Such data shoulj be valuable In assessing coral health In the Florida reef tract. 14.4.2 Soeloeconomlcal/Cultural 14.4.2.1 User Groups - Dependence of Coral and Coral R.sources Section 9.0 Identified user groups (tropical sp.clmen .nterprlses. charterboat firms. coral marketers and dive Shops :::Ir schools). and several associated businesses dependent upon co.rals. However •• xcept ·for the tropical fish sector (Hess and Stev.'y, draft manuscript). no attanpt has been made to d.scrlbe tnelr operations. Similar studies must be undertaken of otner users to represent accurat.,y their needs In Oy decisions. The information accumulated by Hess and Stevelf represents a solid base model for similar studi.s on .jt:,er groups. Telephone and personal int.rviews utilizing an established survey approacn (f •••• Inter view Schedule> should be conducted with representative portions of each user group. C)ossible Quas tlons to be ask.d of each user are pr.sented i'1 Appendix K. Preliminary studies shoul:! also be done to detennl ne if other user groups have been i 1nored or the i r importance I ncorrect I y as 58S sed. 14.4.2.2 User Groups - Cultural Characteristics AsIde fran the business and market aspects of each user group. this F~ also InCludes (Section 11.0> a discussIon of the .tnnlcl1'y, education, family structure, Incane. sex, etc., of people living in 15 representative coastal counties flanking t~e management area. Except in a few Instanc.s. very little of the data pertains to direct coral users; ~st of the InformatIon concerns flshennen or the ;eneral popu I at Ion. 14.4.2.3 Coral Prices - PIece Prices from Various Sources As noted i" Section 10.1, several Informal interviews rev.aled that certain corals may be imported at lower costs than they coulj be harvested domestically. This statanent Is apparently baSed on coral 14-4 availability, collection labor, and the supply sector. However, Import Invoices and the domestic price st~ucture (before and after existing coral protection laws) have not been analyzed. Is it t~ue that corals can be collected and transported halfway around the world at lower costs than the 'jonestlc ~8S0urce could be exploited? How will this structure vary If either forel;n sources are limited o~ domestic harvesting Is allowed on a tl"lal basiS for some species? These questions need to be answered to comprehend tne current United States' coral ~rketo 14.4.3 Management 14.4.3.1 Habitat Areas of PartIcular Concern - Admlnlst~atlon The habItat area of partIcular concern (~APCl idea 15 a rarely used component of al I FMPs. ~ flsnery council has had to devel"op either criteria fot" tnelr racomllllndation/designatton, 'lor limits on the ~egulatory power available In tnel~ administration. However. because corals are sedentary and a~e habitat themselves, the HAPC concept seems especially applicable to tnls FMP. To utilize effectively tne HAPC idea, studies of qualifying criteria, surveys of possible nominations, and ~eviews of !vallable data must be completed. Criteria suggested In Section 6.3 provide a baseline f~om whlcn official regulations should evolve. ~Inations should be generated from the data In this FMP and solicited from coral user groups and specialists In coral studies. The existing data bank and researcn proposed herein must be assessed to assess nominations based on ecological, recreational, economic or othe,. ~atlonales. T~e HAPC concept also needs financial ana enfo~cament support. Investigations should be Initiated Into funding sou~ces and levels, equipment pu~cnase, vessel and officer availability, and otne~ admlr-" Istrative issues. The Idea of managing special !~eas wll I not be successful unless money and ~npo. are approp~1 ated. 14-5 15.0 RELATIONSHIP OF THE RECOMMENCED MEASURES TO EXISTING APPLICABLE LAWS AND POLICIES "., FIshery Management Plans Management measUl"'es contained In this FloP are canpatlble wIth tnose In otller FloPs in tile area. Certain fishing gear Is excluded to protect corals In the specified habitat areas of particular con cern. The Impact of the exclusion wll I be minimal, because t~e gear Is not presently deployed In these areas. ~rOYlslon Is made for unavoidable bycatch In the scal lop and groundflsh fIsherIes. ".2 TreatIes or InternatIonal Agreements Since no forel;n flshennen harvest corals and the recanmended total a"owable'.'eve' of foreIgn tlshi""9 (TALFF) Is zero, treaties and International agreements are not expected to affect thIs F~. ".3 Federal Laws and PolicIes The objectIves and measUl"'es of the F10fI wI I I canpllment the Bureau of· Land ~anagement, NatIonal ~arl ne Sanctuary, and NatIonal Park ServIce management of coral canmunlties. Magnuson Act The proposed regulations are consistent with and are autnorlzed by the Magnuson Act. The admInIstra tive record developed prior to submitting the document to the Secretary of Commerce adequately demonstrates their consIstency with the ~atlonal StandardS of the Magnuson Act and the necessity and approprl ateness thereof. ~ational ~nvlronmental Pol Icy In accord with NEPA tills documen~ contai,s al I elements of a draft environmental Impact statement. It concludes that the human environment woulj oe enhanced by the protection and management of coral and coral reef s. RegUlatory Flexibility Act (, U.S.C. 601 et seq.l A review of this F10fI indicates that there wil I be no significant econanlc Impacts fran Its Implemen tation on sma I I business entities In the coral and coral reef fiShery, or other related fisheries. The statistical reporting and permit requirements are not major Impediments to business activity and, In almost al I cases, the requirements are already in place through State of ~Iorlda regulatIons. Paperwork ReductIon Act (44 U.S.C. 350 et seq.l The proposed management measures wll I not increase the reporting burden for commercIal, scientIfIc, and educational users significantly, or over ~resent ~unts (Florida requires reporting of Its permit holders, and FONR may be the Regional Ji~ect~r'3 deslgneel. The major Change .il I be a shift fran voluntary to mandatory reporting for permit holjers and the addition of ,eeded information. Endangered SpecIes Act of 1973 During the preparation of the FMP, the :ouncils requested a Section 7 consultatIon with the Fish and WildlIfe Service and NMFS. The consultation :onc:~ded that the proposed regulatIons under the F~ were not lIkely to affect the continued exi;tence of any threatened or endangered specIes or ~esult in the destruction or adverse modI f icatlon of naoi tat jeterml ned to be crl tical to such specl as. 15-1 Marl n. ~alllllli s ProTecT I on AcT Proposed regu I aT Ions und.r The FIwP w II I noT ad ... r5el y affect rnarl ne nemlllli s. £xecutl ... Order 12291 'n accord with thIs ord.r a Regulatory Impact Review has been prepared and submitted separately. Coastal Zone ~ana9ement ACT This plan must be consistent with appro ... d coastal zone manag.ment programs for states wlthl~ the g.ographlcal area of autnorlty of the two Councils. the approprlat. stat. agencIes haYe been provljed with copies of the plan and notified that the CouncIls bel, .... It to be consfstent with the state programs. ~avlng recel~d no objection from any state after 60 days, the Coua~lls ha ... determl~ed the plan to be consistent with the state programSa 15.4 State, Local, and Other Applicable Laws and ~ollcles By d.flnltlon, the FCMA and F~s apply only within the fishery cons.r ... tlon zone. InsIde the 3 nm (5.6 km) lImIt of state jurIsdIction (thr .. merlne leagues on coastal T.xas and Florida on the Gulf of ~exlco coast), state law pr.~llso The Councils recommand close coordination with stat. go ... rnments to menage. the coral. This Is especially appropriate with Florida whe,-e most of the corals In state waters are located. 15-2 16.0 STATEMENT OF COUNCIL INTENTION TO MONITOR THIS PLAN AFTER APPROVAL BY THE SECRETARY The Councils wll I. after approval and I~plementatlon of this plan by the Secretary. maintain a con tInuing revl of the fishery. DelineatIon of IIDnltol"'lng actions nated al"'e briefly sulMltrlZed. 1. New data developed by the NatIonal ~arlne Fishel"'l., Service and othel'" l"'eseal"'Chel"'s whIch may Improve MSY "calculatIons and affect OY consIderatIons wi I I be I"'evl ed. 2. In accol"'dance wIth Management ~easure 2 the Councl Is wI I I reyl .. permitted harvesting activities and data ob'ta I ned tl"'an th .... 3. The systllll ot localized cOl"'al habitat al"'eas of particulal'" concel"'n .1 I I be I"'evl .. ed to make needed adjustment In management. and to consldel'" additIons 01'" deletIons In the deSignated al"'eas. 4. The Councils may conduct public heal"'lngs at appropl"'late times and places regal"'dlng the need tOl'" changes In the plan 01'" Its regulations, In ol"'del'" to Increase effectiveness. 16-1 17.0 LITERATURE C I TEO Abbott, R.E. and T.J. Bright. 197'. Benthic communities associated with natural ;as seeps on car bonate banks In the northwestern Gulf of Mexi.~.,. In: ~eport, study of :'Iaturally occurring hydrocarbons In the Gulf of Mexico. Texas A&M university, Col lege Station. Adams, J.K. 1979. ~ersonal communication. Bureau of land ~anagement, Depa~nt of the Interior, New Orleans, louisiana. Agassiz, A. 1883. The Tortugas and Florida reefs. ~Irs American Academy Arts & ScI. 11:107-134. AgassIz. L. 1852. Extracts from the report of Professor Agassiz to the Superl ntendant of the :oast Survey, on the examInation of the Florida reefs. keys and coast. Ann. Rept. Supt. Coast Surv. Rept. 1851, waShington. p. 145-160. AI ter, R.C. and R.E. Dodge. 1974. Animal-sediment relationshl;lS In a tropical lagoon, Discovery Bay. J. ~arlne ResearCh 32:209-232. AmerIcan Petroleum Institute. 1978. Oil and gas .ell drilling fluid chemicals. American ~etroleum InstItute, Washington, O.C. ,$pI ?ublication 1.3F. 9 PPQ Andrews, ~.8. 1964. Serpulfd reefs, 9affln Bay, southeast Texas. In: :Jeposltlonal envlrorrnents; South Central Texas :oast. Gulf :oast Assn., GeologIcal SocIety Annual Field Trip Guidebook. An'tonlus, '. 1973. 'jew observations on cor!!1 jestructlon In reefs. In: AssocIation of Island "'!!rine l!!boratorles of the Caribbean, 10th MeetIng. "'ayaguez, ?uerto Rico, Septanber 4-7, 1973. !!bstraC't only. 1975. ~redation by the polychaet9 Hermodlce carunculata on reef corals. In: Field guide to some carbonate rock envlrorrnents (ed. rl.G. "'ulter). Kendall rlun't ~ubl. Co., revised edition. p. 1331<-1.330'4. 1976. i(ranke i<oral len: r I ftzerstorung. ~mschau in Wi ssenschaft und redln Ik 76, 15:493-494. 1977. Cor!! I 'IIOrtal/ty In raefs: A problem for science and 11anagement. In: Proc., Third Int'l :oral ~eef SymposIum, Miami, FlorIda, "'ay 1977. 2:617-6230 1979. BiologIcal survey of benthic communities around the ~ompano Sewage Outfal I In Broward County, FlorIda. Florida R.ef Foundation publication, "'arCh 9, 1979. multi pp. In press. Coral reef pathology. 1:'1: :or!!1 r-e.fs under stress (eel. J. Stod<Sart and R. GrIgg). AcademIc ~ress. "ntonLus. A., A.H. ·~elner. J.C. Halas and E. 'Javijson. report to N~A. Office of Coastal Zone "'anagement, Florida. 63 pp. 1978. Loce ~ey reef resource Inventory. Final by the Florida ~eef Foundation. Homestead, Atlantic Reef :ommlttee. 1979. Report of 3 meeting of the Atlantic Reef :ommlttee to consider endangered species status of ;lif lar cor31 8endrogyra cyllndrus. FiSher Isl3nd S1'3tion, Florida, June 19,1979. 3 pP. Avent. R. , ~.E. I<lng and R.H.30re. 1977. off the central eastern Florida coast. TopograPhic and faunal studies of shelf-edge ;lromlnences 1.,1'. Rev. Ges. I-fydrobiol. 62:185-208. 17-1 Bagby, M. 1978. The ecology of patch reef gorgonlans off the coast of Key Largo. Florida. Unpublished Report, FlorIda International ~niverslty, Miami. 28 pp. Bak, R.P.M. and J.M.B.W. Elgershulzen. 1976. Patterns of oil-sediment rejection in corals. ~arlne Biology 37:105-113. Bak, R.P.M. and G. van Eys. 1975. Predation of the sea urcn1n ~Iadema antfllarum Philippi on living coral. o.cologla 20:11-115. Bak, R.P.M. 1976. The growtl'l of coral colonies and the Importance of erustose coralline al~e and burrowing sponges In relation with carbonate accumulation. 10:285-337. 'therlands J. of Sea Researen. Baker, p.A. and J.D. Weber. 1975. Coral growth rate: variation with depth. Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Program. 7:24. Bakus, G.J. 1969. EnergetiCS and feeding in shal low marine waters. International Reviews of General Experimental Zoology 4:275-369. 1973. The biology and ecology of tropical holotnurians. P. 326-367, In: R. Endean (eds.) Biology and ecology of coral reefs, vol. I I, Biology 1. "lew York. O.A. Jones and Acad Ic Press, Ball, M.M., E.A. Shinn and K.W. Stockman. 1967. The geologic effects of hurricane Donna In SOuth Florida. J. Geology 75(5):583-597. Barada. 9. 1979. Little Loce Key. SKi" Ji"er. 28(3):50-67. Barans, C.A. 1978. Personal communication. ~arine Resources Department, Charleston, South Carolina. Bayer. F.~. 1952. "Ie. western Atlantic records of octocorals (Coelenterata: Anthozoa) •• ith descrip tions of tl'lree new species. Journal of the Washington Academy of Science 42: 183-189. 1954. The microanatomy of five holaxonlan octocorals. ~.S. Thesis, Seorge waShington University. waShington, D.C. 1956. Octo cora I Ila. p. 166-23, In: R.C. Moore (ad.), Treatise on invertebrate paleontology. PT. F. Unlv. of Kansas Pr s. 1957. Addl tional records of .estern Atlant ic octocoral s. Journal of the Was 1'1 ington Academy of Science 47:379-390. 1961. The sl'lal low-water Octocoral lia of the west Indian region. ~artinus Nljhoff, The Hague, Netl'lerlands. 373 PP. 1964. The genus Corailium (~rgonacea: Scleraxonla) in the .estern Nortl'l Atlantic Ocean. Bulletin of ~arlne Science 14(3):46;'478. 1979. Personal communication. Smithsonian Institution, National ~useum of ~atural History, Wasl'lington. D.C. Sayer, F.~'o·c.iid A.J. Weinheimer. 1974. Prostaglandins from Plexaura l'Iomomalla, a symposium. Studies in Tropical Oceanography No. 12. Jni"erSity of ~iami. 165 Pp. 17-2 Secke", w. 1979. Personal communication. Ne.found Harbo,. MarIne Institute. Big PIne Key, Florida. geebe, w. 1928. Seneath tropic seas. Halcyon House, ~e. York. Senson, ~.A. and L. Museatine. 1974. Wax in coral ~ucus: Energy transfer ~rom corals to reef fishes. Limnolology and Oceanography 19:810-814. Sir~land, C. 1974. The effect of wave action on t~e population dynamics of Gorgonla ventalina Llnnaeus. p. 115-126. In: Prostaglandins from Plexaura homomal la, a symposium. Studies in Tropical Oceanography Miami, No. 12. Biscayne National ~onument (National :lark Service). 1978a. BISC reef studies, progress report, June 1978. 9iscayne National ~onument, Homestead, Florida. 1978b. 91SC reef studies, semiannual recort, October 1978. Biscayne National Monument. ~omestead, Florida. Bjork I and, "".1. 1974. Ach I evements i n ~ar i ne conservat Ion, I. marl ne parkS. Env I rol1lMtntal :onservation 1 (3) :20~223. Blood, A. 1978. Personal communication. Charterboat captain, Port Arthur, Texas. 30schma,~. 1925. On the feeding reactions and di~estion In the coral polyp Astrangla danae, .Ith notes on Its symbiosiS with zooxanthel lae. Siological Sui letln 49:407-4]9. 1929. The development of Manicina aerolata. Carnegie Institute. waShington, D.C. Paper ~0.391. Vo I. 25. 1957. List of described species of the order Stylasterina. Zool. Verh.-Lelden. 33:1-72. Sriggs, J. 1974. Marine zoogeography. McGraw-Hi I I, New York. 475 PP. Sri;ht, T.J. 1977. Coral reefs, nepheloid layers, Jas seeps and brine flows on hard ban~s in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. In: Proc., Third Int'l. Coral Reef Symposium. Miami. Florida. May 1977. 1 :39-46. 1978. Jescriptive biological reconnaissance studies. In: topographical featur .. study. Submitted to Bureau of ~and Geosciences. Texas A&M UnIversity. Col lege Station, Texas. Northwestern Gul f of Mexico Management (New Orleans) by C()lIege of ~L~ Contract No. AA 5So-CT7-15. 1979. ?ersonal communication. Texas A&M university. Col lege of ~eosciences. Col lege Station, Texas. 1980. Personal communication. Texas ~~.\ol University, Col lege of ~eosciences. Col lege Station, Texas. aright. T.J. and~. DuBois. 1974. 3aseline S.Jrvey Stetson Bank, ,3ulf of ~exico. Report to Signal Oil and Gas Co., by COllege of ·:;eosciences, Texas A&,I.1 UniverSity, College Station. Texas. 59 PP. Bright, T.J. and L.H. Peouegnat (8(15.). 1974. 3iota of the West Flower Garden Bank. Gulf publ. Compan'" Houston, Texas. 435 pP. 17-3 Brlgh~, T.J. and R. Rezak. 1976. A biological and geological reconnaissance of sele~ed topographical features on the Texas con~lnental shelf. Submitted to Bureau of Land ~anagemen~ (N .. Orleans) ~y College of Geosciences, Texas A&M University, Col lege Station, Texas. BL~ Contract ~o. 08550 CTH. 377 PP. Bright, T.J. and.R. Rezek (eds.). 1978. Northwes~ern Gulf of~exlco topographical features srudy. Submitted to Bureau of Land ~anagement (Ne. Orleans) by Gollege of Geosciences, Texas A&M University, Col lege Station, Texas. BLM Contra~ No. AA 55Q-CT7-15. Bright, T.J., J.W. Tunnell, L.H. !=Iequegnat, T.E. Burke, C.W. Casl'lllan, D.A. Cropper, J.!=I. Ray, R.C. Tresslar, J. Teer"ng and J.B. WII Is. 1974. Biotic zonation of tn. West Flower Garden Bank. p. 4-54, In: .. T.J. Bright and L.H. !=Iequegnat (eds.) Biota of the West Flo.er Garden Bank. Gulf !=Iubl. Company, Book Division, Houston, Texas. Bright, T.J., W.C. Jaap, and C.W. Castvnan. 1981. Ecology and management of coral reefs and organic banks pp. 53-160.!l!. Proc. Environmental research needs In the Gul f of ~ Ico (Gomex) Key Biscayne, Florida, 30 September - 5 October, 1979, Vol. I lB. U.S. Department of Commerce, N~A, Environmental Research Laboratories, ~iami, Florida. BrOOk, G. 1889. Report on the Antipatharia. Challenger Rep. Zoology 32:1-222. BrookS, H.K. 1974. Geo log I ca I oceanograp hy. p. I IE 1-49, In: J.I. Jones, e~ al. (eds.) A sumrrery of knowledge of the eastern Gulf of ~e~ico. Unpublished Repor~, State University System Institute of Oceanography, University of South Florida, St. !=Ietersburg. 1962. Observations on the Florida ~iddle Grounds. Geological SOCiety of America, Special !=Iapers 68:55-68. Bruce, A.J. 1976. Shrimps and pra.ns of coral reefs, with special reference to commensalism. D. 38-94, In: O.A. Jones and R. Endean (eds.) Biology and geology of coral reefs, Vol. III, Siology 2. Academic Press, Ne. York. Sureau of Land ~anagement, 1981. ~ontract ~o. AA 551-CT8-35. Northern Gu I f of ~exi co tooograph ic fearure STUdy, final report Outer Continental Shelf Office, file. Orleans, Louisiana. Sureau of Sport Flsherl and Wildlife. 1972. The 1970 national survey of fiShing and hunting. U.S. FISh Wildl. Servo Resour. !=Iubl.95. 108 pp. Burkholder, p. 1973. The ecology of marine antibiotics and coral reefs. P. 117-182, In: O.A. Jones and R. Endean (eds.) Biology and geology ~f coral reefs, Vol. I I, Siology I. Academic Press, New York. Ca I rns, S.D. tans) of !=Irogram, 1977a. Guide to the commoner shal low-water gorgonians Florida, the Gulf of ~exico, and Tne Caribbean region). Field Guide Series, ~. 6. 74 ~P. (sea whips, sea feathers and sea University of ~iaml Sea Grant 1977b. 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A study of respiration in Alcyonaria. Carnegie Institute of ltIashlngton 12:185-191. Casey, C.J. 1979. Personal communication. ~anager. Shel I Factory, Inc •• Ft. ~yers, Florida. Causey, w. 1979. Personal communication. Aplysia Aquarium, Big Pine Key. Florida. Centaur Associates, Inc. 1979. Draft spiny lobster fishery management plan. Prepared for Sulf of ~exico and South Atlantic Fishery ~anagement Councils by Centaur ASSOCiates, Inc •• waShington. D.C. 186 pp. Cerame-Vivas, .... J. and I.E. Gray. 1966. continental shelf otf NOrTh Carolina. The distributional pattern of benthic invertebrates of the Ecology 47:260-270. ::halker, 3. 1978. cersonal communication. :epartment of Seneral 3iology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. Chesher, R.I"I. 1975. Biological i.",pact of a lar~e-scale desalination plant at Key West. Florida. pp.99-153. In: E.J. Ferguson Wood and R.E. JOhannes, (eds). Tropical ~arine POllution. Elsevier Scientific pub/. Co •• New YorK. ChristIan, E.A. 1973. The effects of underwater explosions on swimbladder fish. Naval Ordinance Laboratory, White Oak, Silver SprIng, Maryland, Labora~ory TeChnical RepOrT 73-103:1-33. C j ardel II, A. (Pi sees: 1967. The anatomy of the feeding ~chanism and food habi~s of ... icrospathodon chrysurus Pomacentrldae'. Sui letin Marine Science 17:845-883. Clark, A.~. 1976. Echinoderms of coral reets. p. 95-123, In: J.A. Jones and R. Endean (eds.) Biology and geology of coral reets, Vol. I I I, Biology 2. Academic Press, New York. Coles, S.L. 1969. ~uantltative estimates of feeding and respiration tor three scl8ractinian corals. Limnology Oceanography. 14:949-953. Coles, S.L. and R. Strathman. 1969. Jbservations on coral mucus 'flocs·' and their potential trophic sIgnificance. Limnology Oceanography. 18:673-678. Connel I, J.M. 1973. Population ecology of reet-buildlng corals. In: O.A. Jones and R. Endean (eds.) Biology and geology ot coral reefs. 2:205-245. Academic ?ress, New York. Continental Shelf Associates. 1978. \1oni t oring program tor wells 3 and 4, bloCk A-389 I-ligh Island Area, East ~dition, South Extension near East Flower Garden Sank. Staff report. 17-5 COntinental Shelf Associates. 1979. South Atlantic ha~d bottom study. Submitted to au~eau of ~and Management (WaShington, D.C.) BLM Cont~act AA5'I-CT 8-25. 356 PP. Courtenay. W.R •• J~., H.L. Blakesley, J.K. ~eed and R.E. Waldner. 1975. Envl~onmental assessment ~t offsnore r .. fs off Miami Beach, Dade County, Flo~lda. ~es. Rept. Submitted to U.S. A~my :orps of ~nglneers. Jacksonvll Ie Dlst~lct. Florida. 12 pp. Courtenay, W.R.~ J~ •• D.J. Her~ema. ~.J. Thompson. w.p. Azzlnaro and J. ~n MOntf~ans. Ecological monitoring of beach e~oslon cont~ol p~ojects, Bra-ard County. Florida, a~eas. U.S. Army Corps of Eng I nears Coastal Researen Center. Techn I ca I ~enc 4 I. 1974. and ad jacent 88 pp. C~/bb, A.B. 1973. The algae of the Great 9ar~ler Reefs. p. 47-75, In: O.A. Jones and R. Endean 'eds.) 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Gen.ral management plan. 9iscayne National ~nument/Florldao U.S. Go ... rnment Printing Offlc •• GPO, 1978-777-094/51. WaShington. D.C. 39 pp. Vaughan, T.W. 1911. Rec.nt Madreporarla of southern Florida. Carnegie Institute of waShington, Year Book 8: 135-144. 1914. Sk.tch of the geologic history of the Florida coral reef tract. Journal of the 'I'/ashl,~gton Academy of Scl.nce 4:26-34. 17-23 1915. The geological significance of the growth-rate of the Floridian and Bahamian snoal-water corals. Journal of the Washington Academy of Science S:591-6oo. 1916. The results of Investigations of the ecology of the Floridian and Bahamian snoal-.ater corals. PrDC., National Academy of waShington 2, 95-100. 1918. The temperature of the Florida coral reef tract. Carnegie Institute of waShington, Publication No. 213:321-339. 1919. Corals and the formation of coral reefs. Smithsonian Institution, Annual Report tor 1917. pp. 186-276. VerrIll, ~.E. 1882. Notice of the remarkable marine fauna occupying the outer banks of the southern coast of Ne. England, number 5. American Journal of Arts and Science (3)23:309-316. 1901. Comparisons of the Bermudian, w.st Indian and Brazilian coral fauna. Transactions Connecticut Academy of Arts. Voss, G. L. 1976. Seas nore II fe of F I or I da and the Car I bbean. E.A. S .... nn Pub II sh lng, Inc., ~ I am I , F lor I da. 168 p p. Voss, G.L., F.M. Bay.r, C.R. Robins, ~. Gomen and E.T. LaRoe. 1969. The marine ecology at the Biscayn. National Park. Unpublished Report to the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the I n1'erior. 128 pp. Voss, G. L. and "4.L. Voss. 1955. An ecological survey of Soldier Key, Blseayne Bay, Florida. Sulletin of Marine Science of the Gult and Carlboean 5:203-229. wainwright, S.A. 1967. Diurnal activity of hennatyplc gorgonlans. Natur.216:1041. wainwright, S.A. and J.R. Oil Ion. 1969. On the orientation of s.a fans (Genus Gorgonla). Biological 3u I I.tln 136:130-139. ward, J. 1965. The digestive tract and its relation to feeding habits In the stenoglOlsan pro sobrancn Coraillophiia abbrevlata (LamarCk). Canadian Journal of Zoology 43:447-464. W.inkam, H. 1979. Personat communication. ~Ianning Department, Monroe County Government, Key West, Florida. Weinstein, ~.p. and K.L. Heck. 1979. Panama and the Gulf of ~e.lco: 50:97-107. Icht~yofauna of seegrass m.adows along the Caribbean coast of composition, structure and community ecology. Marine Biology WWIIS, J.W. 1932. Study of the re.f corals of the Tortugas. Carnegie Inst. WaShington Y.arbOok 3 I :290-291. 1957. Coral reefs. Memoirs of the GeOlogical Society of ~merlca 67:1089-1104. 1972. Some shal low water ahermatypic corals from B.rmuda. Postll la No. 156. PP. 1-10. Unpublished. ~ study of the re.f ~adreporaria of the Dry Tortugas and sediments of coral reefs. Unpubl. manuscript. 1933. 96 Pp. 17-24 Wells, J.w. and J.e. Lang. 1973. ·Systematle list of Jamaican shallow-water Scleractlnl.!. 3ul leT'ln of 14arl ne Sci ence 23: 55-58. Wells, S.M. 198t. International trade In corals. conservation monitoring center. In'T'erna'T'ional 'Jnion for Conserva'T'lon of Na'T'ure and Na'T'ural Resources, Cambridge, England. Western Pacific Fishery Managemen'T' Council. 1979. menT plan for the precious coral fisheries of June 1979. 112 pP. Oraf'T' envlronmen'T'al Impact statamen'T'/flshery ~anage­ the west.rn Pacific regIon. Prepared oy the ~~~~. WeTheral I, J.A. and ~.Y.Y. Yong. 1977. CompuTer sImulation of pink coral populaTion dynamics and analySeS of harvest.9Qllcles. ~ar-T I: prelIminary studies. SouTnwest FisherIes Center Admi~. RepT. 21 H, 1977 (canputer prinTOuT). WheaTon-Smith, J. ,l4anuscript In Preparation. (I) OCTocorals I & II. Mem. Hourglass Cruises; (2) Ecology of Gorgonlans of Long Key Reef, Dry TOr-Tu9asi (3) OCTocoral Iia of BIscayne NatIonal ~onument. Marine Research LaboraT'ory, Florida Oepar-TmenT of Natural Resourceso ~heaTon-Smlth, J. and W.C. Jaap. 1976. Survey of Breakers Reef, Palm eeach, Florida. Unpublished RapOr-T, 10 PP. l4arlne ResearCh LaboraT'ory. Florida Oepar-TmenT of NaTural Resoures, St. PeTerSburg, Florida. wilber, R.J. 1976. Petrology of submarine - IIThified hard grounds and lithoherms fram the deep flank environment of Little Bahama Sank (Nor-Theastern Straits of Florida). M.Sc. TheSiS, Duke UnIversity, Durham, /Ilor-Th Carolina. 241 pp. wi Ison, E.S. 1884. The mesenterial filaments of the Alcyonarla. l4iTT. Zool Sta. Neapel. 5:1-27. wilson, ~.V. 1888. On the development of Manlcina aerolata. Journal of Morphology 11:191-252. wOodward-Clyde Consultants. 1979. Eastern Gulf of l4exico marine habItat study. Prepared for the Sureau of Land Management under Contract ~o.AA 551-CT8-22. Work, R.C. 1969. Systematics, ecology and distribution of the mollusks of Los Roques, Venezuela. Bulletin of Marine Science 19:614-711. Yonge, C.M. Linn. 1963. D.C. 1935. Studl .. on the biology of TOr-Tugas corals. I. ObservaT'ions on l4anlclna aerolata Carnegie Institute, waShington, J.C. Publucation 452:185-198. Rock-boring organisms. American Association for the Advancement of Scrence, WashingTon, PUblication No. 75. p. 1-24. 1968. Living corals. Proc. Royal Society of London, Ser/es 9. 169:329-344. 'Yonge, C.M. and' A.G. Nicholls. 1931. St'Jdies on the physiology of corals. V. The effect of star vation in light and In darkness on 1'l"Ie relationship between corals and zooxan1'hellae. Scientitic Repor-T, Great Barrier Reef Expedi1'/on 1:177-211. Yonge, C.M., M.J. Yonge and A.G. Nichol Is. 1932. Studies on 1'he physIology ot corals. VI. The relaTionship betwen resplraT'ion in corals and tl"le production of oxygen by 1'l"Ieir zooxan1'hel lae. ScIenTific Repor-T, Great Barrier ~eef :xpedition 1:213:251. Zi!)rowius, +-I. 19'76. Les ScleracTini"ires ~e la l4edlterranee e'T' je l'ATlantique nord-oriental. Ph.D. disser-Tation. UniverSity Aix-"'arseille, 302 gp. (Unpublished). 17-25 ',I ZIngula, p. 1978. Stat ... n~ before the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land ~anagement, on proposed oIl and gas leasIng on the mid-Atlantic oUter continental shelf (acs Sale No. 49). Atlantic CIty, New Jersey, June 27-30, 1978. Zulueta, A. de. 1911. Los copepodos parasltos de los celenteros. ~em. Roy. Soc. Espan. Hist. Nat. 7: I-58. 17-26 :1"" I APPEtmrx A: Geogrtll "jcal distrihution of Octocortlll ia on the continental sheH (shallouer than 2tJOn or lioO ft.) of the southeastern IInited States and territorial ''Jaters of the 'iuJf of rtexico. Symhols are: x = present; xf40 = "rl~sent hilt no d(~pth recorded; xi- = deeper than 200il, found shal1O\'Jf~r in othp.r zones; x? = tentative irlentification. Northern & HP.stern ldS tern fiul( of Gulf of ftl!1I ieo flellico 110. (<lrol- Pdlm (Ix. to (Ho. & W. IfkI-So. fI<I. Uedch- florida Dry floridd) fla. (O<lst) (I'allll Beuh) Miami key'> TortUfjlS Oc to(ora Ilia Stolonlfen Clayu lar! idae g~v~~rid b~{~I~~ II •• vll I' kf'nt SMlUdidJ1l1I ruhens (VI'I"rlll) )t ~. I"!,!J~~I~II jilluridles Il It.' les t<lcea leles tidae lelesto w"dilina lluchas'><1 iug Il Il r: rUse 1 li~aid5sa inCI & Il Il II Il ;tJd~liiHI) ,. fl<lvuld llI!iciullann II Il II L ~a~g~i~e~ Dell.l., ..... n Il II II II Il f. frut iculo'>a flaUd II II II !. ~eJJ~~~ndyer II II II Alcyonacea Ah:yoni idae De Iionelid ruld '> tel la (De ill.lldnn) II ;Uda 1 i1J.ie ---- -- -- - ~I!~!!I.I! O~ l !~~!!!~J!~ Grdy " " II I( II II ~ 11'!'~:!~l·!J~J " ·l;.I ~i!.,.I ~ ~ ll...!..! ! 'II.: "":I.1,III! II " " Nephtheldae Pse~~~dr!fa ~!!I!~ f'uurtalt.'s II II' II' !~t!~~'!'!!,': Il!:' .I~.I·"\ .lll (:~'!L!Ii"l1I11I1 II GorrJtlAacea ~t:leralllllli<l IIr l.tr(~ idde 1I!"1~!.!'l.In <lS~,~~tilllJll ("dlldS) " II II ' . CD o ?u ..., t'1 Z t:I H n t'1 U) <: >C -sa L;j c.. c.. <: ... . "" %'11 E~o.::3 ~ .... .... "- .- . "'-J(:" ~a~.:.= ~:'co,;:;.~ '11 - ~ --.. ~- . ""- ... Q 0':..=:'--==c.:=-, '" .. '" .. '" '" .... .. '" '" '" '" .. .. A-2 .. '" .. .. .. '" '" .. . '" "' .. .. '" .. .. '" JC X". '" )::0 I W APP£HDIX A: Cont. Swiftla exserti (£llls I Sol.l1der ) s. casta (Verrill) fila(ugo~!l.la .irabilis Delc"'nn r~" ienu.s "1ViiT1T1} ~~.!JFili -nutans (~ch. I Mich.) I'". exaur idae Plexaura homomalla «(sper) Ii.-TIexuosa-" [amOurouII "seua~pxauril porosa (Ik,utuyn) P.!1age!Joi~ (liouluYII) P. wa~aarl (Stiasny) P. criidililyer funTCea-laxl~ca (Lamdllk) ~. eiIlT.-Oayer rDelchMdlln ~. ~~ri Bayer E. ~sa La.ouroull C. iUCCInea (Pallas' f. fUsca liich. I "leh. f. liieTliiata ~ch. I.tich. £. tour-n-efurtl Hilne t:""d,"ds ~ ha iiie- " " " [. as~rula H-L I II ~. l"l~~!!i~r~ Bayer L knightl Bayer f.. ~Jl~~l~t~ (Ills & SlIlander ~r"I~~f:lJ'~~~ f-'~ ~!~! (1.III.rck) rI. ~tila Bayer lileK'ur"ella d ichotooa (r sper) p;"nui;ins-TIl,cli".- & Hich.) P. ~rl~ea Kunle Ii. ~11. VerrIll Ii. ~:!i\"1 re!~ Kunl e Northern & lIest,.,"n Gul r of .lex 11"0 (lx. to rJor ida) )I II II II II £ds tern Gulf of Hexh:u (110. & W. fla. Coast) II II liNn II II II II X II II II II II x II II II II No. Carol- Pallll Ina-So. fla. Beach (PalM Beach) .liami Xi II' lit II X lI. II /I II? II II II II X II II X II II X X II II II II? II florid" Keys II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II ,. Dry lorgugas XNO liND II II II II II II II II II II J( II ,. ,. II II II , . APP£II01X A: Cont. Northern ~ We'lte,'n (4stprn Gulf of Gulf of ,te.lco He.lco No. Coiro 1- Pal. (h. to (Ho. , W. Ina-So. F.la. Beach- rJorlda Dry florida) fla. Cout) (Pal. Beach) Mi •• 1 keys Tortuqas Mur'cH .. r'cata (Palin) • • II A. atlantica (kDlenth,l) II II II A. 1... Verr III x x x II A. elangat. La.ourous II II X .. ~. ~ula Verrill II x x II Gorgon i 'dole l~~r~a card'nal.s Bayer x x x ::r:. t· ~Ic..e~ -(mlnerciiards , x xNO x • I '",11Ie ~ ~. ~bes (Verrill) x x II x lepl~or9ia vlr,ulata (Lamdrck) x II x l. setace.-(Pdl as) - x x x r. Iielusa'-(Bayer) x x r. siheno (Bayer) II II II r. iidOya1e (Bayer) II x Pse rterogorg.a bip'nnata )( II II rVerri ') P. kallos (Bielschowsky) II II Ii. ffi'iIi (B Ie Ischololsk y) II II II II Ii. a~lIens's (Stiasny) .7 Ii. ACerOSa" TJi. Tlis ) • II II • Ii. rlcana (1lIIeIIn) • • II • Ii. fiUii ... TrKk. Bayer x7 Ii. e 11 saLe thae' Bayer II II ~. naVT~r.yer II GorJlo n~ ~enl4lin4 Linn4eus II II II Ptero~or~ia citrln4 (Esper) II II II II ~-.nc~slPall's~ II II II II ~. ~. 4Iup'!nsl! Ouch.' "Icll. II II x II fllIsell id4e Ellisell4 funiculina (Ouch. 'filch) II II lit f.:' ~lJ~nJ ic~" (fiiel,,'j l/) II .. ~ .,. .J - .. 11/ ~ .= .. :: c..J~.! ...... -::-Z . = .. '" .. E':=-ea ~ -........ - .. 1.1"-" = fII!lI .!c!~=:: =-- c ~ j:-=:"'-= --,,,, -1.. ,"' 1(1(= ::§:i~:!== .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. '" .. ... c:. .. c; .. ~­ .- ~'I 100.. CO .• ~ :'1 g. j.. :: .J .r "" .. .. .. '" o ...", '" ..... < . = ... ... OJ .. ... '" .. 100. ~NDIX B. DI.1rlbutlonl and habitat types fra. collections of 22 families of Oetoeoral Iia In the Gulf of ~xleo. (Glammona. 1978. compared to U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1978; Goldberg, 1979, personal cOlllllLlnlcat/on). FAMILY DISTRIBUTION ANO HABITAT TYPE ParalllUr I eel dae Ple .. urldae Gorgon II dee E I II HI II dae Telestldae Chrysogorglldae I:!enlllldae Prlmoldae Isldldae VI,.gu/a,.,ldae Clavu/ar/ld.e ·~Iare/dae Funlcullnidae !l/ep ht1'l.I dae 'IIldalildae COntinental shelf from 9aft/n B.y. Te.as, east and north along entl~e ~ulf coast to the Florida Keys and Cry Tortugas; found on many sediment types, IncludIng ~rlous combinations of sand. silt, and clay and water depth from about 30 m (100 ft) to o~r 200 m (660 ft). Occasionally found nearshore and on the shelf near re.as but much more common In shallow, high carbonate environments of.f Florida. Found throughout the shelf from Texas to the Ory TOrTugas; recorded most often on Inner-shelf, often nearshore In sandy bott~ ar .... Recorded mostly on the outer shelf off Texas and LouiSiana near the 200 m (660 ft) Isobath and nearer shore off Alabama and the Florida Panhandle; SOII'e specl as common on carbonate banks. Entire shelf from Texas to Florida; usually found growing on mollusc shel I fragments on the Inner shelf. Not ~ry common; found In outer shelf and deeper oceanic waters along Te.as, Louisiana, and Florida. Recorded near shore Cless than 100 m or 330 ft) off southern Texas, the Mississippi Delta, and the Florida Panhandle; Inhabits soft, muddy sub strates. often quite abundant. Found only occasionally In the Mississippi Delta region (clay and silky clay substrate), on the outer shelf off Texas. and the Ory Tortugas. Found In deep waters on outer shelf and slope; most common near outer Keys and Ory Tortugas but also shelf and Slope off Alabama, MiSSissippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Collected on Inner shelf In northern Gulf Cwlth one exception off Dry TOrTugas) In association with soft bOttomS. Found only on Inner shelf In northern Gulf; often grows on mollusc shel Is. Found from Palm Seaeh to Ory Tortugas; also recorded In shallow reefal envIronments In the southe'-n Gulf. Found once at 950 m (3,135 ft) off the southern Texas coast on silty clay. Found once at Jry Tortugas. Co I I·ected from t'l .. cora I reef s at F lower Gardens, a I ong the Te.as Louisiana shelf 011 other hard banks Ctopog,.aphlcal lIighS), and tn. TOrTugas. B-1 Paragorg I I dae Acantnogorg I I dae Alcyonlldae Pennatu I I dae Protoptilldae Umbe I I u I I dae Anthothel I dae ~t observed In the FCZ. found only ott northern Cuba. Found once on city substrate ott the Mlssslsslppi ~elta at about 700 ~ (2.310 ttl. Collected only at the Flower Garden reet at about 30 m (100 ttl. Found otf the coe~t of Alabama on sandy bottom on the Inner shelf and off Port Aransas, Texas. near a topographIcal hl;h at about eo m (265 ft). ~ecorded on two topographIcal hl;hS oft Kenedy County, Texas, at SO ~ (265 ttl and off the MIssIssippi Jelta In clay aftd sIlty clay bottoms. Obserll8d near l4ysterlous Sank (aO m or 265 ttl off Kenedy County, Texas, on the outer shelt oft Louisiana (1,500 m or 4,950 ftl, and near the Delta area In clay bottom areas. Some specIes are prominent, as listed In Appendix A (Pg. A-2l. 8-2 n I ' APP[NDIX c: Geo~raphical distrihution of stony corals on the continental shelf (shallower than 20011 or fir,O ft.) of the southeastern United States and territorial wllters of the r.ulf of nexico. S}II'1bols are: x = presenti xA = abundanti xU = rarei and xt = also found deerer than 200... (660 f t. ) 'Iorthern A lies le .... f .IS li'rn (iul f of liul f of He.lco '\e~ ico /10. Cdrol- Pdl .. (h. lo (No. A W. Ind-So. ria. Beach- florida Dry r loridd) ria. [oasl) (I'al .. Beach) IIia.1 keys Tortugas [lass HYDR010A Order IIILUrORINA r .. lly rtilleporidae ~A .A tlille~ra ah:lcornls 1.lnne ~ • • t!: ·~~i~~~!.a. [.irck .A .A II. sll!l~'!II!i ~ La ..... 'k • fI d'>'i NIII.IIOA I hrenberq ~lIbtla .. s IN XACO"AI.LlII lueckel Order S[L[r~[TINIII Bourne Suborder ASTROCOlNIINII Vaughan I lie I Is r .. lly IIslro,opnlldae koby .R Ste2hanocol!n la llIiChf" lIn II ~:llne • • II • Edwards A lIaille r .. ily f'Ol illoporldae Gray xR .iadracis ~rlaster H [ I II tCiJeCai: tI s"l ym,ln- x xA • • • H. lOi-.i\;;-HeIIs • H •• lioii.llls (OudlassalnlJ I .11 II • II iilciieiuinr H. ~!.~!" ul~ H r I II II II II • I~. 1J!" ue!J!L"!.""!!!"1 ~ ( Rid ley) .11 f ami I y AcrllllOr idap Verr III .A ." ~~!~!"~ ~~fvIC~!"ii~ La~arck • • ~ Rlala .allarc .It .A .11 ~. p.!.oJJIe!~. I a~rd • II Suborder fUNGllNA Verrill SUIN'rr""li Iy A.,arlc i ic.te Gray 'aAli I y Aq.lr ici idae Gray, A~Jar i"li~ d~I~lr id l~'i (I innp) ~ x x • ~ I\PP£UOIX C: Cont. lIorthern & lies tern rastern (iu If of Gulf of 'tellico llexlw No. Carol- 1'011111 (h. to (No. & W. tna-So. Fla. Opach- norlda Dry florida) fld. COdst) (I'ailll Beach) ,tiallli keys lortugas ~ .• t~n.u i fo I i a CJlld • A. I ....... rcld III Ine [~ards & ,," 1I • ila hle-- - A. fragilis Dana II .R II • i~llOSerlS-cucullata [Ills & x • • II !;ul"diide;;-- n falllily Siderac;lreidde Vauljhan anll Uf!lIs I N Siderastrea radians (Pallas) II • II 1I • s..- s}di;re~ -(nnS-1 Snlander) x II • • xII x" Superraully Poritlcae Gray ra'llil y Por it idae Gray .. II x" ." f'orites astreoldes Lalldn:k .. "-.-liriiiner r RaHiliun IIR x x" x ~. jM,rltes- (Pa lias) • x" x x" x Suborder F"VIlMA Vauljhdn & Wells Supe.-fdllli Iy ravl h:ae GrelJory faRlly ravlidae Gregory r av ia frall""l (( sper) .. II r. -lrav laa -Verr III lIR iJip ud.-Tabrinlhlfonnls (I inne) x x • 0. cHvos.if 115 j, sol.i-niler II II II Ii. sIr-19Md (Dana) ." II II • Hdniel'la areolatd (L IlIne) • " II II tl~h~.Jl~l~-~!~n!!~ (fluller) • II C. natans (1.lutlyn) .A II • " c. itr(;vTSerlal is Htlne [~ards & 1I iid ime-------- ---- ~ I~~~!I~! ~!".!Jus£.u~ (le"ueur x • II X 1I Co dl'" i II Ii " [ & II II II 1I ""n{.litre. cavernosa (Ilnne) xl\ II" xII .. II If. -annululs rnn-s-and Snlander xII • ." ,," ,," So I (oiias lrea-~ades (Dana) • x" • II II fI ~. Liiiinii';il f f ,- II x 1I 1I --- .. APPENDIX C: Cont. Northern & Western hstern Glilf of Gulf of Hellico Hellico No. Carol- Pal. (TIl. to (No. I W. 1 ... -50. Fla. Beach- Florida Dry Florida) ria. Coast) ( I'a I. 8euh) HIa.1 ke,s lortugas r.llv Rhlzangltdiie Astrang'ia astrei 'armis Vauqilan II ~. cJ!DB Apss Iz II II II II II (= astrelfonnls H [ & h) A. solltarl. CLeSueur, II II II II fhyllang'. -.erlc.na H [ I H II II II II II II r .. lly Ocullnldae Gray Oculi ... arbuscula Verrill II n O:-vllrlcosa LeSueur II IIA II II I I 0. ienelli"Pourtales II w II \ o. lJ1Tuil L .. arc'. 1816 ~ . .., t .. II X X II , ~. roLus ta ro ... ta I es x II raMlly Heandrlnldae Gra, xA 'leandrilla .andrltes (Linne) x x x IilCliOCoeniiSlellirTs ""lIe [dlfards , IIA x x ii.ll. xA o. sta'esi ~ [ A ~ x x • uen~!,~,!:!" 9~ indrus rhrenberg • • ra.lly '''ss idae OrlJ1ann .R Hussa an~ulosa (Pallas) II II II • SioTlill1a lacer:a (I'a II ... ) II II • • X II s:"-ciiiens.s-nnine Edwdrds II Ind"lraTllier Iso~"la 1lUltifiora Verrill • II r:-s nuasa rf111i-.n~ Solander) II II II 1s~~astrea ~dii (Dana) II • • ~~t -t-ffiila .. rCllana "line • II II ar s tiaT. H. dana ana " [ , H x x n. ferOx"Uells II x II. ilTC1de Wells • x x -. Subordpr CARYOl'IIYU IINA VaUlJhan & Wells Supprfa.i I, Car-yo,lhyllllcae rdllll, CU(lllhyllildae I !,"~I~i l i~ ~~sti21~ ~~ (I'd lias) II II II u x -c z ;.."I c.. c.. c::t .. .. '" , .: . e !w = '" '" .. '" ~.­c.=::% .. .., : ... ~ .-.".: ,- ... - .... '" Q <Ii .... = "'Q uV"'e , -. ." '" = . z-== .. . ..,.. ~." :'- = "'QQ..,\oJ ~ '-' --'-- . ..... - JC 0 o'e :~!.:.= : ... =~-= ... Q .:~ '-' ... 0-1,,-' • ~ ... ",- II( 11( = i~~~:::';: "'1 ~I " vi ~I .. .. .. .. '" '" ... " 11/.,. :- = .!:~.= "' ... '" '-' ='-' .. '" = .. !~~Iwti= ~"'~~r! QI-. ';~'='~iU ,",1=i 3t5\Z Q.V, 11 .:.~~ =1-11 ",,- - Q,I~ -·",1-1",,: , ---1'.=--I - . /:.'" ~ ~IQ-I", '-I -=.:'-'.''''' .... = =.,'" ",.~", I", ~I .. I"'-= .3j~ '- ~~;~~,-" :1;":.1 ",:.::=.",Ia ~-I~ :....11=:";:""" '" .... oJ> ..... ,., .. .... .. ..... ,., '" e'I '" '" 11/ '" .... ... = Q c. ~ i! I~~I -- -I QI ~ ~--~:o.. ~l~ 25'"' z 1.:, !t! ~ =: ... :0..", ~ "=1'- '" a i=' '" -= ... ~ = ....., g '" ' ~ =: ..... ... .... =: .. '" .., .. ." ' : i ! ... APPENDIX D. CORALS IDENTIFIED AS HAVING POTENTIAL CCMERCIAL VALUE ~Iexaura homomalla (Esper) SignifIcance: Large amounts of this gorgonlan species (and perhaps also ~Iexaurella) ha~ In the past b .. n har~sted from Florida and the Caribbean, due to the presence In their tissues of a class of com pounds known as prostaglandins (polyunsaturated fatty acids which affect mammalian physiology by ~rlous/y regulating activity of smooth muscle, endocrine secretion, blood flow, and the like). ~re recently, synthetic prostaglandins ha~ become a~llab/e at lower costs, thereby reducing collections considerably. Current studies are underway on a birth control pll I using prostaglandins Instead of estrogens. ~rellmlnary assays of other gorgonlan species as well as other types of coral Indicate that prostaglandins may be more widely distributed than previously thOUght (Morse, et al., 1978). Recent laboratory synthesis of prostaglandins may minimize the potential use of this species as a natural source of the compound. Nonetheless, ~'exaura and other gorgonlans are processed by Mexican busi nesses In a plant at Campeche Bay (Jordan, 1979, personal communication). DIagnosis: Two forms have been described (3ayer, 1961). Forma homomella has bushy, flattened colonies, branched laterally and dichotomously. ~olyps strongly armed with a crown resting upon a distinct trans~rse collaret. Cart .. friable when dry, with granular surface and gaping calycular orifices, often with a raised rim. Colonies dry to a deep brown, blackish brown or nearly black; purplish brown In alcohol. Forme kukenthall: Colonies with branches mere slender than the homomalla form, abOut 15 cm (6 In) long and 2.5 cm (I In) In diameter. Distribution: Bermuda, Florida Keys, Dry Tortugas, the Bahemes and the Caribbean Islands. Depth range: <1-20 m. Occasionally as ~eep as 30 m (KinZie, 1974)0 Ecology: ~re Information Is a~llable on tne ecology of this species than for any other cor·' (Kinzie, 1974; Theoaor, 1977). Growth rates ara ~rlable (r • 0.1-4 cm or 0.05 or 1.6 In yr mean Increase In hel~ht of 2 cm pr 1 In yr- I • Kinzie (1974) has shOwn that colonial growth I' ~~r~s of height may not be correlated with n .. growth of branch tips. Reproduction Inyol~s the formation of planula lar~ within the polyp of female colonies. De~lopment time of the lar~ Is unknown, but sexually mature colonies of both sexes are found only during the summar months (Goldberg and Hamilton, 1974). ~resumably, planulatton occurs during late SU/llllllr. Theodor (1977) states that !.. homomella will not be found In either extr turbulence or ~ry calm water. "bderately turbulent areas appear most faloOrable to the delll8lop nt of this species. Other characteristics, such as temperature and salinity tolerances, nutrition, and mortality and natality rates, ha~ not been specifically studied In this species. Clrrlpathes I ufken I (Brook) Significance: This species of black coral is subjacted to collecting pressure In the southern CarIbbean where basal portions at the Skeleton ara fashioned Into bracalats, rings and earrings (Chalker, 1978, personal communication). DimenSions of the resource and Its exploitation alsewhere are unknown. DiagnosIs: Flageil/form colonies up to 7 ~ (23 ttl In length and 0.8 cm (0.32 in) In dlametar at base. Skeleton tapers slightly, lower portion Is nearly straight, upper regions ar.e often twisted Into Irregular spiralS. Skeletal spines are distinctly papll lose and tend to be arranged In Irregular spirals and longitudinal rows (Brook, 1S89). "' 0-1 Distribution: (66 to 535 ft) Known frOlll the Keys. Throughout West Indies, especially on steeply slopIng r .. f faces 20 to at leas~ 174 ~. (upper range, trom Goldberg, 1979, personal communication; lowe,. range from ~ang. 1974). northwest Gulf of ~exlco and soytheast Florida coast; apparently uncommon In Florida ECOlogy: Specific data on temperature and salinity tolerances, ~a~allty, and mortality are un~nown. Goldberg (1977) h~s estlmeted the growth rate trom skeletal ring analySiS and field data. This i~fJr­ metlon Indicates that Clrrlpathes addS 5 to 10 cm or 2 to 4 I~ yr- I Its length annually. Lewis (1979) has studied feeding behavior In this species, finding that zooplankton and suspended partIculate metter constitute the most readily obSer¥lble portion of Its diet. Other aspects of nutrition are unknown. Menlclne areolata and f... areolate CLlnnaeus) Significance: Rose coral Is used In the aquarium trade as tood for butterfly fiShes and other corall~res. Informal Interviews with tropical fish collectors Indicate that the species Is collected Illegally In very smell quantities by a tew Indl vlduals. Total 118lue of the catch approaches S2.000 I~ t~e Florida Keys at SO.15 to $0.25 per piece. As snown In Table 8-4, a limited quantity Is har vested via the Florida permit system. Catches were hl~her before the 1976 Florida coral law. Diagnosis: Colonies small, rarely greater than 15 cm (6 In) long. Form of colony roughly ovel with narrow endS, upper surface descending to a single meandering 1181 ley, abOUt 2.5 cm (I In) wide. Septa number about 18 cm (45 In); when seen under magnification ha~ fine holes. Underside of colony snows growth rIngs which narrow to a single stalk at the base. Colonies are attached to the substrate onl" when young. Soft tissue Is usually yellowish, sometlmes,deepenlng to brown; some colonies have a ;reenlsh tinge near oral regions. Tentacles are In two rows; transparent except for the .hlte terml nus. Distribution: ~nown from shal low, protected areas of the Florida Keys such as Soldier Key, along .Ith otn.r nardy species Ce.g., Porites porites, Sider-astr.a radians). Also found at the Dry Tortugas as wei I as the Bahamas, the Caribbean, and oft arazll. Apparently absent trom Sermuda C~atthal, 1928). ECOlogy: Manlclna Is found In waters usually less than 1 to 43 m (3 to 142 ft) deep, around turtle grass, hard bottom and coral r .. fs; It 15 not a reef-dwelling species. It tolerates silty conditions (Voss and Voss, 1955) and has a wei I developed capacity to clean Its living surfaces. Non-nutrient par tIcles are Imbedded In mucus and swept away by cIliary currents (Vaughan, 1916). Rose coral survives 50 percent seawater for 24 hours, and Indications are that this species Is also relatively tolerant of temperature changes. Manlcln. can be a carnl~re consuming zooplankton (Vaughan, 1919) or an autotroph deriving energy directly through Its zooxanthellae (Qoreau, 1959). Lewis and Price (1975) found that rose coral uses mucus nets In addition to tentacles In food capture, and Is thus capable of feedIng on particulate matter as well. Growt~ rates are apparently rapid during tne first four years, while maximum size requIres longer periods (Jaap, 1979, personal communication). AddItional studies on developmental biology ha~ been publl shed by ~II son (1888), Boschma (1929), and Yonge (1935'. 2. Deepwater Species Clstlchopora tollacea Pourtales Significance: This stylasterlne hydrocoral has been used In the manufacture of jewelry In the ~arathon area of the Florida Keys. Diagnosis: Flabel late colonies, 4 to 5 cm (1.6 to 2 In) In hel~ht and width. Color wnlte-plnk to white. Colony to~ms dichotomous, flattened oranches. finely striated and granulated. Gastropores 0-2 ==~,.,~- ... \ ,.-' ;,... J ~ ~ • \ .-. \ -~ .., .... .~ \ \ ... ::J ~. : ; \ \ i . L-. \ L. ~ .. -t !- I - - I -~-'1'---r- 1 ----+-4-~~4P/t;-~.i I .1---4 1 .. -=1=.:. { ;. -- . L-:;±~I ; ~==-' ;T .. -.-"."~ .... , "- '--,-. I "-r--. .., Q .... c: u > c: occur on the thin edge of br~nches In a row; each gastropore has a gastrostyle In Its center. Each side of the row of gastropores Is flanked by a row of dactylopores. Smal I hemispherical swellings called ampullae occur o~r the gonopores on the broad side of the branches. Dloeclous. Distribution: EAdemlc to the continental shelf and slope from Key West to Sa~nnah, Geor;la, at depthS of 152 to 479 m (500 to 1,580 ttl. Occurs on ~ard surfaces. ~y occur Qn the Pourtales Terrace off the Florida Keys at ISO to 400 m (495 to 1,320 ttl. ECOlogy: Totally unknown. Collected only rarely. Systematics unrevlsed since the 1880's. FeedS vl~ nemetocysts on polyp tentacles. Cora I I I um ~ Bayer and Cora I I I um ~ Bayer 51gnlflcance: ~elatl~s of these precious pl~k corals are car~d and polished In Hawaii for use I~ the manufacture of jewelry (Grigg. 1977b). Larger pieces can be car¥8d Into statues and curios. Poh (1971) listed red coral prices as SI6.S0/kg (S7.S0/lb) and har¥8sts as 1,045 to 4,180 kg (2,300 to 9,200 10) per year between 1963 and 1969 in Hawal I. D1agnosls: Hard, unjointed axis formed of solidly fUSed sclerltes; color white to pink. Colony unlplanar. dichotomously branched, approxllT\8tely 0.5 m (1.6 ft) 1'01/1. Polyps occur on only one sur face of the branches (probebly away from t'e current). Cortical spicules of £. ~ consist of 6, 7, and 8-radlates and double clubs; those of f..~: 6, 7, and 8-r'adlates. DIstribution: In the western Atlantic, known from only se~n records In the Straits of Florida from otf ~alm Beach to off Key west (FI~ure u-l). FI¥8 of the se~n records are reported here for the first time (:alrns, 1979, personal communication). The bathymetric range Is 567 to 1,390 m (1,870 to 4,570 ft); howe~r, It Is most common between 600 to 700 m (1,970 to 2,300 ttl. Its temperature range is approximately 3" to 8·C (37" to 46"F). The most Important environmental tactors that determine Its 'dlstrbutlon are probebly temperatu~e, current (2 to 6 cm or 0.8 to 7.3 In sec-I), and the presence of a hard substrate. A strong current is necessary to bring planktonic food to the coral and remc~ metabolic wastes and loose sediment. The structure of the corallum as unlplanar with directional polypS I~"es that It Is In a constant unidirectional current. All co,.als require a hard substrate on which to Initially settle, which could be provided by any number of oenthlc In~rtebrates found associated with deepwater banks. Species of Corailium were found both at recognized lithoherms on t,e Little Bahamas Banks and In other deepwate,. 'areas. Ecology: Virtually nothing Is known about f.. ~ and'£'. ~ beyond their brief original descrip tions and remarks on se~ral commansal organisms (Sayer, 1964). ~.e¥8r, comparison to t~e muCh studied Hawaiian Corrallum secundum Dana, Is probebly acceptable (3rlgg, 1976) • .£.. secundum Is dloeclous and, despite Its occurrence below the euphotic zone, maintains an annual reproductl~ cycle, spawning In the su~r. Its growth rate Is about 0.9 cm (0.36 In) yr- I In length. It may II~ to be 50 years old but does not become sexually mature until about the twelfth or thl~ .. nth year. The areal co~rage, density, and therefore t'e standing crop ot the .estern Atlantic Coraillum, Is unknoWn, the species having been collected only se~n times. Ho.e~r, because of Its association .Ith deepwater banks and because ~ry few of those banks ha~ been biologically sampled, It Is possible that Its distribution and abundance may be far ;reate" than these few records Indicate. The coral la of six of the se~n western Atlantic records are .hlte, the se~nth Is light pink ("angel ski,,") and may represent a new species (Bayer, 1979, personal communication). Uke !!Cst ot"er speeres of corals, it is assu~1 that :orallium feeds mainly on zooolankton, .hlch Is transported ~y moderate bottom currents. The predators of Coraillum, If any. are unknown. 0-4 .--::==:::;::s~--=-~\. ,., ' ' \ i J..---.L -----1 ' , . \ \ \ . ,.. \ ----'. ...;...---1--.\ .\ • J.. . i ..., "" " • , 'cu Q - . .., • j ... 0 ~ ..... c: u > QJ ~ ..... c: 0 VI ... 0 VI -0 ..... :7 .Q ~ ..... VI Q · 1 Coraillum nIobe usually supports a com~nsal polychaete worm, which Induces abnormal growth of branchlets~mlng a protectl~ tunnel for the worm. Polychaetes of tne genera Harmothoe and =Oltn08 are known to be com~nsal on Corallium (Bayer. 1956). f.~ ~also eontains parasitic copepOds of the family LaMlppldae In Its gastro¥8scular cavities (Bayer. 1964). Acanella eburnea (Pourtales), Keratolsls "exlbilis (Pourtales), Keratolsls ornata Verrll I, Lepldlsls caryophyl Iia verrll I ,. Significance: The white, I~ry-colored Internodes of these bamboo corals can be polished and st~un; Into necklaces. The ~r/ous species of bamboo corals ha~ different lengths and d/a~ters of Inter nodes (seale Is 2.5 cm equal I In): Acane/la eburnea - 1.5 cm long, 0.1 to 0.2 em In diameter; ~erato/s/s f/exlbi/is - I cm long, 0.1 to 0.7 cm In d/ameter;~. ornata - 5 to 6 em long. 0~2 to Z.8 em In diameter; Lepldlsls caryophyilia - 4 to 50 cm long, 0.1 to 0.6 cm In diameter. Different sized nodes mey ha¥8 differing commerlcal uses. See Jelehman (1936) for systematics. Diagnosis: All bamboo corals possess an axis compoSed of alternating short. brown, purely horny nodes and longer, white, nonsplcular, calcareous Internodes. Th.lr bases are usually modI tied Into a root like structure for anchoring. In Karatolsls branching occurs from the Internodes; In Acanel/a and Lep/dls/s branching occurs at the nodes. ~. flexlbilis has short Internodes (about I em), .hereas ~. ornata has Internodes of 5 to 7 cm (2 to 2.7 In). Acan.'la Is dlstlngulSid from Lepldls/s by Its bUShy colony with numerous branches originating at each node. Lepldlsls Is sparsely branched. DistrIbutIon: Acanel/a eburnea Is ¥8ry common In the Straits of Florida off the Florida Keys and In the northern Gulf of ~xlco off Louisiana, ~Isslsslppl, and Alabama (Figure 0-2) at depths of 283 to 1,829 m or 931 to 6,017 ft (Giammona, 1978). Keratolsls Is ¥8ry common on the Blake Plateau, Georgia and tnroughout the Straits of Florl~a (Figure 0-3) at depthS of IS3 to 965 m or 602 to 3,170 (about S· to IZ·C or 43· to 54·F). It Is usually found on deepwater banks. Lepldlsls caryophyilia is· rela t l¥81y rare, known only from the Straits of Florida off the Florida Keys (Figure 0-4) at 733 to 1,003 m (2,400 to 3,300 ft). Acan.,la arbuscula (Johnson) has also been reported from one record In the nortnern Gulf of ~exlco (Glammona, 1975). The key determinants of distribution tor these species are probably optimum temperature, strong curr.nt, and hard substrate tor attaenment. Ecology: Virtual Iy not~lng Is known about the b/o/gy of the deepwater bamboo corals. ~eproducti~ perIodicity, growth rates, longevIty, age at reproductl¥8 maturity, and sy~lonts are all unk.nown (Bayer, 1979, personal communIcation). Areal CO¥8rage and density are also unknown, but Acane"a Is probably ¥8ry common within Its rang. (represented by 49 records on Figure 0-2) and Keratolsls (represented by 34 records on FIgure 0-3) Is also probably ¥ary common on the Blake Plateau In asso ciation .Ith deepwater banks. Lepldlsls seems to be rarer than tne otners. It Is pOSsible that some fish and molluscs Ce.g., the aplacopheran sol$nogaster Chaetoderma) may browse tne polyps of the bamboo corals. Lelopathes glabarrlme (Esper) SignIfIcance: CarYed and polished pIeces ot tnls black coral are used In tne manufacture of jewel~y (~rlgg. 1977b); larger pieces can be car¥8d Into statu.s and curIos (see, e.g., Poh, 1971). According to Opr.sko (1978. personal communication) the coral lum of ~. g/aberrlma Is b/ack.er, harde~, less spinose and ~herefore takes a hl;her polish than al I other western Atlantic ant/patnarians. DIagnosis: Coral lum black, Irregularly branched, measuring up to 1.2 m tal I ./th a basal d/3m8Ter ~p to 4 cm. 9ranenes usually crOOked or bent. ori;/natlng at right angles to the parent branch. Spi1es extremely smal I (20 to 50 per cm or S to 10 per In), occurring only on the smeller brancnes. ~ol;~s and coenenQhy .. greyiSh-white. ~olyps ha¥8 s/~ tentacles. 0-6 I I I J!>I- r-~' , , -r I L.; I ,'....... . I I lOll I .1 . ' I - --. . I ; -- I J!>j j '. , I' 1 I-) . r·/ "'rJ£, r I r" I .. • ".. L • If. "rll,."is A If.o,nIJIIJ o K.sl', , , \ . \. I lOS" - ----100 9~ 90 8S 80 J~ \' \ .~.r.-· , . .. \ ., \ IJ!J . \ . \ \ , t: , \ flGIJHE U-3. Distributions of Keratoisis !!p.xibilis, K. orfldta, and Keratoisis sp. ill the vicinity of the IIIdnagement a rea. DIstrIbutIon: ~Iterran .. n, off ~adelra, Ha.all, and the 9ahamas. WIthIn the manage~nt area: northern Gulf of ~xlco, StraIts of FlorIda. Slake Plateau off 3eorgla (FIgure 0=5). Bethy~tr!c range Is 176 to 549 cm (580 to 1,800 ft); temperature range about S- to 12-C (46- to 54-F>. The mest Important envlron .. ntal factors controlling the dIstribution are probably on optimum temperature (below the thermocline and therefore stable) and a moderate current to replenIsh nutrIents, carry away wastes, and remo~ sedl~nt. Light may confine Its bathy~trlc distribution to deep .ater because t~e lar~e of some antlpatharlans are known to be negatl~ly phototrophic (GrIgg, 1965>. "ECOlogy: Not much Is known about the bIology of J:.. glaberrlma, but comparIson .Ith the Ha.allan Antlpathes dlchotome Pallas Is probably acceptable (GrIgg. 1976). It sl'lOuld be remembered, howe~", that L. glaberrlme II ~s I n deeper .ater and probab I y does not ;row qu I te as large. !.. d I chotome is dloeclous and probably ~eproduces In the summer. Its growth rate Is about 6.4 cm per year In I.ngt~ and It mey II~ to be 40 years old. It becomes sexually mature after 10 to 12.5 years. The ar.al co~rage. density, and standing crop of J:.. qlaberrlme Is unknown; howe~r. most of the 18 known racords of thIs specIes are concentrated on the edge of the Shelf (200 to 300 m or 660 to 990 ft) off the FlorIda Keys. It Is not associated with deepwat.r banks, beIng found In shallower waters. The prey of Lelopathes Is assumed to be plankton, and Its predators,""lf any, are unknown. Commensals and parasItes are also unknown. 0-8 ) ... . ., \ ~ ~-\'::-\'\~( - \ \ --\. - - - , ~- -' '. .' ~ :.----.-. ~ \ \ --- . ' .-' -..---~- r ~-.~ ---- ~ . =-.----. '-.. .\.,,: . . -- - p'} '. . . .. J 0 ~. . ..- - . i '! ~ t ;; ~ " .... ... .. <J . ------------------- -~~~~---~ '-. ~--. .., ... . .' 9 ---.r" I , , ~---. I '---- . • \. , .,,----- - ~------ . I 0; ~I ~·-------1 .... , ~ ~- . .... .., • == . Q. Vl Vl == o :::J I ... ::> I .l!ll - t- • lOl 2!1 . - i I . r r : . , t-- 10 1~ I I j j \ , ~. '. \ '. W, \ \ \ . . , \ \ '.\ oG • ~ 1, IO!I- 100 9!1 - 90 I!I 80 ..:.'!1~ J f I GUIl[ 0-5. Oi s tr i l>u ti on of Le ~ opa thesg 1 dberrima i n the v j c i n Hy of the lIIanagellient a red . . -.. APPENDIX E: Deep water (greater than 200m or 660 ft) corals in the management area. Synmo1s: X, present; *potential commercial importance (Cairns~ 1979, personal communi cation) • Gul f Straits of of South Mexico Florida Atl antic Order STOLONIFERA Family Clavulariidae Clavularia modesta (Verrill) X ~c'eranthe'ia SPa X X Order TELESTACEA Family Telestidae Telesto nelleae Bayer X Telestula SPa X X Order ALC YONACEA Family Alc}Oniidae Anthomastus agassizii Verrill X Anthomastus grand; florus Verrill X Nidalia rigida Deichmann X Bellonella Spa X Family Nephtheidae Pseudodri fa nigrr Pourtal es X X Family si IX) nogOrgl dae Si pho no So rgia (aNeosW) ngodes) agasslzi (Deichmann X Order GORGONACEA Family Anthothel idae Anttnthela grandfflora (Sars) X Anttn thel a trep; cali s Bayer X X X Titanideum frauenfeldii (Ko 11'1 ker) X X Titanideum suberesum (E. & S.) X Family Paragorgiidae Paragorgia boschmai 9ayer X Paragorgi asp. X Famlly Cora" fidae *Corallium medea Bayer X *Corallium niobe Bayer X Family Acantfi)gorgiidae Acanttngorgia aspera Pourtal es X Acanthogorgia schr~mi (Ouch. & E-l Gulf Straits of of South r~xico Florida Atlantic Mich.) Fam;l y Paramurice1dae Paramuricea placomus (Linnaeus) Paramur;cea sp. Bebryce cinerea Deichmann Bebryce grandis Deichmann X X X Bebryce parastellata Deichmann Echinomuricea atl antica (Johnson) X f.\Jriceides sp. Pl acogorgh mirab 11 15 Deichmann P' acogorgia tenui s (Verrill) Placo or ia sp. a laC1S nutans (Ouch. & Mich.) Sclerac;s ruadeloupens;s (D. & M. Swiftia casta (Verrill) Swi ft; a ko reni (Wright & Studer) Swf fti a pourtal esi Deichmann Swiftia exerserta (E. & S.) Thesea nlyea Delchmann X X X X X X Thesea rufosa Deichmann Thesea so itaria (Pourtal es) Trachymuricea kukenthal; (Broch) X Trachymuricea htrta (Pourtales) Villogorgia nigrescens Ouch. & Mich. Family Pl exauridae Eunicella albatrossi Stiasny Eunice"a modesta Verrill Muriceopsis fetila Bayer Family (Drgon; dae Lophogorgia cardinal is Bayer ?Lertotoryia stheno (Bayer) Fami y 11 sel1idae Ell 15ell a barbadens15 (D. & M.) Ellisel'a e'ongata (Pallas) Nice"a guadalupensis (D. & M.) Riisea paniculata O. & M. F ami1 y Chrysogorgl1 dae Radic1pes ~raci1 is (Verrill) *Chrysogorgu desbonni D. & M. Chrysogorgfa el~ans Verrill Chrysogorgfa few e,s; Verrill F amil y Primno idae *calloforgia Yerticillata (Pa las) callogorVia rimaldii Studer Plumarel a aurea eichmann) Pluma,"el'a goes; Auriyfllus Pl1Jmarel 1 a pourtal esi (Verrill) E-2 X X X X X X X x X X X X X X X X x X X X X X X x X X X X X X X x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X ) Gulf Straits of of South r~xico Florida Atlantic Thouarella aurea Deichmann Thouarell asp. Cal yptrophOra trf1 epi s (Pourtal es) *Narella pauciflora Deichmann '*A are" a regul aris (D. & M.) *Harena versluysi Hickson *Candidell a fnmricata (Jo hnso n) Family Isidfdae *Keratoisis flexibflfs (Pourtales) X *Keratoisis ornata Verrill Acanella arbuscula Verrill X *Acanella eburnea (Pourtales) X *Lep;d;s;s caryqphyllia Verrill ?Lepidish 1 on91 f1 ora Verrill X Chelidonls;s aurantiaca Studer X Primnoisis humilis oeichmann X Order PENNATULACEA Family Kophobel annidae KOrhobel annon sp. Sc erobel emnan sp. Family Anthoptil fdae Anthoptilum murrayi Kolliker Anthoptil um sp. Family Funiculinidae Funiculina quadranularis (Pallas) Family Protoptil idae Protoptfl um thompsoni Ko 11 iker Family Scleropt1lidae Scl e~il um sp. F am;' y Liiibell ulfdae x x x x Umbe11 ul a ,untherf Ko 11 iker X Umbel 1 ul a1 ndahl1 i Ko 11 i ker X Ombellula elo1sa Nutting X Umbellula sp. 1 (sensu Gial1lOOna) X Umbel1ula sp. 2 (sensu Giammona) X Umbel'ula sp. 3 (sensu Giammona) X F amil y vi rgularfidae Vi rgul ari a sp. AcanthOptilum sp. Scytal fum sp. Stylatula elegans (oeichmann) St~'atula sp. F am; y Pennatul idae Pennatula grandis Ehrenberg E-3 x x x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X ·X X X X X X X X X X X X Gulf Straits of of ~·fexico Florida Order SCLERACTINIA Family Fbc1110pridae Madracis m~iaster (ME & H) X Famil~ Fungildae Fungiacyathus pusHlus (Pourtal es J Fungiacyathus symmetrfcus (Pourtales) Fungiacyathus crispus (Pourtales) X F amil y Oculinidae Madrepo ra ocul ata Li nnaeus X Madrepora carol ina (Pourtal es) X Family Anthemiphyll ;idae Anthemi phyll i a patera Po urtal es Family Caryophyll idae Caryophyllia 2?lygona Pourtales Caryophyl1ia berter;ana Duchassaing X Caryophyll i a cornufo rmis POurtal es X Caryophyllia ani)ros;a caribbeana Cairns X Caryophyllia parvula Cairns X Concentrotheca 1 aev;gata (Pourtales) X Cyathoceras sguiresi Cairns LabyrinthOcyathus facetus Cairns Labyrinthocyathus 1 ;~g; (cairns Oxysmn h ro tundi fo 1a ME & H) X Trochocyathus rawsonH Pourtal es X Tethocyathus cylindraceus (Pourtales) Tethocyathus variabilfs Cairns Paracyathus pulChul1us X Deltocyathus moseley1 Cairns Del tocyathus cal car PO urtal es X Deltocyathus 1talicus Michelotti X Deltocyathus eccentricus Cairns X Oeltocyathus pourtales; Cairns Ste~anoCyathus (S.) diadema ( seley) - X Stephanocyathus (S.) paliferus Cairns - X Stephanocyathus (5.) laevifundus Cairns Ste~hanOCyathus (0.) coronatus ( outales) X Peoonocyathus folliculus (Po urta 1 es) Pepo.nocyathus stimpsonii E-4 x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X South Atlantic X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X ) Gu 1 f S t ra i ts of of South ~~xico Florida Atlantic (Pourtal es) Desmophyllum cristagalli ME I Haime Thalamophyllia gombergf Cairns Lophel1a prolifera (Pallas) Anomocora fecunda (Pourtales) Coenosm'f1 fa arbuscula Pourtal es Dasmosmil ia lymani (Pourtal es) Dasmosmilia variegata (Pourtal es) Solenosmilia variabilis Duncan Asterosm;1 ia pro1 ifera ( Po u r ta 1 e s ) Asterosmilia marchad; (Chevalier) Phacelocyathus flos (Pourtal es) F amil y Fl abel1idae Fl abell um mosel ey; Pourtal es Flabellum fragile Cairns Javan;a canleti (D. & M.) Po 1 ~yces frag; 1 is (Po urtal es) GarTner; a paradoxa (Po urtal es) F amn y Guyn;; dae X x X X X X X X X X X X Gu~nia annulata Duncan X Sch;zocyathus fhsil;s Pourtales X S teno cya thus venn i fo nn i s (Pourtal es) Pourtalocyathus hispidus (Po urtaT es) Fam;l y Dendrophyll iidae Balanophyllia palifera PO urtaTes Dendrophyllia cornucopia POurtaTes Dendrophyllia gaditana (Duncan) Dendrophyl'1a alternata POurtaTes Enallopsammia profunda (Pourtal esl Enallopsammfa rostrata (Pourtales) Thecopsammia social h Po·urtal es Bathypsammia tintinnabulim (Po urtal es) Bathyesammia fallosocialis Squlres Rhizopsammia manuelensis Cheval fer Troche psarnmi a i nfundib ul um P9 urtal es E-S X X x X X x x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X x x X X X X X x X X X X X x X X X X x X X X X X Gulf Straits of of South nexico Florida Atlantic Order STYLASTER INA . Family Stylasteridae Styl aster duchassaingi Pourtal es X StYlaster erubescens POurtal es X X *Styl aster filogranus Pourtal es X ? Stt,aster ~emmascens (Esper) X Al opora mlniata POurtales X Cryptohel ia peircei Pourtal es X X Stenohelfa sp. X *1Jistichopo·ra foliacea Pourtales X .x Oistichopora sulcata Pourtales X Errina cochleata POurtales X Err;na g1 !bra PO urtal es X Pliobothrus symmetricus Pourtal es X Order ANTIPATHARIA Antipathes americana D. & M. X Antipathes hirta Gray X Antipathes tanacetum (Pourtales) X X Antipathes pennacea Pallas X Antipathes tristis (Ouchassaing) X Antipathes picea POurtal es X Parantipathes tetrasticha (Po urtal es) X Aphanipathes humil is (Pourtal es) X X Aphanipathes thyroides (Pourtal es) X Aphanipathes felix (Pourtales) X X Aohanipathes abietina (Pourtal es) X *Leiopathes gl al)errima (Esper) X X Bathypathes patuia Brook X E-6 APPENDIX F: Fauna characteristic of deep-water banks in the western Atl antic. (Based on ~fthsonian Insti tution co 11 ec tfons CI-140, CI-246 in the south Atlantic; Cairns, 1979, personal commun icatlon). I. Coelenterate species: A. Octocorall ia PlaCOtOrgia sp. Swi ft asp. Pa raro rg 11 sp. *Co ra 11 um meet ea Paramuricea sp. MUriceides sp. Eunicella modesta Pseudodrifa nigra AnthOmastus sp. Pl umare" asp. rrachrmuricea sp. *Narel a versluysi *Narella regularis *Narel1a ~auc ifl 0 ra *Candidel asp. *Keratoisis sp. B. Scleracti.hi"a Cyatroceras sgui res; Desmo r hYllum cristagall; Lo the ; a ro 1 i fera So enosmi ia variabil;s Bathypsammia" fallosodal is Bathtpsammia tintinnabulum Ena1 opsammia profunda II. Other animal groups not identified to species: Porifera Hydroids *Styl asterina Actiniaria " *Anti patharia Bryo 2X) a Brachiopoda Gastropoda Octopoda Asteroidea Ophiuroidea Echinoidea Crino idea Cirripedia Paguridae Gal atheidae Po lychaeta Be"th;c Fish Endolithic borers Macroscopic (sponges) Microscopic (sponges, fungi) *Species of potential commercial value. F-l N'PENOIX G. SI.PPLEMENTAL INFCJU4ATION ON SOlR:ES OF ENERGY IN CORALS 1.0 Scleractinia Fundamental to the"flow of .ne~gy th~ough the ~.ef .cosystem Is the symbiotic ~.Iatlonshlp with zooxanthel la. characteristic of al I shal low-wat.r h.~matyplc co~als. These alga. are capabl. of ~~~ ~uclng mo~. oxygen that Is consumed by the alll. and coral host combined (Yonge, .t al., 1932; Odum and Odum, 1955; ~anwlsh.r and Wainwright, 1967). Sut more Important to corals. and tn. communities which they fo~m, Is the carbon fixed during the process of photosynthesIs. Evld.nce that zooxanth., la. can ~.I.ase photosynth.tlcal Iy flx.d o~ganlc compounds to their hosts Is w.,1 documented, as Is the effeCt of zooxanth.' lae on nut~lent r.cycllng and .nhaneement of calcification (r.vlew.d by ~uscatlne, 1973). Th. Indispensaoility of the symbiosis, howe~r, Is one of the sources of cont~o ... ~sy noted abo .... Whll. It app.ars that suppl.mental sou~ces of nut~ltlon a~. taken In ~ddltlon to the amount supplied by zooxantn.,la., the o ... ~al I Qu.stlon of Indispensability of such .xOgenous food to the .xlstence of scle~actlnlans Is stll I debated. Yong. and Nicholls (1931) concluded that scl.ractlnlans can II ... fo~ s .... ~al months In compl.t. da~kness as long as food Is p~ovl~ed. Conve~sely. Kawagutl (1964) obs.~ ... d that four gene~a of PacifIc corals kept fo~ mo~. than 15 months In the light but without food app.ared healthy and Increased th.'r numbe~s of ~olyps [not.: although zooplankton we~e withheld as a food sourc., bact.~la may have be.n pres.nt and consumed In Kawagutl's work). Franzlsket (1969; 1970) showed that Hawaiian co~als pe~formed In the same fashion and noted that corals kept In the dark for two months exhibited symptoms of at~ophy. Conn.' I (In Muscatine, 1973) .xcluded light f~om a s.ctlon of the ~r.at 3a~rl.r R •• f using an opaque dome without affecting ambl.nt currents and tood supply. Ou~lng th~ee and one-halt months In tne shad., co~als expel led thel~ zooxanthel lae and al I colonies died. ~nt~ol. colonies und.r transpa~ent domes survl-.ed. Lewis (1974) found that planulae of ~ f~agum cou I d not sur vi ... mo~. than th~e. months I f not p~ovl ded wi th ~!22!!. (A~teml a) Clnd ..!..!...9!!. (12h: 12h, Ilght:da~k photoperiod) •. 1.2 Zooplankton Opl~l~ns dlff.r on the adequacy of zooplClnkton In satisfying the food ~equl~ements of co~al and other benthic In ... rteb~ates on r .. fs (Lew's, 1977). Johannes (1974) has argued that the biomass of zooplankton o ... r coral r .. fs Is InSufficient to supply ene~gy needs although It mey be Impo~tant as a source of ess.ntlal nutrient.. In this vi .. ~ .. f corals are "autotrophIc" and d.pend .xt.nsl ... ly upon energy supplied by their zoo.-nthel lae. The early papers of Sargent and Austin (1949, 1954) Indicated that the zooplankton blomess of sur~oundlng waters at Rongelap In tne ~aclflc were too small to support 41 I the benthic In ... rtebrat.s on the ~ .. f. Johannes, et al. (1970) calculated that zooplankton on a a.rmuda r .. f were not sut flclently abundant to support the en.~gy needs of the co~als p~esent as Indicated by their ~at.s of respiration. Johannes and T.pley (1974) found that the zooplankton ~Iomass present could supply only 20 perc.nt of the dally requirements for r.splratlon In the Pacific co~al. Porites lobata, and- ?o~ter (1974) estlmeted that during a two-hou~ f.edlng pe~/od at sunset, the smel I star co~al (Montast~.a annula~ls) could captu~e only betw.en 0.2 percent and 11 pe~cent of the total ~ally food required ~~~ energy used In r.splratlon. Although the supply of oceanic zooplankTon appea~s to be I,adequat. to support ~.ef seconda~y production, ".efs undoubted:y p~oduce thel- oJ"n z~oplankto:)n (Po~t.~, at al., 1977; Po~t.~ and P::l~ter". 1977). Sal., ~cW/I Ilam and Anderson (1975) found t~at the~. was a r.sldent plankton community at H.~on Island, Ausf~alla, which was mo~. abundant and ~Icher In species than the otfshO~. community. They suggested that this plankton community was retained on the reef by local circulation or ~y ~hav­ I oral responses and .as a potential source of food for the sessile reef organisms. This aspect of r .. f zooplankton ecology may be of Quantltatl~ sl;nlflcance when Its I~act Is ~re f~1 Iy e~l~ated. Tne view that ~eef corals are not wholly "autotrophic" in tnelr nutrition has been summarized by 3oreau, et al. (1971). Tney regard corals as specialiZed ca~nl~res without structural ~dlflcatlons for an autotrophic existence depending primarily upon ZoOplankton for their food. Tne worK of ~oles (1969) supports this view. He found tnat reef corals were able to I~gest ~re than sufficient nu~rs of brine shrimp to co~r their energy 9x~endlture I~ respiration with energy left for storage and growth. Furthermore, Goreau, et al. (1971) considered tnat reef corals may act as unspeclallZed detritus feeders upon a.wlde range of organic matter or may e~n utilize dlssol ~d or colloidal or;anl: matter. Lewis and crlce (1975) discussed suspension feeding strategies In Atlantic reef corals. The general conclusions regarding the Importance of ZoOplankton to support reef production Indicate tnat while t~ere Is a substantial remo~1 of plankton ~y benthic organisms, zooplankton blomess from oceanic water flowing o~r reefs Is too low e~n to supply the dally energy requirements of the corals present. Additional food must be suplled by resident plankton and other external sources. 1.3 Sacterla It has been pointed out by DISal~ (1973) ~nd Sorokln (1973c) that there are ~ry fe. Quantltatl~ jata on tne role of mIcrobial populations In tne productIvIty of coral r .. fs. One cannot concel~ of such complex systems without micro-organIsms functIoning as or1anlc decomposers, nitrogen fixers and In bIogeochemIcal processes. Large number ~f becterla on reer surfaces were reported by Odum and Odum (1955) and bacteria ha~ ~en. Implicated In the hl3h respiratIon rates of coral communitIes noted by Sargent and AustIn (1949). The work of Ji5al~ (1973, 1974) has been concerned wIth. t~e dl~rsity and abundance of bacterIa on coral reefs .hlle Sorokln (1973a, b; 1974) has emphasIzed the role of bacteria I~ secondary productIon In reef organisms, I.e., In transformIng detrItus to microbIal biomass. DISal~ (1973, 1974) suggested that the fInely divIded sedl~nts In reef spaces and cavities func tIoned as "regeneratl~ surfaces" and tnat tne rapid rates of oxygen consumptIon occurrIng In these cavIties IndIcated rapId organIc decomposItIon. Clate count of SedIments at the bases of coral heads showed densItIes of 107 to 108 bacterlalg dry metter and among them were forms capable of ji3estlng chItIn and otner organIc compoundS, reducIng nitrates and di3esting gelatin and agar. The bacterIa In reef sediments and In i~ternal cavItIes are consIdered to na~ a role I~ nutrIent regeneration (~iSal~, 1974). ~ools of jisSOI~d nitrogen and amino nItrogen were found In Sediments and In dead coral headS. Quantltatl~ estimates ga~ ~Iue of 33 g-atoms of ~hOsphorus and 30 ~Ies of amIno nltrogen/m2 dead coral surfaces. ~i3 results show that bacteria may thus be Important In cycling of nutrients In the reef system. Sorokln (1973a, b, c; 1974) has streSSed t~at the biomass of bacteria in reef sediments and In shal low coastal water correspondS with their importance In processes of mineralization and nutrient cycling on reefs. They are also considered Important as food for secondary consumers. ~esults of feeding experiments (Sorokln, 1973a) showed t~at si~ species of reef corals could consume bacterloplankton. Otner forms which were able to filter ~ct9ri~plankton from water were the t~nl:ate Ascldla~, t~e sponge Toxadocea vlolacea, and tne oyster Crassostrea~. Sorokln (1973a) regarded the bacterlo ~Iankton as being a hl3h-Quallty food adeQuat9 in amount to supply a large percent3ge of tne total energy needs of suspension feeders on t~e reef. ~ general scheme Illustrating trophic relatlonsnl~s has been attempted bySorokln (1973c) and ii snown in FI~ure G-I. This S~udy emphasized tne I~r­ tance of mlcro-organlsms and tne process of ~ecomposltlon •. It also suggested a Shortage of phyto ~Ian~ton as prl~ry prOducers In tne reef ecosystem and hence the minor Importance of the phytoplank~onl zooplankton trophic relationship. FIGURE G-l. Dissolved organic material Bacteria Zooplankton Corals J--------+I Benthos, fishes Trophic relationships within a coral reef community, emphasizing the importance of bacteria (after Sorokin, 1973c). G-3 ,1 1.4 Oetr I tus The quantltatl~ significance of det~ltus as "food fo~ co~al and ot~e~ benthic o~ganlsms on t~e ~eef has not been e~luated. Howe~r, there Is a good deal of evidence to Indicate that suspended det~ltus Is abundant In the water flowing o~r ~eefs. Glynn (1973) found that dry biomass of suspended ~tter passl~g o~r a reef In Puerto Rico exceeded the dry biomass of net plankton by an o~der of ~gnltude or more. Evidence f~om examination of ~II Ilpore filters, plankto~-pl;mant concent~atlons and productivity measurements I~dlcated that t~e suspended matter was primarily det~ltus. The flux of suspended matter allQuntad to between 20 to 4'Jg dry wt/m2/day and there was no evidence of depletion of det~ltal material within the water mass flowing o~r the ~eef. In fact, there a~e a number of studies which show an Increase In det~ltus avellable to suspenslon"feede~S after water has c~ossed a ~eef (LewiS, 1977)., ~tlantlc reef corals have been shown by Lewis and P~lce (1975, 1976) to behaY8 as suspension feede~s. By means of nets and st~ands of mucus they are able to capture a wide ~ange of particulate material and larger plankton with thei~ tentacles. Thus, when the biomass of zooplankton Is too low to sUppO~t the nut~ltlonal needs of corals (Johannes, 1974; Porter, 1974), other sou~ces of food may be avellable to them. '01/1'1 lie those sj)8ci es wi th long act I ve tentac les obta I n food by means of tentac Ie cap ture and by mucus filaments, species with sho~t tentacles such as the Agarlclldae appear to feed entl~.ly by suspension feeding. Lewis (1976, 1977) has shown expe~lmental Iy that some Atlantic ~ .. f co~als are able to clear the sur~oundlng water of particulate material In allQunts just enough to supply their dally maintenance ~equl~ements. Soma Interest has been shown In the potential nut~lent sl;nlflcance of the mucus which Is p~oduced in copious amounts by most reef corals. Johannes (1967) obse~ved mucus released by corals and the sub sequent formation of aggregates of mucus and ent~apped pa~tlcles. ~rshal I (1972) found consideraole quantities of zooxant~el lae In mucus diScharged f~om coral headS. Suspended mucus strIngs we~e examined by Coles and St~athmann (1973) and found to have sl;nlflcantly higher organic carbon and nlt~ogen con tents than suspended partlcl.s In the surrOunding water. Benson and Muscatine (1974) found that tne mucus f~om a ..erlety of corals contaIned wax esters and they also obser~d that ~eef fish fed on the coral mucus. This Is apparently one route by whiCh energy-rich products of coral metabolism are transfer~ed to hl;her trophic leY8ls. This raises the pOSsibIlity of a detritus-based food chain such as exists In mangro~ swamps (Odum and Heald. 1975). FeedIng st~ategles for particulate food sources other than zooplankton are different from st~ategles In whIch zooolankton "~s the main food source (Jorgensen, 1966). Filter feedIng, a type of suspensIon feeding, Is one way of capturing particulate matter and Crisp (1975) has commented on the fact that suspension feeders requIre less energy for feeding than do Zooplankton feeders. The proportIon of cIlIary-mucoid suspension feeders (IncludIng corals) and fIlter feede~s on reefs has been estImated by Glynn (In Lewis, 1977). Glynn also found that the total biomass of the mac~oblota at Qanama was 441 ; proteln/m2. Of thIs, 285.5 9 consisted of corals and 14.6 g of other suspension feeders. If, as C~lsp (197" suggests, suspension feeders are Int~lnslcal Iy efficient converters of energy, then such a feeding strategy baSed on suspended detritus Is particularly suItable for zooplankton-poor tropIcal waters. With thIs view In mind LewIs (1977) outlined trophle relatlonShl~s withIn a coral ~eef communIty, Ineorporatlng detritus as a food source (FI;ure G-Z). 1.5 D I ssoll4td Organ I es AS yet the~. Is no coneluslve proof that corals use dissol\8d organle matter as food. Steohens and Schlnske ('961) lind Stephen (1962,1968) jlscussed the problems t"at must be Ol4rcOl1'8 In determlni:'1g t"e extent ~f net ~tllizatfon of II partIcular dissol..ed organIc substance. ~s stated ~y ~useatlne G-4 Macrophytes and sea grasses / Herbivor~s De compo- Detritus ~ sers ~ I ZooxanthellaeJ . l Phytoplankton [BenthosJ ~--------~1zooPlankton t ~-- I Coral FIGURE G-2. ~--------~ Fish and other predators Trophic relationships within a coral reef community, emphasizing the importance of detritus (after Lewis, 1977). G-5 . ) (1973), axperlments hive yet to bI conducted with appropriate concentrations. ~elease as wei I as uptake of the meterlal his not bien determined, so thlt net glln, If any. Is unknown. Finally. tnere Is no documentation that absorbed organic meterlal participates In the metabolism of the host. 2.0 Alcyanlrla Alcyonarlan corals ha~ been consIdered carnl~rous along wltn the rest of the coelenterates (Hyman. 1940). There Is evIdence that at lelst In some specIes, tnls statement Is ~lld. 30tn Sayer (1956) and Grigg (1970) reported that Leptogorgla vlrgulata and Murlcea spp., respectl~ly. prey extensl~ly on snelled bl~l~ lar~e. GrIgg found tnrough nypochlorlte digests of ~olyps tnat thIs Item consti tuted 90 percent of the d let of bOth~. ca II forn I CI and!!. fru'tl COSI but conc luded tnat on I y one per cent of me'tabollc needs.~ere met In tnls fashIon. ExperImental work snowed tnat mlcrozooplank'ton and partIculate organIc IMtter were also consumed and prObably represented tne buH( of the dIet of tnese specIes. On 'the o'tner hand. Qrat't (1906) described 'tne norpnologlcal "reduction" of the dlgestl ... areas In tne alcyonacean oc'tocorals LObophytum, Sacrophy'ton. Alcyonlum and SClerophytum, correlating thIs In eaen specIes wl'th an Increase In numbers of zooxan'thellae. Pra't't conjectured tnat the needs of growl~g colonIes of SClerophytum coulj no't be satisfied by tne sma I I anount of zooplankton actually cap'tured and 'tnat nu'trltion of tnese species was supported by zooxantnellae. Gohar (1940, 1948) added mambers of 'tne family Xenlldae to tne specIes observed by Pratt as having a rich flora of zooxantnel lae and also noted tna't .enllds lacked dlges'tlve zones of the masen'terlal fllaman'ts. These anllMls were never obser ... d to feed In 'tne labora'tory or In 'tne fIeld or 'to 'trap and paralyze zooplankters orough't In'to con'tac't wl'tn 'the surface of the anllMl. SI,ce pulsa'tlng colonies ceased 'to move when placed In the dark bu't resumed movemen't when returned to t~e Ilgh't. Gohar conjec'tured 'tnat "combustible energy giving ma't9rlal" is norlMl'y suppl led by zooxant'ellae, ra'tner tnan zooplankton. walnwrlgh't (1967) ~epor'ted 'tne gorgonla expanded during tne day wnen plank'ton was scarce but remained con'trac'ted a't nl;n't showl~g II'ttle feeding activity when zooplankton was mos't abundan't. This was considered to be ~n adaptation fa~rlng photosyn'thesls by zooxantnellae during tne day, Implying a nutrItional role for 'tne algae. SI~llar 'to 'the case wl'th scleractlnlan corals, ~Inzle (1970. 1973) hiS shown 'tnat 73 percent of symbiotic gorgonlans dIed af'ter beIng placed In a Ilgh't-tlght aquarium with runnIng sea.a'ter for SJ days. A non-symbiotic specIes (Dlodogorgla) was all ... and apparently healthy tnroughout tne experlmant. Bayer (1954) found evIdence 'tha't the gorgonlans Plexaura flexuosa and Psammogorgla an'tlpa'thes, whlen ha~ especially abundan't zooxan'thel lae, nave lost most, If not al I of 'tnelr nematocysts. In addition, they seem to sho. a reduction of gastroderlMl gland eel Is, as In t,e case of tne tropical alcynonlceans. T:"Ie da'ta here are no less &qui IoCca I than In 't!le stony coral s. The arguments concern I ng 't'e day II ght expansion of the polyps In SO-Cilled "h.rmatyplc: gorgonlans" ('lIal'1.rlgn't. 1967> Is countered oy Theodor [1977) .ho found thlt mambers of 'tne genus Pseudot.rogorgla 'tend to be expanded a't night and contracted during the day. The arguments for lack of feedi"g are often mad •• Ith th. assumption tna't only an I rna I food Is hken. HQ ..... r. 'lliison (lSS4) and Roushdy and Hansen (19611 ha~ bOth found evi dence that octocorals are capabl. of feeding on phytoplankton. ~I~'tom or detritus capture does not requlr. nemetocysts. This correlates wei I .itn electron-mlcroscopl: observations by ~arlscal and Slgger (1977) who found that even aSymblotlc octocorlls ha ... few nemetocys'ts and no gastrodermel microvilli. In any cas., no direct ex~.rimen't~1 ~pproach has been employed In attempting 'to defIne tne nutritional recfulreman'ts In symbiotic Oc'tocorailla. ).0 Antlpatharla Inspection of the tentacular apparatus of Crrrlpa'th.S or any o'ther an'tlpat~arlan I~ 't,e st~dy area .111 re ... a! larg. numbers of nematocyst bat~erjes. Thus It is not surprlsl'1g t!'ta't :irlgg (1965) .. as able 'to experimentally feed pOltPS ot ~ntI2at~es ;randls from ~a.all wIth ~~Ious zooplank'ters. G-6 Howe¥ar, Cantan (1921) r~orted that polyps of a Lelopathe. contained large numbers of dIatoms, ~ft.n broken and apparently In a state of dlge.tlon, along .Ith algal fragments. ~Ithough the data do not .arrant antlpatharlan. being considered herbl~re., omnl~rlsm cannot be ~ul.d out, partleula~ly In vI .. of the recent studle. by Le.ls (1978) who notes that antlpatharlans are capable of feeding on fine suspended p,rtleulates by means of mucous strands and nets. ~7 APPENDIX H. ~EDATORS ANO ASSOCIATIONS OF CORALS: GENERAL REVIEW 1.0 Scle~actlnlan P~edato~s and Thel~ Effects 1.1 F I shes Studies by Robenson (1970), Salvlnl-Plewen (1972) and Patton '(1973), have shown that the number:Jf animals specialized to teed on the Scle~actlnia has been unde~estlmated (Wells, 1957; Yonge, 19153). Some of the obse~ed eftects also go fa~ beyond the negligible damage claimed by Yonge (19158). Si~ce many of tne known co~al p~edato~ nave been desc~lbed only ~elatively recently, It Is likely that :on tlnued study will add to ou~ knowledge of this feeding habit. The following 1"'..,1 .. will no douot soon be supplemented by new dTscove~1 as. In ~andal 1'5 (1967) su~vey of the food habits of reef fishes smal I volumes of co~al we~e found In t~e alimentary t~acts of fou~ species: Sca~us coelestlnus Cuvie~ and Valenciennes and Spa~lsoma au~ofrenatum (Cuv/e~ and Valenciennes) (Sea~idae), Chaetodipte~us ~ (B~oussonet) (Ephlpp/dael, and Mlc~ospatnodon ch~ysu~us (Cuvle~ and Valenciennes) (Pomacent~ldae). The only specific co~al Identifi noted'was that of Oeullna dlffusa, a fragment consumed by £..~. In some localities co~al consump tion by fishes appea~s g~eate~ than indicated by Randall's (1967) study. For example, In Pan~a (Bakus, 1.9159) and ge~uda (Gyg/, 1969), the ~asp/ng of live eo~als by scarlds 15 canmonplace. Scarus guacamaia Cuvie~ ~asps S/de~ast~ea side~ea with fair ~egula~/ty along much of the nonh coast of ~an~a. The summits of la~ge hem/sphe~ical colonies a~e canmonly scraped to depthS of 2-3 ~m; sucn feeding is often pe~fo~ed by relatively small schools of 2.. guacame/a (five to 15 Individuals) whicn appea~ to range ove~ extensive a~eas. Mlc~ospathodon cn~ysu~us, though p~edomlnantly ne~b/vo~ous on epontic diatoms and filalll8ntous al';ae, frequently feeds on 2.. side~ea as well. Juveniles and adults of tnls flsn bite tne su~tace of tne corallum vigorOUSly, removing p~/ma~/ly the extended polfPS. Sorals preyed upon in this manner can be oistinguisned oy tne cnaracte~istic cl~cula~ lesions lett benind (~Iynn, 1973). Juveniles and adults of Mlc~ospathodon canmonly feed on the hyd~oeo~al Millepo~a in Flo~ida (:ia~delll, 1967), adu~ts nest on it, and both juveniles and adults attacK M/llepo~a complanata In Panama. Other co~als obse~ed in Panama with deep ~asplng ma~ks, slmlla~ to t~se pro duced by 2.. guacamala, a~e Montast~ .. annularls. Ae~opo~a palmata. ~. ce~vleorn/s. Agarlcla aga~lcltes, and Po~ltes fu~cata. Mixed Schools of Sca~us c~olcensls, Aeanthurus chl~u~gus (310en), Chaetodon caplst~atus Llnnaeus, and othe~ species occasionally feed on~. cervlco~nls. Such Incijen tal feeding fo~ays can lead to coral ~asplng by the sca~id and selective ~emoval of polyps oy the latte~ two species (Glynn, 1973). On one occasion a sea~ld. possibly Sca~us vetula Bloen and Schnelde~. was obse~ed to bite off a te~/nal 2-cm tip of Porites po~ltes. On some areas of the reef. Po~ltes colonies commonly have many of tneir te~/nal b~anenes b~oken off. This feeding naoit was ~eponed long ago In Haiti by Beebe (1928), who obse~ed that scar/ds (most likely 1. guacamaia) b~eak off and Ingest the tenft/nal b~anches of co~als. The effects of .f/sh p~edato~ on Po~ites astreo/des have not been ~eported In the Ca~/obean, but aeco~d/ng to Gygl (1969) Spa~lsoma vir-ide (90nnate~~e) ccmmonly feeds on thIs co~al at ge~uda. ~emov/ng up to 200 mg with each bite. In addi tion to direct b~ows/ng, Glynn (1974) believes that Ind/~ec:t activity causes detachment of seve~al ,co~al specl es. notab Iy S Ide~ast~ .. ~ad I ans ,and !!ti.!. f~agum •. Th ismay be the cause of rounded, 1I'00i Ie coral Iiths often seen In lagoonal patCh ~eef specimens. AS Yonge (1963) suggested. nematocysts must cenainly deter some fiShes fran feeding on co~als. T~a~ Mlc~ospathOdon ~egularly consumes large amounts of tne hydroco~al Milleeo~a, howeve~. indlcatas t~at certain fiSh species can cope with this potent ~eans of ~efense. ~osslbly anothe~ effective deterren~ t~at would tend to discou~ag. fish p~8dato~s is the p~esence of sha~ply p~ojecting septa, often ir~ serrated edges. on the coral lites. of Mussa, Scolymia, Isoenyllast~aea. loIycetopnyllla, and Isopnyllia. It ~ay ~ne~efore be significant that tne co~al species most often consumed oy la~;. fishes ~ave rel~­ tively smootn and unobtrusive su~faces. ~eese (1977) nas studied tne ~elationsn/p between te8di~g behavior. substrate type. and co~al mo~phology in the Chaetodontidae fishes of th~ee Pacific a~eas. H-I 1.2 In~~ebra~.s Six In~~ebrat. eoral predators have been dl5Co~red In the Caribbean region since 1962. These Inelude the amphlnamld polychaete Hermedle. earuneula~a (Pal las), the mejld d.capod ~Ithrax (~Ithraeulus) seuletus (Lamerck), the gastrapod mollusks Corailloehiia abbrevlata LamarCk,~. carlbea Abbott, and Cal I lostome ja~nleum Lamarck, and the echinoid Dlademe antll larum Philippi. Harmedlce as first described by ~arsden (1962. 1963) to be an habitual predator of Porites porites and 1:. astreoldes. SUb~equent work by Ott and Lewis (1972) and Shinn (1976) shOwed that several other coral speeles are preyed upon (althOugh Hermodle. was found most often on the colonial anemone Palythoa). Ebbs (1966) noted that coral browsing mey oecur In all Atlantic members of the Amphlnomldae. 9otl'1~. furca~a and~. porites are attack.d by ~Ithrax. which severs the polyps with Its cnelae. Tnls feeding nab/t. first obser~d In Pue~o Rico (Glynn. 1962), was also seen In Panama. wh.re ~Ithrax commonly preyed upon ramose speeles of Porites (Glynn. 1973). Ward (1965) believed that the mode of feedl~g of Coratlloeh1la abbrevlata.· InloOlvlng the dlssolu~lon and Ingestion of soft tissues. can lead to the death of polyps and e~ntual des~ructlon of the colony of Mbntastr .. annularls (smal I star coral). On the other hand. Robe~son (1970) maintains that this speeles Is a weI I-adapted paraslt., causing II~I. damage to polyps. This eoneluslon Is chall.nged by Ott and Lewis (1972) who documented some damage by C. abbrevlata to several different corals. especially M. annularls. ~111.r In Glynn (1973) found Coratllopnlla abbrevlata and £. carlbea associated with 14-hermatypes at :J15Co~ry Bay. Jamaica, and suggested that the gastrapods may feed on plankton Ingested by the eorals. Caillos~oma ja~nlcum feeds on.!!!!.!!!.angulosa In the laboratory and on Agarlcla~. (Iettuee coral) In the laboratory and field (Lang. 1970), with a preference for the latt.r group. Smell elrcular I.slons are produeed. but It Is not yet known whleh of the soft parts of the eoral are eonsumed. Olad.ma antillarum preys on coral at nl;nt (Bak and ~n Eys, 1975) at the same time that It preys on Thalassla producing the .el 1 known halo effe~ around patCh r .. fs. Like the searlds (parrot fish). Dlad.me Infll~ substantial meehanlcal damage to the eoral lum. but their Impaet Is greater due to their slow mo~ment and con tinual feeding pattern. From the foregOing. It Is obvious that se~ral reef animals are adapted to f.ed on the Selera~lnla. Though the aetual qu.ntltles of coral consumed appear to be slight, there Is good evldenee that the damag.d areas of the eoral lum that do not undergo regeneration are Invaded by oth.r organisms which may o~rgrow and eventually smother the entire colony. ContInuing observetlons of the rasped surfaees of Sidarastrea sider •• h.ve shOwn th.t, while repair normally tak.s place rapidly (two to thr .. months), some areas suffer Irr~arabl. damage. The latter are often Invaded Initially by a ~rlety of filamentous algae, Ineludlng members of the Cyanaphyceae, Chloraphyeeae, RhodophyC •••• and Phaeophyceae. and epontle diatom growthS. Large eolonles of Mbn~astre. annularls with their surfaces In ~rlous st~es of Inveslon provld. a eoncrete exampl. of the course of destruc~lon. Scarld nicks oft.n contain mlx.d growthS of fll.mentous al3.e and these can be traced through a suceesslonal con tinuum to surfaees highly eroded by boring cllonld sponges (Glynn, 1973). Another type of al;al In~­ slon Is Induced by continuous a~ack on Ac~opora eervleornls (st~horn· eoral) and Montast~ .. annularls (smell star eoral) by the threespot damselflsh. Eupomec.ntrus planlfrons. As described by Kaufman (1977), the fish's eontlnual attack on Ilvl~g and dead eorals pre~nts ~egeneratlon of coral tissue and allows "algal lawns" to become established. Feddern (1979, p.rson.1 communication) claims ~~ese "lawns" a~e eultilleted y.ar-round. These "Ia ns" in turn ser ... as a tood source and egg cultl\41'tlon sp.e. for the fish. ~t and Lewis (1972) find that the blue-gr .. n al·38 Lyngbla sp. Inwdes regions of coralla which ha~ be.n Injured due to predatl~n ~y the polychaete Hermodlc. (se. Antonius, 1975). There Is no evidence that the al34e can expand past the site of Inju~y; howeve~, Antonius (1973, 1975) has desc~lbed a blue-gr .. n alg •• Oscillatoria submembranaeea. which appea~s 'to be c.pable of rapid coenenchymal lysiS, and spre.dlng once a too~~old on a coral lum Is gained. 1-1-2 2.0 Other Scleractlnlan AssocIatIons The~e Is a good deal of evIdence f~om the field Indlcatl"9 that competition fo~ living space Is aCute among tne long-II~ benthic populations of coral reefs. It appears tnat many g~oups of reef orga nisms ha~ e~l~d body mo~phologles which tend to maximize the a~ea of exposure to lIght and cu~~ents. Certain minImum le~ls of exposu~e are necessary fo~ botn phOtosynthetic and suspensIon feeding to~ms.The~eto~e, It Is not surp~lslng to find tnat a ~~Iety of strategies are employed to enSu~e the acquisitIon of spece and access to the su~~oundl~ medium, and a subsequent hol~ on t,ls resou~ce once oOta I ned. 2.1 Competition Amon9 Scleractlnlan Species To the rapid and sPl"eadlng mode of growth employed by many corals as a means of reducing COII'()etiti-on fo~ space and light, mUst now be added the newly dlsco~~ed adaptation of extra-coelente~lc teedi'g [Lang. 1973). She has found that certain species will extend tnel~ mesente~lal filaments and di~est any living coral tissue from a colony of anotne~ species which they can touch, up to about 2 cm away. The speCies can be arranged In an aggressl~ hlera~chy, each species attacking all othe~s below It In the hlera~chy and being attacked by all ranked hl;he~. In general, tne messl~ species of the fami lies ~ussldae, ~andrlnldae. and Favlldae rank hlghe~ than thOse ot 'othe~ families. This agrees .Ith Connel Jls (1973) findings t-,<lt slow-growIng IIIIIssI~ colonIes are not o~~g~own by the taster g~owlng b~anchlng ones, and t"at In some Instances, foliaceous specIes may InhIbit messl~ ones. While such competltl~ InteractIons can be obser~d among adult corals, they probably also play an Impo~Tant role among young growing torms. An acTl~ feede~, for example, would p~eclude t"e eSTablishment of subordinate species .Ithln Its feeding radIus. Competltl~ exclusion by means ot predato~y InteractIons occurs most noticeably In the densely populated zones. Montastrea annularls, one of the p~lnclpal reef-building species, Is moderately acTl~ In extracoelenTerlc feeding and perhaps owes Its presence In the buttress zone and along tne seawa~d slope In pa~t to Its ability to compete successfully .Ith more rapidly growing ramose and tollaceaus to~ms (~Iynn, 1973). 2.2 Bo~ln9 O~9anlsms The I~ortance of boring o~ganlsms In co~als has been noted In reviews by Otter (1937), Yonge-(1963). Goreau and Ha~Tman (1963) and Le.ls (1977). A .Ide ~rlety of organisms Including sponges, slpunculld and polychaete .orms, molluscs, crustacea and al3le a~e able to bore Into coralS, by .Ithe~ mec"anlcal or chemical means (or both). Sponges are pe~haps the most .Idespread borers on coral reefs. Rutzler (1971) has tound that membe~s of the adoclld genus Siphonodictyon can exca~Te both Into the living and nonliving po~tlons of colonies of se~ral coral gene~a. ~re-exlstlng damage to the coral Is appe~ently not a prerequIsIte fo~ attack. Glynn (1973) noted that .hen a secTion of Cllona sP. was transplanted trom an InfecTed Siderastrea to t~e aIJal-co~red scars of unlnfecTed colonies, the sponge was able to expand o~~ undamaged coral surfaces. The 1~lanted sponge began to grow Immedlatelf and expanded 2 cm peripherally In a nine-month period, kll ling the underlying coral tIssue. ~mann C 1966) estimated that the sponge Cllpna .!!!!2!. can exca'lete carbonate at the ~ate of I to 1.4 cm yr- I • He'n and Risk (1975) and ~acGr .. chy (1975) estimate that thr .. to 70 percent of the whole coral lum IIIIIY be reworked by cllonlds, while Hudson (1977) anticipates that a one-meter 1'11;1'1 coral head caul~ be compleTely con¥erted to sediment In ISO years or less based on scleroband meas~ements. ~ates of erosion of reef surtaces are difficult to estimate but 30reau and HarTman (1963) considered the activity of cllonld sponges to be a widespread and signIficant force In the maintenance and for meTlon of Jamaican deep ~ .. f com~nlties. In shal low water, weakenl~ of the bases of coral colonies by sponge exca¥ltlon Is pe~haps ~ounterbalanced by rapid calcification ~ates; In deeper water (>30 m o~ 100 ft). howe~~, calcification Is slow, corals become flattened and attached on an edge, the topography Is st98P, and there 15 a paucity of frame-cementing biota. AI I of these factors tend to magnify the effecT of bo,.lng sponges in t.,ls envl"onrnent. 2.3 Interactions between Corals and Other Sessile Organisms Careful obSer~tlon of benthic r .. f populations re¥8als frequent Instances of unrelated organisms appoachlng each other In growth and then one o¥8rgrowlng and excluding Its neighbor. While certaIn corals can c~lst for long periodS In close contact .Ith allen species, for example, the benetlclal association of ~tastr .. annularls .Ith the sponge Mycale laevls (Carter) reported by Goreau and Hartman (1966), It appears that there Is a tendency for some of the larger algae, sponges, octocorals, and zoanthldeans to displace coral growth. This seems to take place In the absence of any detectable pre-existing damage to the coral as noted earlier for destruction Initiated througn the activitIes of predators. Some examples follow. ~mong .';ae, HalImeda opuntla (Llnnaaus) Lamoureux, Caulerea racemosa ~r. macrophysa (Kutzlng) Taylor, and Peyssonnella ~ (Irgebll Ie) J. Agardh are commonly found cO¥erlng lar;e areas of Porites furcata. The brown alga Lobopnora ¥erlegata (Lamouroux) ~omersley often prOliferates o~r extens!¥8 populations. Chondrilla nucula, an encrusting sponge, and the colonial anemone Palythoa sP. can o¥ergrow large tracts of Porites furcata and entire colonies of Siderastrea radians and Dletorla cll~sa. PorItes Is usually In¥aded from below, by way of the dead branches; massl¥8 corals are Invaded from their perIphery (Glynn, 1973). The scleraxonlans Brlareum asbestlnum (KinzIe, 1970) and Erythropodlum carlbaeorum (Antonius, 1977) may function In the same manner, as may certain dl~emlnld aseldlans (Antonius, 1977). 3.0 Gorgonlan Predators and AssocIates The gorgonlan octocorals are an Important component of the reef and bank community In the study area. Their prominence has enabled them to provIde shelter and food for a wide array of casual associates, epizoa and comm.nsals and other symblonts, ranging from other coelenterates to fishes (Bayer, 1961; Salvlnl-Plawen, 1972). The assocIates of western Atlantic shal low-water gorgonlans, particularly ~red­ ators and paraSites, are descrIbed below. The snaIl Neoslmnla unlpllcata and the shrimp Neopontonoides beaufortensls both feed on surface debriS and material shed by the gorgonlan Leptogorgla vlrgulata off North CarolIna. The gastropod appears to Incorporate spicular plgmants Into Its own sheli. thus a~ulrlng concealIng coloratIon. The nudibranch Trltonla wellsl probably feeds directly on Leptogorgla tissue (Patton, 1972). Cyclopold copepods of the family Lamlppldae are known to parasi tize ~rlous octocorals (Zulueta, 1911) and ha¥8 also been found In the polyps of Leptogorgla (Patton, 1972). Se¥eral specIes of Cyphome. an ovulld gastropod. are conspicuous associates of Pseudopterogorgla, Plexaura, Plexaurella and related genera (Bayer, 1961). Kinzie (1970, 1974) has shown that Cyphome Is a predator which strips the coenenchyme, laying bare the axial skeleton. ~e has also described "herding" behavior, whereby cyphomes In groups of up to 24 IndivIduals were capable of completely denudIng s8¥8ral gorgonlan colonies In a fl~week period. ~lnzl8 estimates that damage by Cyphoma may be less than the gorgonlans' capacity for regeneration. Ott and Lewis (1972) and Birkland (1974) ha¥8 also noted that the amphlnomld worm Hermodlce carunculata consumes gorgonlans In addition to other corals. Morse, et al. (1977) describe algal tumors Infesting Gorgonla ~tallna In t~e NetherlandS Antilles. Bagby (1978) reports considerable numbers of tumors from species of Pseudoplexaura, Pseudopterogorgla, PI exaure I la, PI.xaura and Murlceopsls from patch reefs otf ~ey Largo, Florida. Randall (1967) found that the scrawled flleflsh Alutera scripta was the most ~roml­ nent plselne gorgon Ian predator among 212 species examined. Ten other fish species hed smal I amounts of 30rgonlan material In their stomachs but ~andal I concluded that gorgonlans, In spite of their prominence, do not form a significant part of the diets of ~est Indian reef fishes. The direct effect of predators and parasites Is difficult to assess. ~owe¥er, mechanical damage to tne coenenchyme by severa! sources appears to disrupt the antibiotiC properties of the tissue (Burkholder. 1973), allowing the establishment of a ¥arlety of Invading organisms, particularly Millepora alclcornls. Once established, Millepora spreadS, kll ling the gorgonla before It. Kinzie (1970) estlmeted the spreading ~ate at 244 cml y~-1 on a colony of Gcrgonla ~tallna and 1.4 to 0.7 em y~-1 on two tips of a ?Iexau~ella specIes. ~e also noted that an unidentified keratosld SpOnge .as capable of similar action on deep reef gorgonlans In Jamaica. Whether any of these biological Interactions Is significant compa~ed to periodic storm damage (Cary, 1914) or toppling due t~ t~e .eakenlng of the subst~atum by boring organisms (Kinzie, 1970, 1974), ~emelns to be determined. 4.0 Antlpatharlan Predato~s and Associates ~Ittle Is known of relationships between black corals and ot~e~ organisms. Sal vlnl-Pla.en (1972) notes a nurse shark, Neb~lus concolo~, feeding on an unnamed antlpatharlan. Cyclopolj copepods of the family Vahlnlldae appear to parasitize the polyps of antlpatharlans (Humes, 1967). A coral Ilopnllld gast~opod, Rhlzochllus antlpathlcus, feeds on Antlpathes erlcoldee (Sal vlnl-Pla.en, 1972). Ot~er sym blonts In~lvlng ~~Ious species and tne antlpatharlan .hlp Clr~hlpathes ha~ been described (Javls and Co"en, 1968; Humes·,· 1973). ~ne of these In~1 Ie western Atlantic speCies, although further .. ort( on this neglected group wll I undoubtedly re~al a numbe~ of associations In this region. fhls expec· tatlon Is "el;"tened by the apparent absence of antibIotic activity In the tissues of a species of Antlpathes sp. tested by Burkholder (1973). N'PENOIX I. NATl.RAL I~ACTS ON C~AL HEALTH 1 .0 Hurl" I can •• CoraJs and associated resourc.s are str.ssed by hurricanes In direct proportion to the depth at :oral occurrence. ~aral '.llng the discussion on .a~ energy abo~, hurrlcan.s Impos. decreasing stresses ~s water depth Increasas. Obs.r~tlons at the Flow.r Garden Banks, now.~r, IndIcate that storm sur;es associaTed .Ith hurrIcanes can o~rturn head corals at depths In excess at 40 m (1.32 tt) (Continental Shelf AssocIates, 1978). ",tnough their frequency 1liiY be low In most areas, hurricanes do possess the power to be a most d.~statlng stress on corals (Stoddart, 1969, 1970). In Florida waters, Ball, et al. (1967). ~er~ln and Enos (1968), and Shinn (1976), ha~ reported dallllg. trom hurricanes, often reSulting In fr5gmen tatlon of sections of reefs. For example, a hurricane that struck th. K.y Largo Cry Rocks Reef InfliCTed heavy .a~ and storm-tide damege on living corals, Increased the load of suspended sedlmants, enlarged the coral rubble pile on the leeward side of th. reef, and left deposits of lima mud stranded .han .aters calmad; deeper .ater areas nearby saemed to escape the sediment accumulations (9all, et al., 1967). Evidence presented by Stoddart (1969, 1974) suggested It may take many years for the reef to regenerate; no regrowth was apparent four years after a hurrlcan. struck the barrier reef ~f 3rltlsh Hondorus. The stresses exerted by hurricanes result from changes In water temperature, salinity, sedimentation, Itght penetration, and .a~ surge. The first four ~rlab/es are discussed below In separate subsecTions. The potential damage from each of those factors Is enhanced by strong .a~ and tide patTerns. Wa~s may also topple corals regardless of the presence of a tropical storm (Tllmant, 197' personal communicatIon). 1.1 Light, Depth, and Wa~ Energy The Influence of light on coral distribution and dl~rslty has been elucIdated. Generally, specIes diversity decreases rapIdly as depth Increases below the 10 m (33 ft) Isobath (WeI Is, 1957), although Gareau and Wei Is (/967) Indicate that coral reefs and corals may grow to 70 m and 90 m (230 and 330 ft), respectl~/y. Similar trends .Ith different depth ranges .ere obser~d by ~orter (1972) In corals at San 31as on the Atlantic sid. of ~anama. These patterns are dependent at least partially upon Ilgnt .Intensity and algal symbiosis. Experimental work with different light Intensities shows that the com pensation point tor Florida reef corals lies between 320 and 1,120 w/cm2 (200 and 700 ft.c.l, and that for most it is 480 and SOO W/cm2 (300 and 500 ft.c.l. 'ThIs compares .Ith a surface Illumination In clear .eather of 4,000 to 8,000 w/cm2 (2,500 to 5,000 ft.c.l and a reading of 540 w/cm2 (400 tt.c.l. at 30 m (98 ft) (Kanwlsh.r.nd Wainwright, 1967). ~t Th. opposite eXTreme, low tid. on rare occasIons may expose soma of the shal low water coral species found In the study area. Back reef species such as~ fragum, SlderasTrea radians. and Manlclna areolata (rose coral) are th. most reslST~nt to emarslon (Vaughan, 1919; ~ayor, 1918), altnough MonTastrea annularls (small star coral) Is also known to survl~ exposure on Florida's reef50 The primary determinant of survl~1 aT exTreme I ( I~w tides Is the degree of heat or cold coupled .Itn t~e length of time of low water (s.e diSCUSSion of temperature In thIs subseCTion, 6.2.2.2) The degree at turbulence ~nd .a~ energy also acts as a depth-rel~ted limit to distribution. Scleractlnlan zonation In the surf zone of :arlbbean reefs appears to depend to a lar;e degree on tnls factor (Gelsterl 1977). Reef crests dominated by Porites spp. (finger coral) and MonTasTrea annular!s (smal I star coral) are found In zones with weak wa~ ~ctlon, .hlle crustose coral line al~e, Palytnoa and Mlilepora (fire coral) are more often found in hl;her energy zones. ~lsTer considers Acropora I-I dominated c~ests as Int.nnedlate energy forms. It Is conceivable that ~Ist.r's hypothesis could nelj explain local dltf.~.nces In ~ .. f c~est zonation In the Florida ~ .. f t~act sucn as tne Eloow ~eef dominated by ~lllepora and Acropora-dominated Carysfo~t Reef 10 Km (5.4 nm) away. Alcyonarlans a~e affected by light In the sam. way that r.ef scleractlnlans are, and for ,the same reason (Bayer, J961). Reef-dwelling corals are usually heavily Infested with IlghT-r!l3uiring Si''''''" biotic al~e. On deeper (>20 m 01'" 66 tt) reefs off souTh Flqrida, however, asymbiotlc (I.e., lacJC.i;g zooxanthella) species such as Icillgo,.gla schramm I and ellls.llids becane comllDn; In Tile :;ulf of ~exlco, reefs may harbor asymblotlc Paramu,.iceids In addition to el 115.1 lids. Depth limitation in such cases Is not as distinct as in symbiotiC species; the factors which prevent thes. groups from becoming successful on shal low reefs have not been InvestigaTed. Unlike stony corals, the height of ;orgonian whips does not appear to be strictly limited by low water. At Soldier ~ey, Florida, low tide frequently drops below tn. helgnt of species in tne "Alcyonarian Zone" (Voss and '1055,1955). '"Iowever, owing to the flexibility of the axial skeleTon, the colonies simply d~ape across the water's surface much like kelp doeS In temperate regions. ~ study has been made of the degree of emerslon tolerance In go"gonlans. In high energy zones, snal low water exposes gorgonlans to considerable stress.A.mong the few species capable of successful coloni zation are Gorgonia ventallna, Pterogorgla citrina, Plexaura flexuosa and E"ythropodlum caribaeorum (toIalnwrlght and Dillon~ 1969; <inzie, 1973; AntonIus, et al., 1978). Gorgonla ventallna appears To oe tile most consiSTent colonizer of surge zones, aloeit with hIgh mortality rates (Birkland, 1974). i:lerhaps similar to tl'1e depth restriction of 3symbiotlc gorgonlans Is the case of the Antljatnarla. toIhether black corals lack zooxanthellae entirely is an open question since van PeSCh (1914) found colorless cells which he consideredas symbiotic algae in several species. However, neither ?ax (1914) nor :>rlgg (1965) found zooxantnellae In Theil'" investi;atlons. ~ri;g found that Antlpathes g~andls Verrill are adversely affected by light intensities of >60 pe,.cenT of su,.face, and by the abrasive effects of sur;e 1:'1 waters <24 m (79 tt)deep in turbulent areas. He postulated tllat black. coral larvae wil I not settle unless light penetration Is less than 25 percent of surface, cor~espondlng To a deptn of about 35 m (114 ttl around Hawaii. Grigg found that only In turbid waters or In shaded areas a"e colonies found In shal lower water. There have been no compa~able studies on the ecological requirements of black corals In the western Atlantic. light, dePth, and wave energy a,.e each affected,by otner aCTivities which may affect corals synergistically. light penetration Is dependent upon water clarity and activities that effect it, e.g., dredging, some polluting activities, al~1 blooms, and stonns. ~epth Is more Independent :Jf othe" activities but remains co,.related with such tacto,.s as light intensity and wave length, Tem pe,.atu~e profiles, and salinity gradients. wave energy, a function of meteorological aCTivity, may :le alte,.ed by draGgIng activity, shoaling, and by t:'le Integ,.ity of the reef whIch absorbs wave forces. 1.3 Temperature The Impact of temperature upon coral Is species-specific. Some corals occurring throughout la"ge sec tions of the management area (the starlet coral, SlderasT~ea ,.adlans and tne stump coral, Solenastrea hyades, for example) are more eurythennal t,an corals found only in deeper waters (lophella and Enallopsammia, for example) (Macintyre and Pili<ey, 1969; -loss, et al., 1969; ~eumann, et al., 1977). The JOrgonlan 9rlareum asbestlnum seellS adaptacl to wanner waters (Cary, 1917, 1918). Many other species are more stenothermal In their temperature requirements. ~nreet 30rgonlan5 may be more tolerant then reef species (Bayer, 1961). The Impacts of water temperature may be accentuated when shal low-water corals are expoSed to extende: periods of calm seas. Sh Inn (1979, personal com""n Icatlon) obse,.....,ed loss ot zooxanthellae and, i r'I some cases, death of Acropora cervicornis at ~recian Rocks near Key largo atter 30 days of cal~ I~ August and Sept .. be~ 1978. 1-2 The ~t poorly de~loped r .. 's are found astride the middle and northern Florida ~eys. ~t the north ... n end, r .. ' de~lop ... nt appears limited by the lack of bar,.lers be'hfe.n BIscayne 9ay and t'e Ragged Keys. ",.et both petch ,. .. fs and oute,. bank r .. fs are depauperate, but become bette,. d .... ' op.d seawa,.d of Elliott Key (Me,.szalek, et al., 1977). A similar situation .xlsts south of ~ey Lar;o to Big Pine Key wh.,.e Florida Bay weters a,.e exchanged through nu ... "ous pass.s. Thus, no r .. fs or rocky shoals ar. known from Ailigato,. R •• ' to Tenness .. R •• f, and from T.nn.ss.e R •• f to Coffin's PatCh (Glnsbu"g, 19'6). The best known r .. f in this section, Alilgato,. Light, Is not .speclal Iy dl .. rs., being dominated In Its shal lows by Nillepora (Sta,.ck, 1968).1 Patch r .. f d .... 'opment is sl~lla"'Y aff.cted with only '0 known to exist In the southe,.n s.ctlon of the tract, from Ta ... rnler to Big Pin. Key (Marszal.k, .1' al., 1977). This region .xt.nds fO,. 40 p.rcent of the I.ngth of the outer reef arc from Fowey Rocks to K.y W.st, but Includ.s only about one percent of the nUllCer of patch r .. fs. Again, Incr.ased land m&ss trom 91g Pine K.y to Key West, and protection fro. cold Gulf and Say water ha ... been cited as tn. principal r.asons for Increas.s In tne number of patc~r .. fs to s .... n percent of th.r .. f tract total (Marszalek, et al., 1977). Th. best 5.,.llable temperature data for tne reef tract as a whole are 51'11 I those of Vaughan (1918) who cited the following mexlme and minima (in ·e): Sand Key (Key West) 17.9 32.2 CaFysfort ~.ef Fow.y Rocks "41 n. IS.2 30.3 Note that temp.rature dlffer.nces between r •• f ar.as along tn. re.f tract ar. sma I I. In fact, It al I of Vaughan's December, January, and February minimum temp.ratur.s (32 y~ars) at Fowey Rocks are taken Into account, a mean of 19.8!. 2.0·C (63!. 3.S0F) I s obtaIned, wh". those of Carysfort ~.ef (21 (ears) .quals 20.9 + 1.3·C (6' + 2.5°F), and Key west's (12 y.ars) are 19.6 + 1.4·C (63 + 2.6·F). While tn. - - . slgnlfJcanc. of th.s. dlfferenc.s Is debatable, an alt.rnati ... vi .. Is posslbl. If on. takes Vaugnan's ten day means of 20·C ( 68°F) as a function of total oeser ... d wlnt.r days (D.cember througn F.bruary). Carystort R •• f Fowey RockS Key w.st 40/1,620 a 2.5S of winter days <20·C 160/2,610 a 6.IS of winter days <20·C 90/1,140 a 7.9S of winter days <20·C It shoulj be noted that 30 of the 40 'days of <20·C temp.ratur. at Carysfort R •• f occurred during January, 1893. At Fow.y Rocks during thIs time, tn. minimum was 20.S·C (65·F), but mean temperatures below 20·C w.r. recorded fa,. at least a single ten day p.rlod durIng nIne of the 21 y.ars for which records w.re kept. Th. tempe,.atu,.es taken at Sand K.y (K.y West) Indicate lows In six of the 13 y.ars of data kept at that station. Thus, If the data d.plct th. real dlff.r.nces be'hfeen Ca,.ysfort R •• t, lind th. relatl ... ,y barren Fowey Rocks, It woulj 5 .... that Florida's coral 1"'" tract Is Indeed IIvll19 a p,.eca,.,ous th.rmal existence. Furth.rmore. ~Inlmum temp.rature recordS alon. do not appeal" to explain why there are ree's at Sand Key, b~t not at Fowey RockSs Although Nillepora re.fs may be consl~ered as less prolific t~an those dominated by Acropora, it Is worth noting that th. atoll~llk. str-uctl,jres of the southw.st ':arlbbean form a vl30rous NIII.pora zan., analogous to Indo-Pacific alJaI ridges (~II I I man, 1973)& At ~Iass.s R.ef, Florida, spur ar groo~ Systems ha ... formed from Acropora growth bUT ha ... become capped "Ith NIII.pora (Sh 1·:'In, 1963). This do.s not necessarily mean that ~Iass.s R •• f Is not ~rolltlc. In fact, comparatl ... studies of calcification Indlcat. that!!. cO"flanata mey grow n.a,.,y as rapidly as~. palmata and ~. c.rvlcornl~ (Gareau and Gar.au, 1959). 1-3 3o/dberg (1973) dete"lIIlned t~eratu,.e tol.rances of lorgonlans f,..om south FlorIda. Tne obs.r'4d ,..anges (IS.9.!.1.7eC to 32.2.!. I.I·C 0" about 5/ to 90'F) ".1"'. not ",nllke 1'1'105. "'.ported fo" scle,..actlnlans, altnough "Indicator" specIes "er. not suOjects ofaxpe,.i nts. Cary (1917; 1918) found tnat Brlareu", asoestlnum, an IndIcator of "el I-circulated .nvl,..onmentS .as the mest n.at r.slstant specIes. Tnls I~Iles that cl,..culatlon Is mo,.e I~rtant In tne dlst,..lbutlon of SP.CI9S than temp.rat'",,.. p'e,. se, sInce •• 1 I-cl"'culated envIronments ra,.el." d .... lop temp.,..ar, .. ,.es aOo'4 32·:. Ther~1 tolerances of ~rlceopsls flavlda, charact.rlstlc of shal low, •• 1 I-circulated r .. fs of t~. Flo,.lda I(eys, and~. p.tl la, charact.,.lstlc of deep ,.. .. fs, .ere tested I n the~lly contl"olled r:Jnn i '19 5 •••• 1'.,. aqu.,.la (flow ,..ate • 48L hr- I ) by Goldberg (1979, p.,..sonal communicatIon). Colonies of ~ot~ sp.cles expoSed to 31'C (SseF) for 24 hours survl'4d, but .xposur. to 32 to 33"C (90 to 92'F) for r,e same ti p.rlod (dlff.ren.t colonies) "as I.thal. ,",U,.'cecpsls fl.vld •• ItnstOOd 24 1I0u'" exposura ~~ 15"C (51'F) :lut at IS"C (60"F) reco'4"'y took 17 days; polyps •• r. "bleacned" frem loss of ZOOlC2lnr'e; I"e and colonies suffered partIal ,.crosls. ~s axp.cted,~. p.tlla ".5 mo,.. tolerant of low temp."'at~ras. ·'Jnl." on. of sIx colonies died at 14·C (57"F), as did two of sIx colonies exPOSed to 12.S·C C54·F). This was 1'1'1. lo •• st t.mpe,.atur. t.sted. Llk. some of 1'1'1. scl.ractlnlans noted aoo'4, some gorgonlan sp.cles occu,. In nonr .. f environments. Pte"ogorgl. cItrin., PI.xaurella dlchotome, Plexaurella nutans and Eunlcea knlghtl, fo" .xample. occur In alscayne 3ay (3ay.r, 1961) and can be exp.cted to be mere tol.,.ant than those sp.cles .nlcn ha'4 been tested to date. Water temperatu"e changes associated .11'1'1 .,,'~t.,.. •• at~er patterns natu,.al Iy 51'''' .. 5 corals t,roughout 1'''. '!!anagement area. ~pparen-rl ", coral atjQ SOIl'e of tn. banks I" t"e no,.thw.st.,.n Gu I f of "'ex I co (<:Io"er 3ardens. St.tson, Sonnier) ara prot9cted from cold water Int,..uslon Oy 1'1'1. warm .are,. ,'MIsses ~Iowl'g nortnward. :orals In tne Florida "'iddl. Grounds are shl.'ded by th.lr d.pths. rh. Florija Keys, 1'10 •• '41"'. ar. sufflcl.ntl." snallo. to expos. corals to fluctuating temp.,.atur.s .I'Ilcl'l may approacl'l tne tner~1 extremes stated abo'4. 'Jccaslonally, cold fronts .11 I sw.ep o~,. tn. I(.ys or jri'4 cold Florida aay waters sout, and east .n.raupon ~ssl~ kil Is can occu,.. DaviS (1979, p.rsonal communication) 9stl~tecl tnat 1'1'1. a~trame cold of January 1977 kil I.d over 90 p.rc.nt of 1'1'1. st~no,..n corals (Acropora c.,. vi corn I 5) at :;ry Tortugas .1'1 II. most ",nbrandled corals su,. vi 'ACt tne 14·C (SS·F) .aters. lo4uason,.t al. (1976) recorded an 80 to 90 perc.nt .'II)r"tallty of 1'1'1. Hen and Cllicken ;:Iatcn raefs of tn. Florida <.ys du,.'ng til. "Inte,. of 1969 to 1970 "h.n al~ temp.ratur.s ~ropP.d t~ :3'C (57"F). ''301::lbe~g (1973b) ;:lubllshed data on te~.rat, .. re 4nd salinity tolerances of ~e.f-dw.lling gorgonlans oft til. coast ~f =Iorlda. Gorgonlans .er. foun~ witi'll' a ,..ange ~f ~oout IS.geC to 32.Z"C. On. of til. diagnostIc ,...sponses of corals t~ IIeat ~r col~ 15 "bl.adllng". 1'1'1 •• xpulslon of zooxantll.lla •• In laDaratory studi.s, tn. raef sp.cl.s Murlceopsls flavl~a and!L. p."tlla became bl.ached upOn exposure to temperatures of 32 to 33'C and 1,'C for 24 nours (~Idberg, 1979, p.rsonal communication). Jaap (1979) obs.r~d zoox3n~"el lae axpulslon I, ,..esponse t~ hIgh temperature shocK i, Millepora complanta (.ncrustlng fIre coral), ~aly"thoa sP., Acropora palmeta (.I~ho~n), and ~ntast,..ea annularls (smell sta,. coral) to ~rylng ext~nts. "3oldberg and Jaap repor"ted ,..eco~ry (In ~rylng aegr •• s of tissue d.ath or n.crosls) in 17 jays and about six " •• ks, ~espeC"ti¥8lf. rller. a,... no ~ata on th.~1 lImIts I, t~. ~ntl;:latharla. ~w .... r, 1'1'1.1,.. distrIbutIon would lead ~ne to suspect that tn.y ar. '.55 tol.,..ant ~f ~i~n t9rnp.rat~res and more tol.rant of low.r on.s, compared .Ith shal low, r •• f-d •• , ling scl.r4ctlnl~ns 3nd ~o~gonlans. 1.4 Salinity r"e effects of s~llnlty ~esembl9 t"ose of t~moerarure lIsted abo~; some c~rals may be expected to oe euryhallne (e.g., P1'e,.ogorgla cltrlna, Plexaurella dlcho"tome, Plexau,..l.Ia nu"tans, and Eunlc.a knlgntl 1-4 as Judged by th.'r distribution In Blscayn. Bay (Say.r, 1961)1 .hl,. ot~ers. notably c~al F .. t s~cl", 1'111"1 ... only In envlron nts .Ith normal .allnltles. Work by Vaughan (1916) and .... , Is (1932) snowed most cora's 1'0 t. stel'lol'la/l n •• For IIIOst of th. study arN, salinity .xtr ... s ar. not I~rtant, although rl ... r autflow ( •• g., po" tlons of •• st and"northw.st FlorIda, th. ~Isslsslppl ~.'ta region and tn. eap.s of ~rtn CarolIna) .111 certainly .xclud. most of th. species .hlen mIght otn.rwlse occur. In Blscayn. Bay, fr.sn .at.,. up •• ,llng n.ar snore ap~r.ntly limits tne distribution of s .... ral ,..'atl ... ,y tol.rant co"als suen as Slderastr .. and Solenastr .. (~oI'Iout and Kollplnskl, 1967). Th •• xtraordlnary s.'lnlty (and turbl~I~ te.p.ratur.) .xtr ... s found In Lagun. Madr., T.xas (~., 1963) (sometl ... s .xc.edlng 80 ppt) na~ al30 pr .... nted coral d .... ,op ... nt altnough s.rpulld (.arm) r .. fs may be found In tn.'r plac. (And""s, 19641. T~. only study on salinity tol.rances of octoc~als Is that of Goldberg (1973b) who concluded that ;o"gonlans ar. so .... n.t 111)". st.nol'l.,ln. tnan scl.ractlnl.n co,..,s. Con ... rs.'.y, B.y.,. (1961) noted tn.t L.ptogorgla setae .. may Inhabit botn op.n oc.an and .stua,.'n. ar.as .h.r. salinities of 17.2 p.rts per tnousand are found. L.ptogorgla vlrgul.t. Is also known to be euryhalln., .,though probably not to th. d.gr .. att.'ned by 1:,. s.tac •• cSay.r, 1961). Tn. I~acts of both hyper- and hypo-salin ••• t.rs on corals Is r.vlewed by Joh.nnes (1975). Gen.ral'Y, •• ters .hlell r.aell 150 p.rcent ~f tn. normal .alt.cont.nt (such as d.s.'lnatlon pl.nt .ff/u.nt) may be toxic to corals .... n .It~ only short~t.rm .xposur. (Edmondson, 1928). R.spons.s to tn. st,.ess ar. specles-sp.elfle. Tne ,..s~ns. of corals to desalInation .ff/u.nts must consld.,. the p,..s.nc. of n •• vy ... ta/s such as nlck.I and copp.r In th •• fflu.nt. Ch.Sher (197') r.vlew.d tn.· blo/ogle.' Impact of a d.sallnatlon plant In K.y w •• t, Florida. Low salinIty •• t.rs cr •• ted by Inc,.eased I.nd run-off (vI. bad land manag .... nt) 0,. storms appears tolerabl. by 111)51' Atl.ntle corals at 50 p.,.cent ~f normal (Joh.nn •• , 1975)8 Howe ... r, ·Jonann.s dl~ clt.s .... r., Incld.nts of n •• vy ,.alns d.stroylng coral r .. fs. Usually, 5 .... 1'.,. diluted by h.avy raJnfal1 probably Inflicts only short-t.rm. non'etn., stress to sub ... rg.d co"als. Transported Sed/ nts, no ..... r. 1liiY bury tn.o;'ganlsma. ~ntlp.tna"'ans appear to be strictly limited to op.n ocean condItions. Salinity toleranc.s of tn.se animals probably ¥ery accordingly ./thougn tn.r. nas be.n no study of this to dat •• 1.5 Ecological R.'atlonshlp' ~"ed.tlon Is. natural compon.nt of coral systems. Sp.c/es of flsll suen as trigger fish (Sa/lstld •• ). fl1.flsll (~noc.ntll/dae), puff.rs (T.traodontlda.l. butt.rf/yt/sll (Searlda.), and parrottlsn (Cha.todontldae) t.ed directly upon coral polyps and, In doing so, d.mege th. ca"bonat.sk.,.tons (R.nda/', 1974). Although til. trequency of tn.s. attacks may be low, tn. r.sultant Injury provld.s an .ntrance to dls.as. and algal Inf.statlon. Fish may also graze upon .'48' zan •• on eor.'s, •• go, tne I.afy a/g •• zan. atop· East Flow.r ~ard.n oank. or oth.r h.~d surface. (Hiatt and StraSburg, 1960). Otll.r coral ,. .. f predators Includ. startlsn, polyCII •• t •• , ~.strapods. crustacea, and s •• urchins Cs •• Appendix H). Corals are also SUSC:8Cltlbl. to "poisoning" by t~xlc plankton blooms. Sh.,f cOlllmunltl.s oft tn ••• 51' :.ntr.' coast ~f Florida •• r. d.¥est!ted ~y a ,..ed tid. of tne dlnoflag.,lat. GYIIIIOdlnium ~ (9rl;nr and Jaap, In p,..SS). Smith (1975) st!ted t'at exposure to t~. toxicants of a red tid. can caus. extl~atlon of coral cOlllmunltles. In addition to the toxic substances I~ red tId. organisms, !n alJ!1 bloom also chang.s dlssol~d oxy~.n ',~'s; .at.rs may become anoxic at nl;ht or .h.n tn. tId. unde"'· ;0.5 a na"flJr a I d.e II n •• 2. ContaminatIon of Ocean Wate~s "ny pe~son who dlscha~ges o~ganl= rnatte~ Includl'g sewage and j,dust:-Ial was~as ;,.J -~9 wate~s ot the state .hlch darrege tlSh, shelltlsh and aquatIc ani-nals i'di;enOl..s·~ ,Jr" :e::e~­ jent ~ri t"'e r"ecelvl"g wate~s, snail be Ifabla t~ t,e stata t~~ s-.lch cramagas as....ay Je :r"J~: (48-1-13(011. Tha ~,Jllutlon ot "ata~ by 011 and gas Is s;)acitkally p~~i:liteo. 3. ~se ot ~olson, Electr"lcltv o~ ~xoloslves :-he use ot ;)01 sons, alacTr"lcal cUr":-ants. physical shockS, p~ess~es, :li st'''r'':lances, ~'f"dmi -a, ;un "owoar", I I;';' o~ any ot"'a~ axpl·,s i \195 to taka t ish I s p~on 101 ted (SO-l ~ i 420 d1a : ,14;; • (cl ~aoitat ~r"otaction ~:-ogr"ams 'er"itage Jr"eser"\I9s 'TIi!Iy Je establlsheO pursuant to t,e o;eritage Tr"ust ~rogram for" tne Dr"otaction ot '1atural areas or teat'Jres. ~atural 5r"eaS are detlned to Include 3r"eas ot .atar w"!~~ :::on~5i' .Jni~ue animal I'labltat. "Iat.Jral taat'Jr"es are defIned to Includa "outstandl:'lg r"etIIlants Or" 'atJr31 elaments ot i-.lr"vl ving undi st'Jrbed r'IatJral ecosystems" (51-17-10). (j) :.;:)ashl Zone I.lanagament l.ut'1or"i ties 1. ~ctlvities Aftectin; ~i 10lite ane ~is"eries ~ :oa3t51 Zona l.lanage'Tl9nt ::l:-.ogr3m ~as been adopted by t,e l-egi slatura and t~e '3c',er"'cr". ~c:::or::i"g t, ""a ::r"::lOos-e-:l :r"ogram, 3c-i,';ties oc:::urr"i;,; "it'll, t'1a coastal zo.,e ,,'1'::n rec;: .. '-a 3 :9r"'!1lt Jr a certifi:a"i::n .-~ t~e ;.;)ut1 :3rolina:.;:)aiT31 :ounci I, ."1:" ar"a ·Je-~r"."i'ec :1 t'e :-ounci I to ha\19 ~ s;;n; t i :::ar'l- 'agati \19 i -noact on "i I j I I fe or f i s"ar"1 es :"'asour":es, .;.! ~~t je 3Jor0\l90 'Jnless O':'9r"riji'9 50ci,ecol1omi: cOl1si:::er"atiol1s ar"e i'loOllI8d (::lr"JPoseo 3.;:)ut, ·:ar" 0 I ina :oastal I.lanagement ~rogrilm and Jr"aft ~IS, J. II i-51). 2. :r"eoge and ~ill ActIvitIes ." "er~j t f:-om t"e Council Is req u i"eeI ~~r 31 I jr"ea-;e or" til I 3Ct i vi t i as ilnd ~or -"e 9r"ect i,n JT 3ny' s·~uct·Jr"e 011 Or" .1'11.:;" In a:1y way a!tars ~nl :r"iti~al 3raa ~~d-3;-f30(:)I. :~I.;ncii ~,"I-eS ;:r"o"ije tnat attention:la o]i\l9n I, ~'e avaIJatiol1:Jt ~ot9n·iill sitas for Jrec;-ed 'M·~"ial ::!isposal to "poSsl:'le ilo',er"se i"1Qacts on ••• crit'ical fi3n ano .ilJiifa 3r"aas" ; oJ. 3.;"12 ( I ) I. Se\l9",3! ':3~egorles of JA;:O'.:'S 'l'ICIf :::a ;es; ;nated "urS-.lan~ ~, .. ..,a ::lr"JOosaa Sout' :arol i 1a :oastal "'a.,agell8nt ~ro.;r"am. vo:a3)1' ni~ua nat~r31 -esource.'3!Je i,c:Joe SCdr"ce Jr" \I1J:.,e"aole naoltats and livi'g ....ar"i'8 :-esour"ces. ~ri:Jrities.;:)f .. sas ,~r"e ast30llsnec "or adC:1 area sOJasi~natea. "1anage~nt ~,:-i ,ities ar"e cOl1ouc'!'ao t~rou',;" 3a';9r"dl ::iffer"anT ;r"O<;;r"atTIS, incl;.lOi1g: ,eritaga ::res9r"~s, ,,;:::i'9 preser"ves, S1'3·9 ;arO(s, 'Ilar"i"e a:1o estJdr";,a Sdn:::'!' .. arl as an;: snail f i sn areai. ::l) Incl::lental ::lr"otection .-:3 1. Regulation of Flsherle. Fo~ the p~pose of regulating shrlmplng activities In the wate~s of the state, a dIstInctIon Is made betw .. n Inside and outside waters. Inside waters Inelude al I bodl.s of water land ward of the Gulf of Mexleo. Outside wat~s are closed to sh~lmplng (fo~ a 45-day period), from June 1 to July 15, which may be extended by the ParkS and Wildlife Commission to no more than 66 days (Parks and Wildlife (i77.061). The legal shrimp count for outside waters Is not mo~e than 65 headless o~ 39 heads-on shrimp per pound. There are no restrictions on tne number or size of trawls used tor shrlmplng In outside .ate~s. ~sh size may not be smaller than f I I.e stret:ched meshes In el ght and thr .... tourths I nches of net and try nets may not exceed twel~ feet In width (Parks and Wlldllf. Code i77.063). 2. Contamination ot Ocean Waters A permit Issued by the Texas Water Commission Is required before any diSCharge of waste, Including oil, can be made Into the Gulf of ~xlco Inside the territorial limits ot the state (~ater Code i26.121). Whenel.er It appears that a violation or a th~ .. t of violation of this provision has occurred that atfects aquatic Ilf. or wlldllf •• the Parks and Wildlife Department may ha~ a suit Instituted for Injunctll.e r.llef or civil penalty. 3. Use of EI.ctroshock The use of electroshock for the taking of fish Is prohibited (Parks and Wildlife Code i 66.004). 4. Dredg. and Fill Actlvltl.s A permit must be obtal,ed trom the Parks and Wildlife Department to operate In or dIsturb any oyster bed or fishing water for any purpose ot~er than that necessary or incidental to navi gation or dredlng permitted by the states (Parks and Wildlife Code §86.002). Any activity. IncludIng dredging and dredge material jisposal, occurring on state public lands, Including submerged lands, requires a permit from the General Land Office. Pe~mlts wll I be granted only If It Is dete~mlned that al I types of merlne life and wildlife can be protected (~at. Res. Code i33.001-.176)5 [c) Habitat ~rotectlon Programs = None applicable ld) Coastal Zone Management Authorities A revised Hearing Draft of the Texas Coastal ~nagement Program has been completed, but not yet submitted tor approl.el. Pursuant to this Program, the Natural Resources Council will seek nomi nations fo~ areas of particular concern cTexas Coastal ~nagement ~rogram. Revised Hearing Oraft, p. 249). In addition, coastal public landS may be leased by tne General Land Office to the Department of ~arks and Wildlife as a maans tor these lands to be desl;nated areas for preser ¥atlon and restoration (~at. Res. Code i33.I05). In neither case Is It clear wnether submar;ed lands are eligible for designation. ' 1"1 AS noted In the follo-Ing dIscussIon on gas seeps, flla~ntous alJa. ~y Infest ulcers of corals suo jected t~ natural gas.(Brlght, 1977). Other alJee, ~otably the blue-green asciI latoria submembranacea, ha~ be.n associated with coral mortalities In Florida (Antonius, 1973, 1976). ~ ~wnlte death" patnogen (~unstan, 1977) nas been described i~ FlorIda Out Its significance or cause ~as nof been elucidated (3rlght and Jaap, In press). AI~ae ~y also cause ~umors In the sea fans ~r;onia ~ntal Ina, Pseudoplexaura flagellosa, Plexaura homomal la, and related gorgonlans (~orse, et ~I., :977; ~o I joerg, I 9 79,~ersona I comlllJn I cat Ion). SedImentation The effect of sedl~ntatlon as a control of coral growth, particularly after storms (see also ~n­ I:lduced Sedl~ntatlon, discussed in Section 6.2.2), has been studied sl"ce the turn of the cent· .. rf (Stoddart, 1969). Certain corals /lilly, howe~r, grow e~n In muddy surroundings (Jlli)groll8, 1929; Shl:ln, 1979, personal comlllJnlcatlon). It Is ~nown that branching corals are better aOle to wit~stano sedl~ntatlon than hemispherical forms (Stoddart, 1969). Such corals of the genus Ocul Ina are otten found in turOlj water conditions. Ocul Ina dlffusa (Atlantic cluster coral), for example, appears to survlll8 on unconsolIdated substrates adjacent to reef areas, rather than the reef Itself. Ocul Ina varlcosa whIch Inhabits the turbl·j continental shelf of central and northeast Florida, Is often t,e only scleractlnlan to be found (~Ijberg, 1979, ~ersonal comlllJnlcatlon). Branching gorgonlan corals otten dominate reef areas subject to heavy siltation ('=ourtenay, et al., 1974); Srlght (1977) com ~nt9d t'at members of the antlpatharlan zone are adapted to turold water conditions on the ;out, Texas fishing banks. Although these conditions cannot be thought of as an optllllJm for any specIes, coral domInance In certain areas can be at least partially explained by reslst.nce to turOljity and Sadi mentation. In portions of the I!Ii!Inagement area, sabellarlld wo"'l\S form "worm reefs" tnat function as a t'Jrbij .aTer extension of :oral reef ecosystems (30re, et al., 1978). Gas Seeps Slegenic and petregenlc natural gas seaps of ~thane, ethane, and propane ha~ been obser~d at ~ny of the harj banks off the coast of Texas and Louisiana, e.g., Fishnet, 28 Fathom, East and ~est ~Iower ~ardens, Soutnern, ~ospltal, and 9aker Sanks (see Figure 5-2) (Bright and Jaap, In press; 3ri;ht, 1977) and elsewhere In the Gulf of l.4exlco (Texas A&M ~nl~rslty, no oate). Ecological studies of corals ~ear seeps appear to Indicate that no large seal. 1.'l'4lacts are occurring, althougn one nead ::If ~ontastrea annularls (smel I star coral) at 25 m (82 ft), on ~est Flower ~arjen aank was jiscolored light brown, ulcerated, and ringed .Ith a filamentous alJa (9right, 1977). In most cases, corals appear to II~ coincidentally with seeps. Seeps of petregenlc gas and 011 are common on harj banks because of the geological structure of ~~e salt domes and r,elr capabilIty to trap petroleum reser~l~s. Slow 3nd constant ~eleases from t~ose underground ~ockets has been estl~t8d by 'bbott and 9rlght (1975) to contribute 200 to 600 mil Ifon cubic meters of ~as to the ater column each '(ear 3t :ast I: I ower 3arjen 9ank alone. Oil seeps 3re also common ~ut contribute far less ~Iume of ~etrol.um. :Jesplte t"e enormity of gas escapes, "at:Jral ;ases from ~etrol~um or ~i·~enlc degradation ha~ :>een consljered nonpollutants. Corals and ot"er I'lardbank bIota may I., f~ct oe tolerant to t"e cnronic exposure le~1 s. 1-6 · 1 APPENDIX J. STATE LAWS, REGULATIONS, AKJ POLICIES II'«)IRECTLY RELATED TO C~L RESOIR:ES Alaba" - (al I citations to Code of Alabama) Ca) Direct Coral ~rotectlon - Non. (b) Indirect ~rQtectlon I. RegUlation of Flsherl.s Llcens.s are requl~ed for the us. of s.lnes and trawls for the taking of shrimp (9-12-92). F •• s for licenses according to the I.ngth of th. n.t or seln. (9-12-113). ~.rmlssabl. masn size for seines,. nets. or t~awls are pr.scrlbed by the D.partment ofCons.r ... tlon and Natural qesources (9-12-110). L.ad Iln.s for se/n.s. nets, and trawls may nat .xceed 500 fathoms (900 m or 3.000 ft). For shrimp t~o!IWls this measurement Is taken along th. cork lin. ~atne~ than the I.ad lin. (9-12-111). Shrlmplng Is prohibited completely from PortersvIlle and H.ron Bays (Alabama ~arln. Resourc.s Regs. SS3 and 4). 2. ContamInation of Ocean Waters Th. ~Iabema ~at.r Quality Crlt.rla Include special water use classification for shellfIsh nar ... stlng and fish and wildlife which ~equlre that higher standards of water quality. suf fIcient for those purpos.s, be met In areas so classified. Th. Water POllutIon Cont~ol Act contains no sp.c/al provIsions for the pr .... nt/on of dIscharges of 011 Into ocean waters. ee) Habitat ~anagement or ~~otectlon P~ograms - None applIcable e d) Coastal Zone ~anag.mant Author! t I 8S I. The ~Iabema Coastal ~r.a ~~ot9Ctlon Act does not Include dredge and fll I activities In the coastal area as a permlssabl. us. (9-7-13). Therefore such activIties are subj.ct to tne manag.ment authority of the Coastal Ar.a Soard. The final coastal plan as released In ~ugust, 1978. 2. Th. fInal draft for the Alabama Coastal Area Management Qrogram (August 1979) Ilsts·al I open Gulf waters and certain beys as G.ograph/c ~reas of ~artlcular :oncern. Us.s gl~n hl~hest priority pursuant to this deSignation Include those that pr.s.r .... protect, or enhance the eoastal waters and those that are depend.nt upon coastal waters and do not degrade coastal wat.rs beyond existing le~ls. Uses that jegrad. coastal water ~uallty beyond existing le~/s are prohibited (p. 43). Florida - (all citations to Florida Statut.s Annotated) (a) qlrect Coral ~rotectlon - se. text In Section 7.40 (b) Indl~ect ~rotect/on I. RegulatIon of Fisheries ~erm/ts are requl~ed to fish for either cOIIIlIIJrc/al or bait shrimp. Due to t~ • ..erled habi tats and types of bottoms. and hyd~ograpnl: conditions found In open areas of coastal .ate~s, the ~Iv/slon of ~rlne Resources rese~ ... s tne authority to sp.clfy and ~egulat. the types of gear that may be used In different sections of the open areas 1§370.15(5)(a)J. with certai~ exceptions, th.se regulatIons are Site-specific to such an extent that ;.neral statements J-l concerning the type of gear that ~y be al lowed In coral habitat are ImpossIble. Sreedl~g ar .. s are provided specIal protectIon. Any area where t,e shrImp count re~als a ~redo~j­ nance of "s.,1 sllrl,.., or prawn," defIned as 47 shrImps wltll the headS, or 70 wltn t"e neadS off to make a pound, sllal I be desIgnated a sanctuary area and closed to t~e takIng of s~rlmo (B70.15C2) and (3)1. Special rules regardIng gear and seasons ha~ been '''stituted i . ., cer tain areas wlllcll lIa ... been determined to contain partIcularly \l8luable resources. Of ;;ar tlcular lmoortance to the ~rotectlon of coral are the Tortugas shrimp oeds, .nlch are closed to sllrlmplng at al I tlmas. 2. Use of Explosl~s, Poisons, Drugs, or Che~Icals Throwing dynam.lte, lime, ot,er exploslll8s Into the waters of FlorIda or us. of any flrear'!lS .hatso .... r for the purpose of ~II ling fish 15 prohibIted. ~olsons, drugs or ot'.r cne~j:ars may not be placed In the marin •• aters of ,=-Iorlda for the purpose of capturIng II .... TIi!Irlne speclmans 'thout a permit fr~ tne Jivlslon of ~arlne ~esources (~370.0a(5) and (lOll. 3. Conta~Inatlon of Ocean Waters The discharge of any pollutant Into t,e coastal waters of ~Iorlda Is prohibIted (S375.041). The dlscharg. of 011 Into any saltwaters of the state from any source Is sp.clflcal Iy pronlo I ted (§370.09). ~ursuant to FlorIda water qualIty standards, the hlgllest protection Is afford.d to "outstanding Florida .aters." It Is not known at the present time exactly what standards wll I oe applIed to such areas. Waters In national parkS, monuments, wildlife refUges and marine sanctuaries, state parkS, recreation areas, and aquatic preserll8s, and special .aters of ecological sIgnificance are considered outstanding waters. As mentioned In Section 5.4 se\l8ral such areas ha .... been established In Florida waters for the protection of :oral (17 Florida Admin. Code S3.041). 4. Regulation ot Dredge and Fill ActivIties All persons engaging In dredge and fll I activities In t~e bottom lands of Florida must obtain a certificate of registration from the Jepartmant of ~atural ~esources and keep accurate logs and records of al I sucll activities so t~at the natural resources may be protected and con ser .... d (,370.03). (cl Habitat ~rotectlon Programs I. Aquatic Preser ... s As diSCUSSed In SectIon 6.4, tile Florida Aquatic ?reserY8S Act of 1975 authorizes the per manent pr.serll8tlon of submerged landS of exceptIonal biologIcal, aesth.tlc or scientific \l8lu. 0258.35). Regulations are de .... ,~ed for eacll preserll8 to protect water quality and aquatic resources. Three areas of the Florida Keys desl;nated as aquatic pr.s.r ... s IncllJde lmoortant coral habitat: 3iscayne Say, Coupon 3i311t, and LI3numvltae Key. ~egulations ha\18 been promul3ated for one of tnese preserll8S, the Siscayne 3ay Aquatic Preserll8. wltnl, tne 91scayne Say Aquatic Preser ... Jredglng or filling Is allowed only If certain strlr'lgent:on dltlons are met and discharges of astes are ~ronlblted (S258.165). J-Z 2. Ar ... of Critical Stete Concern The stete plennlng agency may deslgnete areas containing environmenTal or natural resources of regional or stat .. lde Importance as ar .. s of critical state concern for wnlch sp.clal pro tection III be provided (§380.05). As of the pr.sent no areas containing coral habitat ha'" been so deSignated. 3. Environmentally Endanger.d Lands Th. Issuance of state lands for state capital projects for .nvlronmental Iy endang.red lands Is provided for by tne Land Conser~tlon Act of 1972 C§259). Such capital projects II I ha ... as their purpose the prot.ctlon of environmentally unique and Irreplac.able lands as ~Iu.d .cologlcal r.sourc.s. Eligible types of lands Include "ar .. s'of·.cologlca' sl;nlfl canc. tn. d.~lopment of hlch oul~ caus. the d.terloratlon of submerged lands." 4. John P.nnekamp Coral R .. f Stat. Park - Se. Sections 6.4 and 7.4.2. (d) Coastal Zone Manag.ment AuthoritIes Coral reefs are listed as a unique .nvlronmental f.atur. and therefor. classified as a pot.ntlal ar .. of particular concern by the FlorIda Coastal ~nag.ment Program (Leglslatl~ Draft, 3/1/78, p.43). Hlgh.ST priorIty In this type of ar .. of partIcular concern w" I be placed on non Intensl ... uses that are water dep.nd.nt and maIntain natural features. The Florida Coastal ~anagement orogram H.arlng Draft of August 1980, Id.ntlfles problems and Issues related to the FlorIda r .. f tract. It r.commends tul I utilization of tn. existing state Interagency Manag.men' :ommltt .. to examine coral r •• f manag.ment Issues and to make recommendations for tne reSOlutlo. of those Issues. It also r.commends ful I utIlizatIon of CZM funding to assist the Florida O.partment of ~atural R.sources In Improving state capability for d .... ,op,ng specific cooperati~ management programs In th. FlorIda reet tract. GeorgIa - (all cItatIons ar. to GeorgIa Cod. Annotated) (a) alrect Coral Protection - None eb) Indirect Prot.ctlon I. RegulatIon ot Flsherle. Offshore ar .. s maybe opened for shrlmplng by the Coastal Resources Division of th.O.partment of ~atural Resources from June I tnrough December 31 of each year, provided that th. shrimp count Is 45 or less to the pound Ith heads on. If the shrimp count does not exceed 50 during the month. of January and February, an additional open season may be declared8 Offshore w.ters are permanently closed at other times. Power drawn nets used for commercIal shrlmplng may not exceed 20 feet at the widest part of its moutn. ~ othe" restrIctions on net length or mesh size appeer In the Georgia code (45-902). 2. Use of Flreerms, Electricity, Explosl ... s, or Poisons Th. use of flr .. rms, batteries, 3en.rators or slmll.r devIces. or any dynamite, explosl ... s or other destructl ... substances, IncludIng poIsons. walnut hul Is. and "me, for the purposes of catching, ~II II~g, taking, or harming fish Is prohIbIted (4'-711). J-3 Cd) Coastal Zone ~anag.mant Autho~ltl.s ;:Iu~suant to the Coastal ~etl ands ~~otect Ion Law pe~ml ts a~e ~8Qul,.ed to~ the d"edge ~nCl t II I act I vi tIes I n the coasta I zone (49-27-1). ::Ie~to~l'IIitnce standa~dS to~these ac1' I vI tIes "II I De ~e~/~ped as pa~t ot' the coastal manag.ment plan cu~~ently being p~epa~ed. So~th Ca~ol Ina· (al I citatIons to No~1'h Ca~ollna Gene~al Statu1'es) (a) J i ,.ect ,:o~a I ~"otect ion - ~one (b) Indi,.ect ~rotection 1. ~e9u/a1'/on 01' F'lshe~/es Trawl ,1ets ~ene"al/y :TBy ~ used t~~ taking sh~l~ In the Atlantic Ocean (IS No~1'h Ca,.~"na AdmIn. :ooe 38/.0305). In certa I., a~eas 01' ocean wa1'e~s the us. of trawl n.ts I s p~on I bl ted altoget'e,. and i1 ot,e,.s it Is only pe,.mltted du~lng ce~taln times ot th. yea~ (IS No~1'n Ca,.o II;"Ia Admi n. ':Od8 38/.0402). In ot,er a~eas the tak '''g 01' sh~ I ~ by any met~d whatsoe~" is prohibited. Sh~l~ ~y be taken by the use of a buttertly net or float net only In areas desl;nated by, and with a pe~mlt Issued by, the S.c~eta~y of the O.partment of ~at~~al ~esources and Community De~l~mant. Oates fo~ opening the season for the taking 01' Sh~lmp t,,.oygh the use ~t1ets are set by the Sec~.tary (15 North Carolina Admin. Code 38/.0701). Seasons .11 I ~~y trom year t~ yea,. and place to place. It any shrl~ count ~e~a/s a P,.edom I.,ance 01' "nde~slzed Sh,.,mp or ju~nlles In pa~tlcular populations, wat.~s may be clOSed t~ 5,rl ,'T1J I ng and/~" tl'1e '-J sa 01' traw I S t~r as long as the 5ec~etary deems ad vi sab Ie to~ the pr~ taction 01' such populations (IS No~1'h Ca~olfna Admin. :ode 313/.0702). It Is unlawbl to ~aKe s hr i mp by tl'le use 01' a net wi th a mas h 19n91'h I es s than one and one-ha I t Indies 0" to 'J se 3 " et .1'1 i eh c~nta 11S an i,ner or outer II ne~ (1 5 No~th Ca~o If na Adml n. Code 313/.070 I( c) J. 2. Contaml nat I on 01' Ocean 'f'late~s The discharge 01' .astes Into t~e open wate~s 01' the Atlantic Oc.an .. Ithln the ju~ISdictlon 01' tne S1'ate, except pu~suant to a p.~mlt Issued by the Envl"onmental ~nagement Commission, is p,.onlblted (143-214.2). The dlscharg. 01' 011 Into the .ate~s 01' the stat. Is specltlcal Iy p,.onlblted (143-215.83). The p.rson dlscha~glng tne 011 Is ,.espanslble to~ conducting cleanup ~pe,.atlons and liable to~ any damage caused by Its dlschal"'ge (143-215.84 and 215.90;. 3. Dl"'edge and FII I ActivitIes Applications fo~ p.~mlts to dl"'edge o~ tIll In estua~lne .ate~s shall be d.nled it It is detel"'mi1ed by the Oepal"'1'mant 01' ~at'Jral ~esouI"'C.S and CommunIty O .... ,opment that thel"'e .111 be a si;nrtlcant ad"'l"'se effect '::In "iI~/lte ••• o~ est'Ja~ln. or ma~ln. tlsh.~I.s (113-229(e) (5) J. 4. Use of ~olsons, Ol"'ugs, Explosl~s ~I'" Electl"'lclty The use 01' poIsons, ~I"'ugs, explosl~s O~ el.ctl"'lclty to take any tlsh Is p~onlblted ( 11.3-262). (el ~abltat ::Il"'otectlon ?I"'ogl"'ams J-6 ) 1. Research Senc~u.rle. Coastal fishIng w.ters may be closed by the Secretary of ~atYral ~esources and Community Oe~lop~nt, upon the advice of the Director of the DivIsIon of ~rlne Fisheries, with respect to taking any or all kIndS of merlne or estuarIne resources and with respect to using any kInd of equlp~nt (IS North CarOlIna Admin. Code 38/.0111). Such areas COUlj be establl,hed for the conduc~ of coral research, and sanctuaries establIshed for research con cerning other resources could Indirectly protect cor~l. 2. Nursery Areas Nursery areas may be established to protect fragile estuarIne areas which support ju~nll. populatIons of"~onomlcal Iy Important seafood species. In order to protect tne Integrity of nursery areas, the use of bOttom-disturbing flshl~g gears, trawls, and dredges Is prohl~lted (15 North Carolina Admin. Code 313/.1401). J. Und~water State Parks The MarIne FIsherIes CommiSSIon has passed a regulation endorsing the concept of underwater state parkS. " Remo¥ll and destruction of plants and anImals would be prohIbited In such parks~ ~ actIon has been taken on this resolution on the depart~ntal le~1 as of the pre sent tl~ (Hall, 1978, personal communication). (d) Coastal Zone Manage~nt Authorities The North CarolIna Coastal ~anagement ~rogram has been appro~d by the federal Office of Coast~ Zone M.nage~nt. With appro~I, North Carolina ree.'~s Section J06 funding for coastal programs. The Coastal ~reas ~.nagement ~ct ~rovl1es for the designation of Areas of EnvIronmental Concern. A permit must be Issued by the'Coastal ~esources CommiSSIon before al I but certain exempted actlvl o ties can be conducted and appropriate standards ~st be compiled wl~h. Se~ral different types of ~EC's may be deSignated for which different standards of performance would be established CIIJA-113). The Marine FIsherIes Commission has recommended that at least four underwater areas IdentIfIed as containing signIficant coral and/or sponge resources be deSignated as "fragile eoastal natural resource areas." The Coastal ~esourc.s COmmIssIon has yet to act on this recom mendation (Hal I, 1978, personal communication). South CarOlina - (al I cItatIons to South Carolina Code) Ca) Olrect Coral Qrotectlon - None (b) Indirect P~otectlon 1. RegulatIon of Flsh.rles It Is unlawful to trawl for shrimp except In established legal trawling areas In the Atlantic and In certain sounds and bays (50-17-1610). Except for designated sounds and bays, trawling Is proh I bl ted In 1 ns I de .aters, I nc I 'Jdl ng se~ra I estuar I ne areas where II ~ bottoms are known to exist (Searden, 1979, personal communication). Seasons for trawling for Shrimp within the statutory areas may be set by the Division of ~arlne Resources (50-17-1510 and 1520). Seines and trawl nets uSed for shrimp or prawn may not have a mesh size of less t,an one-half Inen nylon twine (square mesh) or nine-sixteenthS Inch cotton cord (square mesn) ~nd may not exceed 40 feet In length (50-17-1020)0 J-7 3. Contamination of Ocean Waters T~e Georgia Water QualIty CrIterIa Include a water use classIfIcatIon for fisn, shellfisn, and aqua'tlc lIfe. whIch require that hl;ner standardS of "ater quality, sutticlent for t"'el~ survl-.el, be IIItt In areas so classIfied. There are no specIal ;lrovlslons for tr'le pre>4ntion of jlsehar;es of all Into ocean "aters. 4. Dredge and FII I ~c'tlvltles Dredge. fll I, remo.el, or drai'age or ot,er alteratIons of narshlands .itnl, t'e estuari,e area of ~eorgla wit~ut a permit from the Departilltnt ~f ~atural ~esources Is pronioited C43-120). 0erMits are :;ranted only after a determination that the prOPOSed actIvity wll I 10t jal1l!lge rnarsh I and and es Tuar i "e resources. (c) ~abltat ~rotectlon ?rograms ~ursuant to t,e ~erltage Trust ~ct of 1975, areas of land, ~rsn, or water "hlcn ha-.e ~en Ijen tiflec by the "ierltage TrusT 30arj, as ~avl'g sl;nlflcant historIcal. cultural, or natural -..elues may be provl·jed special ~rotectlon as jetermlned oy tne'1erltage Trust 304rd. "s of tne ;lresenT ti~ '0 coral r'labltat areas in t"le coastal "aters of ~eorgla ha~ been provl~ed such ;lrotec'tlon C43-2300) • (d) :oastal Zone ~anagement "ut~ritias "reas of ;lartlcular concern wlthl, t,e coastal zone whose environmental. economIc, recreational or cultural characteristics are of statewije, areawide. or regional sl~nlflcance and ""ere'ore r8Qul,..e special Tenagement, nay ~ lui;nated by tne Coastal Io!anagement 904rd (43-26). "40 jOC' .. ment ;lresenting a ~eorgl a Coastal;:one "'anagement ~rogram has yet been drafted. '38or;i a ,as ji s banded Its grant .I'th t"le federal :ttlce Jf ':oastal Zone lo4anagemen't bu't wi I I continue its pr:>gram on state funds. LouisIana - (al I citations to LouisIana Revised Statutes - Title 55) (a) :i~ec't :oral ~rotectlon - ~one Cb) I,dll"'ect ~rotec'tlon 1. RegulatIon of Flsh.,.'.s Louisiana fisheries laws make a jis~i1ction oetween i1sije and outsl1e waters for t,e pUr"'~ose of regulatIng shrlmplng activIties; Jutsl~e .aters are al I waters seaward of II line established by the ~ildllfe and FisherIes :omm;ision. The s'tate asser'ts no juriSdIction o ... r outslje wat.rs for the purpose of ~eguI3"'i'g snrlmpfng activities ('495). WI'tIlI, I,slje wa'ters. 10 trawling Is al lowed durIng a closea season se't by tne WildlIfe and Fisheries Commission. C losad seasons are based on t"le snr i"p count and wll I -.ery from year to year .Jur i"g t~e open season :'10 >4ssel trawll ng for shr i ."p nay pu I I more tnan ho trawl s and no traw I lillY :le 0 '~r 50 feet In length along t,e cor~ li;e ,,495.1). 9reeal1g areas are provljed ~rotection ~y a pronlbltlon on the possession ~t .",-i"p .nlch a>4rage IIOre t~an 58 specimens to a ;lound, excep't during the spring open season (;498). 'Jse of sel,es or trawls wi't~ mesn sIze less t1an t~ree-fourths of an 11Ch car or Jne and one-nalt Inches st~et:hed or sel,es over t~rge tnousand feet in lengt, is prohi~it;d. J-4 2. Contamination of OeMn Wat.,.s Discharge of any wast .. or pollutants Into state wat.,.s whIch could tend to destroy fish or other aquatic lIfe must comply with regulations promul]lted by the Stream Control Commlssl~n (§ 1440). (c) Mabltat Qratectlon Programs - None applicable (d) Coastal Zone ~anage~nt Aut~rltles The draft Coastal ~esources Program was submitted to the federal office of Coestal Zone Manage~nt In September 1979. ~IS51sSlppl - (al I citations to ~Isslsslppl :ode Annotat~) Ca) ~Irect Coral Qrotectlon - None Cb) Indirect Protection I. RegUlation of Flsh.,.les The ~isslsslppl ~rlne Conser~tlon Commission Is authorized to establish open and closed seasons for shrlmplng In state' waters north of the Interooestal waterway. State waters south of the Intercoastal waterway may be closed to shrlmplng upon the appearance of excessl~ n~­ bers of small ju~nlle brown shrimp. Certain areas are closed to shrlmplng at al I times (49-15-6205). North of a line defined by a series of offshore Islands (Cut, Ship, Horn, and Petit 8015) It Is II legal to use more than one trawl net, other than a test or try trawl, which may not measure more than 50 feet along the cork line and not mOre than 60 feet along the lead lIne. ~ rest~lctlons are placed on use of trawl nets south of this line. Trawls used to catch II~ belt shrimp may not exceed slxt .. n feet on the cork line and twenty feet ~n the lead Ilne~ 2. Contamination of Ocean Waters The Marine Conser~tlon Commission cooperates In the enforcement of water Quality standards In t~e salt wat.,.s of the state. Shel Iflsh har~stlng has been establIshed as a water use classification for the purpose of setting water QualIty standardS (49-17-22). (e) Habitat ~rotectlon Progr ... 1. Natural H.,.ltage ArMS Land and wat.,. arM. containing an element of the state's natural dl~rslty may be isted on a Reglst.,. of Natural Are.s and hel~ In trust for their protection (49-5-141). Since the ~lssls5lppl Heritage Trust was only recently established, It Is too early to determine whether coral habitat wll I be eligible for protection. 2. Protection of Endang.,.ed Wildlife Land on aquatic habitat ~y be acquired tor the protection of endangered wildlife (49-5-111 J-5 REGULATCAY Ir09ACT REVIEW (RIR) OF THE FISHERY MANAGEMENT ?LAN FOR :ORAL AND CORAL REEFS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO AND SOUTH ATLANTIC GULF OF ~XICO FISHERY MANAGEMENT COUNCIL LINCOLN :ENTER, SUITE 881 '401 ' . '<ENNEDY BOULEVARD TAMPA, FLORIDA 33609 (813) 228-2815 SOUTH ATLANTIC FISHERY MANAGEMENT :OUNCI~ SOuTMPARI< 3UILDING, SUITE 306 1 SJUTHPARI< CIRCLE CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA 29407 (803) 571-4366 ~ArIONAL YA~I~E ~ISHERIES SERVICE SCI.,,7.,E.A.ST ~EGION 94;0 ~JGER 90ULEVARQ ST. ~ETERSaURG, ~LORIDA 33702 (813) 89}-3141 APPENDIX I< Summary Th. Coral and Coral Re.f Fishery of the Gulf of ~exlco and SOyth Atlantic Is ot Importance to oot~ recreational and eomM8,-clal 1lshermen. This fishery' Is unl~ue In that Its nabltat and nonconSumptl~ I18lue greatly exceed Its ~Iue as a harllested product. :~Iuatlng the economIc Impact of proposed regulations In a quantltatl~ menner Is not ~osslble and appears unnecessary. First, the unique character of the fishery mekes It a crucial, If not major, part of the life cycle of se~ral Important species of fish and'shel Iflsh; the commercial and recreational I18lue of these species would conserl/8ti~ly exceed 5300 mil lion annually. While tnere Is no questIon of tne habitat ~Iue of coral to marine life In general, tnere Is little or no I~for~tlon awllableto estllMlte Increrrental decreases I" ~Iue as coral IMIY be destroyed gradually. Thus. only gross I/8lues and relatlonS.hlps can be used. Second, tne Fishery "'anagement pran (F~l and assocla'ted regulations woulj be classified as a minor rule under tne criteria of Executl~ Order 12291 and tne I"terim Suldellnes establiShed by tne Office of AssocIate Administrator for Fisheries. The need for federal r-egulatlon thrJugh a F"f' is critical because tne tr-adltlonal federal role of ~nagl~g coral and coral reefs In tne FeZ has been largely abr-ogated In the fishery conser~tlon zone (FeZ) except as It applies to oil and gas exploration and de~lopment. Uncontrolled har-llestlng and sucsequen't jamage to coral and coral r-eefs wil I thr-eaten se~ral major fish and shellfish fisheries as "el I as tne nonconsumpt i ~ val uejer I lied from coral. Tne management measures proposed ~y tne Councils are responsl~ to tne problems In tne fishery and r-epresent tne most cost-effecti~ approach to protect cor-a I and cor-a I reefs. Rejected management measures '"er-e generally mer-e costl y to 1'TIp'lement, a greater r-egulatory burden on the public, and. less r-es~nsl~ to 't,e conser-l/8tion of tne r-esource. 3eneflts tnat ,,11 I accrue tr-om i~pleme"tation of tne pr-oposed measur-es are maintenance of the fIshery's habitat and nonconsumptille I181'Jes (cited abo .. ), as well as the har- .. st ~Iue of coral. ~oral growth is so slow and miniscule tnat its har .. st is analogous to a mining oper-atlon; howe~r, its relatlonsnlp to renewable 1MIr-ln~ resour-ces Is so vital tnat short-term Incr-eases in coral har- .. st woulj na~ far greater long ter-m, ad .. r-se effects on those resour-ceSe ~nnual :051' for implementation of the plan are estimated at 5224.563. rhe ~IR indicates tnat the adopted measUl"es minimize the bur-den on tne puellc and address tne pr-oblems In the flsnery In a cost effecti .. manner. The proposed action Is not a IMIjor- rule requlr-ing the preparation of a Regulatory Impact .Analysls under Executl .. Or-der 12291, or under the Interim 3uldellnes established by the Office of t~e Assistant Administrator for Fisheries. CONTENTS Flage NO. S\.MIlARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTENTS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • i i I. I NTROOl.CT I ON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Background of ~IR •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8. 8ackground of the Coral and Coral ~eefs FMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Flrobl ... Identi flcatlon • • • • • • 0 • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • D. Specific Objectives of tne FMP ••••••••••••••••••••• 2 E. Achievement of Stated Objectives •••••••••••••••••••• FlropoSed Management Measur.s ••••••••••••••••••••• Alternatlv. Management Measur.s •••••••••••••••••••• 5 I I. ANALYSIS OF FlREVIOUS YEAR'S FMP ••••••••••••••••••••••• 5 I II. METHODOLOGY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 5 Procedural FrSllework • • • • • • eo. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · . . 5 8. Data 8ase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . . 6 IV. REGULATORY IMPACTS • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • 41 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 6 A. Proposed Manag .... nt Measures ••••••••••••••••••••••• 6 8. Alternatlv. Management Measur.s ••••••••••••••••••••• 9 C. Campar l!On of the IMpacts of tne FlrOllOsed and A I ternatlve MeasIT.s · . . 10 D. Paperwork Reduction Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 E. Regul atory Flexibility Act •••••••••••••••••••••••• 16 F. De"'ennlnatlon of Major/MInor Rule' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • CI • 16 REFERE~ES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 II I • I NTROOLCT I ON Executl~ Order 12291 "Federal RegulatIon" establIshed guIdelInes for promul3atlng new ~egul~tlons ~nd revIewing exIstIng regulatIons. Under tnese guidelines each agency, to tne extent permitted ~y I~., Is expected to comQly .Ith the fol lowIng requl~ements: (I) admlnlstratl~ decIsions shal I oe ~S&d on adequate Information concerning the need for and consequences o~ ~roposed go~rnment ~ctlon; (2) regulatory action shall not be undertaken unless the potentIal benefit to society for the ~egul~­ tlon outweigh the potential costs to society. (3) regulatory objectl~s shall be chosen to maximize tne net benefIts to society; (4) among alternatl~ approacnes to any gl~n regulatory objectl~. the alternatl ... InloOlvlng the least net cost to society shali be chosen; ~nd (5) agencies shall set priorities regularly .Ith .t.he aim of maximizing the aggregate net benefit to society, taking Into account tne condition of the particular Indust~les affected by ~egul~tlons. the condition of tne national economy, and other regul~tory actions contemplated for the future. In compliance with Executl~ Order 12291, tne Department of Commerce (~OC) and the National Oceanic and ,.\t.'ft)spherlc Administration (:-IOAA) requl~e tne preparation of a Regulatory IlI1Iact Review (RIR) for al I regulatory actions which either IlI1Ilement a new fishery menagement plan or significantly amend an existing plan, or may be sl3nlflcant In tnat tney affect IlI1Iortant DOC/NOAA policy concerns and ~re tne object of public Interest. The ~IR Is part of the process of de~I:lplng and reviewIng fishery IIIIInagemant plans and Is prepared ~y tne Raglonal FIShery Management Counc; '; wltn the assistance of the :-Iatlonal ~arlne Fisheries Service ('4MFS), as necessary. The RIR provides a comprehensl~ review of the le~1 and Incidence of Impacts associated wltn the proposed or final ~egul~tory actions. The analySiS also provides review of tne problems and policy objectl ... s prompting the ~egulatory proposals and an evaluation ot tne mejor aJternati ... s that could be used to 5011/8 problems. The purpose of tne analysis Is to ensure that tne regulatory agency or Council systematically and comprehensl~ly considers al I available alternatl-es so that the public welfare can be enhanced in the most efficient and cost etfectl~ way. The RIR also wll I ser~ as the basis for determining whether the proposed regulations Implementing tne fiShery management plan or amendment are mejor/nonmejor under Executl~ Order 122?1. and whether or not tne proposed regulatIons wll I ha~ a sl;niflcant economic Impact on 'a substantial number of snell entities under the RegUlatory FlexibIlity Act (P.L. 96-354). A. Background of RIR This RIR Is based on the most recent commtrcl~1 and recreational Information, as wei I as tne ~st recent biological, economIc, and legal Information regardIng coral and coral reefs. The proposed regulations, whIch thIs RIR e~luates, wll I be subject to public revIew during hearings to be neld 'n early 1982. 3. Background of the Coral and Coral Reefs FMP The Gulf of ~xlco and South Atlantic FIShery ~anagement :ounclls. established by the Magnuson ~Isnery Conser...,tlon and Management Act (MFCMA; 16 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.), are responsible for preparing manage ment plans for mutual fishery resources In tne FeZ of the ~ulf of ~exlco and soutn Atlantic. The :ounclls, recognizing that coral and coral reefs constitute a 118luable fishery (see Section Iv.C.I below) and require management under ,~FC~, de-eloped a F~ to address and o-.ercome ;lrOQlems In t'9 f I snery. :. Pr~blem Identification I. The o~ral I problem In t~e fishery Is the degradation of the stoCks through natural ~nd man-~de Impacts. Coral and coral reefs In tne menagement unit are frequently plagued by a wl~e ~rJety RIR-I of ad~rse I~acts, as detailed In F~ Section 6.2.2. Tne cumulatl~ effect of these st~esses ~as been a degradation of stock size, areal distribution, and coral health generally. This prODlem undermines the ~Iue of coral and coral ~ .. fs as habitat, In nonconsumptl~ as .el I as consumptl~ uses. 2. Limited scientific Information on many species and many ~ectlons of the management unit, wnlcn Includes the Inability to assess the Impact of coral har~st. Tne existing biological ~ata p~e­ sented In F~ Section ,5.4 show that there Is ~~y little Information on growth, 'll)rtallty, abun dance, and rec~ultment for the management unit. Tnls Information on catch/effort from a directed fishery Is absolutely necessary to estimate MSY (and then OY) for each species. Without this Inf9rmatlon, estimated MSY's are uncalculable. J. Susceptibility to st~ess because of corals being located at the northern limIt of their dlst~IOu­ l' Ion. Corals In the management unit are located at the northern end of their natural dlstrlOu tlons. This means that they are subjected to water temperatJre extremes that stress them to the limit of thel~ abIlity to survl~. In fact, In some Instances water temperature drops and/or other natural occur~ences (such as hur~lcanes), ha~ kll led large segments of reefs In the manage ment unit. Tnese natural stresses are uncontrollable by man. Howe~r, because of these natural stresses, corals In tne management unIt are more susceptible to man-Induced st~esses. 4. Inability of corals to escape st~ess because of their sedentary nature. Corals, unlike finfish, crustaceans, and most '11)1 lusks, cannot mo .. to escape stress. Instead, the polyps must retract. ~esultlng disruptions In energy flow may Interfere with normal ecological functions such as ~epro­ ~uctlon and feeding. 5. ':omp I ex i ty and i ,1cons I sTency of ex 151' i ng managemenT ~eg I meso ",s SUlll/Tllr I zed by Sh I nn (1979b, and 1980), tne management area Is co~r8d by numerous federal and STate authorities with jurIsdiCTion o~r coral and coral reef ~esources. ThIs presenTS problems In o .. rlapplng regulations by fede~al and staTe agenCies, differing regulations (e.g., concernIng t~oplcal fish collecting In Florida ~evs parks, monumenTS, etc.l, and more. The resulting regime is complex, burdensome, and InconSistent; a Single coordinating authority such as National Oceanic and,Atmospherlc AdminiSTration (NOAA) may offer a solution via the Fo,p within the mandate of the MFCMA. 6. Lack of adequate public understanding of the Importance of coral and coral reefs. Oead coral is sold eXTensl~IV In the management area both for use as curio Items and aquarium decorations. ~n The other hand, living coral Is Important both ecological IV and economically to the management area. Living coral provIdes habitat for many species of finfish and shel Iflsh. ~nv of these species are commercially ~Iuable. Livl1g coral also provides a major tourist attraction to south Florida and to a lesser extent In other states. 7. Present lack of jurIsdIction o~r most co~31 and coral r .. fs by a federal agency which has t~adl­ tlonally executed authority and ju~iSdi:tiono In a recent decision (U.S. v. Alexander) the court ruled that the Bureau of Land ~anagement only had authority to manage corals threatened by 011 'ease operations. This decision has left the majority of coral and coral reef resources In the FCZ unprotected and unmanaged. o. SpecifiC Objectl~s of the F~ The specific objectl~s of the Fo,p are to: T. De~lop the scIentIfIc Information necessa~y to determIne the feasibility and advisability of har .. st of coral. 2. Minimize, as appropriate, ad ... rse human Impacts on coral and coral reefs. ~IR-2 3. "rovl de, where ap pr-opr I ate, for spec I a I IIIInagement for cora I hab I tat arNS of part I cu I ar concl. ) cHAPel. 4. Increase public awareness of the Importance and sensitIvity of coral and coral reefso 5. ~rovlde a coordInated management regIme for the conser~tion of coral and coral reefs. E. Achle¥8ment of Stated Objectl¥8s The CouncIls ha~ recommanded an OY for al I corals as a le~~ of har¥8st specIfied or as mey ~ authorized pursuant to the permitting criteria established In the FMP. This OY Is ~I"y different from those In other fisheries because the allowable le¥81 of har¥8st Is ¥8ry limited, ~y for coral 3nd coral reefs Is presently Incalculable, and their Importance to other fIsheries cannot be o~rstat9d. ~y for stony corals Is to be zero (0) except !S mey be authorized tor sclentl"f-Ic and educational ~ur­ poses. The current and expected le~1 ~f ~ar~st tor this purpose Is estlmeted to be 140 ~llograms per year. OY for octocorals 15 the amount ot har~st whIch 15 authorized pursuant to this plan. It Is to be al I octocorals (except sea fans) that are har~sted by U.S. fIshermen. "Octocorals, except tor are Identltled as presently baing har~sted withOut apparent stoCk damage (Section 8.2.6). !nd expected le~1 of har~st Is estimated to be about 5,845 colonies, 1,463 of which coma F:Z. sea tans, Present from the The ~.S. har¥8stlng Industry has the capacIty and Intent to har~st the entire OY; there tore, there Is no surplus available for torel;n tlshlng. The U.S. processIng Industry also can process as I'IIUC~ ot tne resource as becomes available to It. Proposed ~anagement Measures 1. Clermlts ;stabllsh a permit system, with mandatory reporting, for: ~. the use of toxic chemicals In taking fish or ot~er merlne organisms which Inhabit coral reefs. 9. for taking stony corals and sea fans and corals In prohIbIted areas for scIentifIc and educa tional purposes. 2. Time and Area Restrictions See F~ Section 1305 tor special regulations applIcable In habItat areas of particular concer~ and ~roposed Measure 5 below o 3. Catch LImitations A. Total ~I lowable Le~1 ~t Forei;n ~isni'g - none. The expected domestic annual ~ar~st .11 I equal the optimum yield. B. Types of CatCh Limitations: (ll Prohibit the taking ot stony corals and sea fans (Gorgonia flabellum or~. ~ntal ina) c the destructIon of t~es. corals and coral reefs In the FCZ of the Gulf and South Atlantl FIShery ~anagement :ounclls' JuriSdiction, excec· as provided for In this plan. (~~ Section 12.4>.. ~IR-3 i (2) Stony corals and sea fans taken Incidentally In other fisheries must be returned t~ t~e water In the general area of capture as soon as possible. ~n exception Is provided for the ground"sh, seal lop, or other similar fisheries, where the entire unsorted catch Is landed. In sueh InstanCiS the stony corals and sea fans may be landed but ~y not Je sold. CF~ Section 12.4.) (3) Should har~st of octocorals become accelerated which In the Councils' judgement Is threatening the habitat In localized or widespread areas, the Councils may request the Secretary to take a~llable measures designed to ellmlnat. sueh threat of damage to t~e resource and fishery habitat. On the advice of Its Scientific and Statistical :ommlttee or other SQurces that one or rlDr. species of octocorals may be endangered from widespread or localized depletion from o~rhar~st or threat of o~rhar~st, the Councils may notify the Secretary of the threat and recommend that he take one or rlDr. of the following actions. ~. ~estrlct by regulation amendment ~r through promul;atlon of emergency regulations tne har~st of one or rlDre specl es of octocoral s to a recommended 1.1Ie1 or arlDunt. b. Restrict by regulatory amendment or through promulgation of emergency regulations t~e area from which one or rlDre species of octocorals may be taken. c. Restrict by regulatory amendment ~r through promulgation of emergency regulatons the method of r"lar~st by which one or rlDr. species of octocorals may be har~sted. d. 'Jt III ze any procedures other tr"lan regu I a tory amendment or promu I ~t Ion of emergency regulations .nlch may be wltnln the realm of authority of the Secretary and whlcn .11 I achieve tne results of action propOSed In options Cal through Ccl abo~. 4. Types of Vessel, Gear, and Enforcement Devices ~rohlblt the use of toxic chemicals In takl'g fish and other marine organisms which Inhabit coral reef areas except under permit as may be specified in this or any other fishery management plan. (FMP. Section 12.4.) 5. Habitat ~reser¥ltlon, Protection, and Restoration (FMP. Section 12.4) Measures are proposed for the co~al habitats of particular concern (HAPes). a. East and '~est Flower Gerdan Banks (noml nated national marl ne sanctuary). Trad I tlonal, historical fishing methods are al lowed but bottom longllnas. traps and pots, and bottom trawls are prohibited In waters shal lower than 50 fathomS. The taking or destruction of all corals Is prohibited except as authorized by permit. ~ndhorlng shall be prohibited on tna East and West ~Iower Garden Sanks, on bottoms shal lower than 50 fathOms In depth except for vessels less than 100 feet In registered length. b. Florida ~Iddle Grounds - the nortnernrlDst hermatypic (shal low reef-type) coral community In tne Gulf of ~xlco. Wltnln t~e HAPC as defined In the plan, bottom 10nglln85, traps and ~ots, and bottom trawls are prohibited to prellent damage to corals (see Section 6.2.1). The taking or destruction of al I corals 15 prohlolted except as autnorlZed by permit. c. Ocullna Bank - In this four by 23 nm ~APC off Florida's central east coast the use of bottom trawls, bottom longllnes, dredges, flsn traps, an~ pots Is prohibited In order to protect tne coral from damage. 6. Oth .. ~asures to Ach I. ~ OY (FloP, Sect Ion 12-4) A. Recommended that the S.c~etary establish a communIcation program to Int~r~ t~e publIc 'Of t~e r.asons for coral management and regulations whIch protect corals and ceral reefs. 9. ~ecommended that the Secretary establIsh a procedure t'O coordinate coral management activities In t~e FeZ and territorIal sea wltnln the :ounclls i area of jurIsdIction. c. Recommended that the states and NMFS monItor at least at tne present le~1 of effert tne :en dltlon of the octocorals and report damage or threat of damage to tnelr habitat. Alternatl~ Management Measures 1. Establlsn regulatIons for coral fisheries on a specIes or g~ouP basIs, Incl'Jdlng at a ~Ini"u"" al locatIon of catch, possibly locatien 'Or har~st area, use 'Of tne resources, and regulatlen of cellection method. 2. InItIate a research and moniterlng program 'Of data gaps and 'OngoIng activities to provide InfJr matlon necessary to fulfil I management needs. 3. Oe~l~ a public fflfor~tion and awareness campaign 1''0 aCQuaint the public .11'1'1 tne \A!lIJes of corals, the fragility 'Of corals 1''0 human and natural stresses, problems .11'1'1 stock management, and .ays In which the public may contribute to resource conseF\A!ltlon and management. 4. Study effects of trIal fISherIes on selected specIes. 1 5. =rovlde fer a fIshery fer rose coral. 5. ~o actIon. {~o management 'Or regulation.l 7. Include for special management purposes as habItat areas of particular concern the fol lowing: a. Sand Key and Sambo Reets. b. 'Jnslow Say, Nortn Carol I na. c. A larger area for Ocullna Reef Syst~ 'Off central eastern FlorIda and the Florida ~iddle Grounds. d. Loce Key. s. ~ermlt system for har~st of 'OcTocorals. II. ANALYSIS OF PREVIOUS YEAR'S F~ Not applIcable sInce no PMP or FloP is now i, effect for coral and coral reefs. I II. METHODOLOGY A. =rocedural Framework The prQcedure used In estll!lllting tne economic i"pacts .111 Include a syst~tlc discussIon 'Of' botn adopted and rejected management measures. Eacn management, measure. to the extent poss i b I e. If i I I ;,e analyzed wIth regard 1''0 Its effect on: (1) Changes In price - price flexlbilities will be used where appropriate. (2) Changes In supply - effects on production and mark.tlng costs and ~.Iated changes th~OUghout the distribution system. (3) Changes In employment - total number of jobs aff.cted. (4) Dlst~lbutlon of I.ncome, b.n.flts or costs - unl ... ~s. of aff.cted flsh.r,.n, IncomejisT~i:lu­ tlon, ~eportlng burd.n, ~nd oth.r .ff.cts on .,.ssels, crews hares, proc.ssors, !nd use~ groups. (5) ?roductlvlty - ~elatl ... to alter-Ing output, In ... stment, and technology. (6) International Implications - effect on foreign fishing or foreign markets. (7) Mark.t st~ucture - changes In the slz., number or locations of firms. (8) Go.,.rnmenT - administration, data col I.ctlon, and enforcement costs. (9) Recreational participation. ~fTer al I measures are examined, Impacts under the abo ... categories wll I be summarized. 3. Data 8as. ~st jata used i~ this RIR are contained In the F~. 1 V. REGULATORY I MP.t.CTS ~anagement programs currently in effect in the ~ulf states and South Atlantic states are reported In the FMP (S.ctlon 7.0), as el I as present federal regulations. Thes. present conditions, ~s wei I as '0 action here applicable, will s.r ... as tne basis for estlmetlng the Incremental economic Impact of tne proposed and alternatl ... measures. ~. ~~oposed ~anagement Measures y. Permits A. This measure Is Intended to protect corals from death or dameg. from toxic chemicals used i, the collection of fishes and other marine organisms In coral reefs. Some tropical fiSh coll.ctors utilize chemicals to remo ... specl~ns from within coral r .. fs. Wh.n used Ith care the ch.mlcals can be used eff.cti ... lt Ith little .ff.ct on tn. corals. Improp.r us., how .... r, can result In loss of corals. Restriction to permitted us.rs would provide a degree of control to limit use to appro ... d chemicals and Indlvljuals knowledegabl. In their use. It Is expected that the p.rmlt program de ... I oped through the offlc. of the Regional Ji~ector of ~MFS .11 I utilize the permit Information and procedur.s of the Florida Department of ~atural R.sources (FDNR). Fishermen .Ith ... lld permits through FONR to operate In state aters may operate In tn. FeZ .Ith t~e same ~DNR permit. Th.lr p.rmlt Information oulj ~e on fll. In the Regional ~fflc •• Federal expenditures and unn.cessary duplicaTion oulj t'ereto~e be at !n absolut. minimum. Practical Iy ~I I coral-r.lated activity takes place off of Flo~i~a; tne expected number of permit hO'le~s is estimated Initially to be 40 to 50 CA. Huff, FDNR, 1981; p.rsonal communication). RIR-6 This permit procedure wll I minimIze any burd.n placed on tlsh.r~n and woulj al low easy ooe tlon between the wat.rs of the FeZ and state without IdentifIcation ~roblems. The ~egl~nal Olrector can Issue p.rmlts to fishermen operating In tne FeZ only, or may desl;nate F~NR, .ith Its appro~lo as his d.slgnee to Issu. permits. ina eost of these permits Is expected to be zero as In the Gulf R.ef Fish F~, and of minimal cost (SIO each) to tn. ;o~r~ment. Since practia"y al I existing coral-related activity occurs In Florida, the additional cost to federal ~o¥arnment will be zero In tne short-term. 9. ~ermlts for only the scientific and educational taking of stony corals, sea fans, and ot~er protected corals In HAPCs wll I neither create an economic burden on researcners and commar:ial collectors, nor create unnecessarily large federal 30¥arnment expenditures. While the col lec tion of coralS. Including stony corals and sea fans, In the FeZ Is presently unregulated, t~e collection of stC!ny corals and sea tans I,s belle¥ad to be nonexlstent~ ~st comlT8rclal collection occurs off of ~Iorlda where there Is a permit system and posseSSion of s~~~~ corals and sea tans is prOhibited. The cost of these permits to the research and educatlor.!; :0I!t-. munlty Is expected to be zero and of minimal cost (SIO eachl to the federal gO¥arnment. Initially the number of ~ermlts under this submeasure Is not expected to exceed 18. The qegional Oirector wll I in al I likelihood Issue the permits because research and educational activity occurs throughout the Sulf and south Atlantic FeZ. Other federal agencies .Ith jurlsdl:tlon o¥ar specIfIc HAPCs, I.e., Fort Jefferson. Looe ~ey. etc., may d.vlse t~elr own permit system or ~y utilIze the offices of ~FS. T'e 'II!Indatory reoorTing requIred of all permit hol~ers, eSTimated to ~ry between 58 to S8, wi I I be ootalned through a survey form desi;ned by the Southeast FIsheries Center, ~MFS. ~orms .11 I be mailed periodIcally to N~FS or collected by ~MFS agenTS. Sosts for malll'g, printing, data processing, editing, verIfIcatIon, and publication should not exceed S25 annually per permit hol,jer, or a 1'01'31 of SI,450 to $1,700 to the federal go ... rnment. The reporting burden to respondents shoulj be no more t~an one hour per year. Information required .111 Include: 1) catch by weight (or colonies) and species; 2) cateh by location and depth; 3)jate of catchCes); 4) Intended use of catCh; 5) type of chemicals used, If any, and S) ot~er perfunctory Information as lIsted in F~ Section 14.2& 2. Time and area restrIctions apply sp.clflcal Iy to HAPCs .hlch are discussed below under Item 5. 3. Cateh LimitatIons A~ A zero har ... st I .... ' for forel;n flshl'g .il I cause no economic burden on forel1n fisher~n since there Is no pres.nt or past forel;n fiShing aCTivities In the Gulf and south Atlantic Fez. Exp.ndltures by the federal ;o~rnment wll I be at an absolute minimum. 9. Type of catch limitations: (a) The Impact of prohibiting the t3kl"g of st~ny corals and sea fans, or the destruction of these coral reefs, Is descrl~ed abo~ In Management ~easure 1.8. and in general terms i~ the Summary s.ction. q1R-7 (b) The econc.lc Impact of thIs sub~asure Is mInor on the fIshIng Industry, and In mest cases on coral and coral r .. fs. FIrst, the exemption to groundflsh, scal lop, and ot~er similar fisherIes do.s not Impose any unn.cessary regulation on these fisheries; also, corals wIll not be threatened because th.S. flsh.rles op.rate In low d.nslty coral are.s either normally or by preference to minimize gear damage and loss. Second, flsnerles which may land stony corals or sea fans, but are prohibited from sel IIn9 tnem, wll I experience ~ry little, If any, decrease In re~nue. Any corar Incidentally taken woul~ ha~ been so frag~nted by bottom trawlIng as to'make them worthless. Enforcement efforts by fed.ral and state agencies need not be Increased for a ~ry low ~otentlal of this actIvity. (c) The economl~ Impact of tnls submeasure, which sets up a framework for future regulations If necessary, Is uncertain until regulations are proposed. Under the current FMP, the har~st of -octocorals Is unregulated (except In two HAPes where a permIt Is required). =lecent Information (J. • Lowry, FDNR, 1981; personal com~nlcatlon) docu~nt tne Impor tance of octocoral habitat to ot~er coralS, coral r .. fs, and merlne life. This measure allows t"e :ounclls to request the Secretary to take available ~asures (Sec. 305(e) of ~FCMA) to protect octocorals. 4. Types of Vessel, Gear, and Enforcement Devices The economic and regUlatory Impact of prohibIting the us. of toxic chemicals except under permit Is descri bed I n Management Measure t .A. 5. Habitat greserWitlon, ~rotectlon, and Restoration A. The economic Impact of ~rohl~ltlng the use of bottom longlln.s, traps and pots, and bottom tr~ls, and prohibiting anchorl~g by ~ssels greater than 100 feet In length, wll I be ~ry sma I I, If any. ~hlle t~e use of this gear Is pres.ntly unregulated throughout the whole Gulf and south Atlantic FCZ, ~nd in tr,e Flower Garden Sanks, the gear Is not used presently. Anchoring of ~ssels, and assc~iated coral damage, has been obser~d CT. Bright, Texas A&M Un I ~rs I ty, 1981; persona I comftlJn I~at Ion) I n the F I ower ~arden BankS. Vessel operators, unaware of coral's Importance or presence In the area, may anchor occasionally. After Imple mentatIon of the FMP, the Flower Garden Banks wll I be marked on standard nautical charts as being off-limits to anchoring; ~ssels may easily anchor In other locations In the same !1eneral area. 9. The economic Impact of prohIbiting the use of bottom longllnes, traps and pots, and bottom trawls Is zero. The use of this gear In t~e three regulated HAPCs Is ~ry lImited or nonexistent presently. FIshermen ~y use this gear In other areas of the FCZ consistent with regulatIons in oth.r FMPs, e.g., Reef Fish, etc. The fIsh resource remains a~llable to al I fishermen by use of other, nonrestricted gear. 6. Other" ~esures to Ach i .... OY A. The long-term economIc Impact of this recommendation to t~e Secretary would be ~intenance of coral ~nd coral reef as habitat ~nd for nonconsumpti~ uses. An approximate economic ~Iue for all th.S. uses Is provided i" Section "I.C, below and Includes the BOO million In ~Iue of coral associated marine life cited abo~ In the Summery section. Another benefit Is the long-term reduction In effort requl~ed to enforce regulations assocIated with the plan. :ost to the federal go~rnment from t,1 $ recom:T8ndatlon dep.nd on the availability of budget funJS and the extent of the educational ~rogram supported by tne Jepartment of Commerce. RIR-8 B. The long-t ... /II econOllI c I ~act of th I s rec~ndat I on to the Secretary wou I d be a reduct I on ~. dupllcatl~ and o~rlapplng regulations on Industry enforCed by se¥eral state and tederal agencies. Industry productivity may Increase, as .el I as re¥enue, and cost Tay decrease. Costs to the federal go¥8rn~nt trom this ,.eeomrrendatlon may decrease from present le~ls dependIng on the extent that duplIcation and O¥8rlapplng regulations, and tnelr ent~rcement. Is ell ml nated. ) C. The long-term economic Impact of tnls recomrrendatlon to tne Secretary would be 'T8lntenance of tne octocorals and tnelr contribution to o¥eral I merlne lIfe productIvity and ~Iue. Oresent data are Inadequate to determine the exact contribution octocorals provl~e, but It Is belle~d to be major since as a group octocorals are one of tne nost common species of coral. Costs t~ tne federal 30 ¥ernment from tnls recomrrendatlon to tne Secretary should be zero In tne snort term because of t~e adequate capacity of the existing monitoring programs of se~ral state and federal agencies. 9. Alternatl~ ~anagement ~easures 1. The economic Impact of this measure woulj be the Imposition of unnecessary regulations on Industry and the public, as wei I as Increased costs to the federal go~rnment for enforcement. Industry (see F~ Section 9.0) would be burdened .Ith regulation which Is presently unsupportable wltn the best available scientific data (except for stony corals and sea fans). Furthermore, the ~asure Implies some le~1 of har~st for coral species, which Is contrary to the OY for coral and coral reefs. Enforcement costs for this measure and other alternatl~ measures are dIscussed ~elow In Sect j on 1'1. C. 2. This ~asure was rejected because its I~plementatlon would ha¥e been a recomrrendatlon for resear to tne Secretary. This measure is co~red In Proposed ~anagement ~easure 6. C. 3. This measure was rejected because Its I~plementatlon by the Councils Is not consistent with their author I ry. The measure Is a recomlT8nda t i on to the Secretary and I 5 co~red I n Proposed ~anagement ~easure 6. ~. 4. ThIs measure would ha¥e resulted In unknown and possibly ad~rse effects on coral and coral reef productivity. Data Is not adequate to I·jentlfy particulal" speCies, exc·eptlng octocorals. fOl" a tr/al fishery. The restrictions of a trial fishery, Including some form of limited entry and/or an o~ral I al location, mey discourage Industry participation. :OSt5 to tne federal 30~rnment may be subst5ntial for enforcing the restrictions of a trial fishery depending on the range of the fishery, number of participants, the tnreat to the resource from o~rflshlng, and the duration of a trial fishery. 5. The Impact ~f this measure woul~ be the exploitation of a type of stony coral, a species .Itn a zero har~st le¥el. Although the nar~st ~f I"ose coral Is presently unregulated !n tne FeZ, In 1976 Florld~ prohibited nar~st In Its t~rrltorlal waters and possessl~n ot rose coral. Since aillDst all the rose coral Is located ·'Jff of =Iorlda. for al I ;ll"ac:tlcal purposes tner. Is no fIshery at present. Adoption of tnls'fl8asure would create enforcement difficulties for tne s'tate and an InconSistency with tne 0Y specification fOl" stony CoralS. 6. The Impact of the No Action alternati'~ .. ould be potential loss In coral and coral reef prOduc tivIty and destruction of tne resource -nrough a~ldable man-made and natural causes. LoSS of t~e resources' productivity woulj jeoparjize at least a part of the S300 ml I lion In annual ~neflts t~ Important marine fIsherIes and several mil lion dol lars In economic activity to nonconsumptf~ activities, I.e., diving and sl.;htseei'g. WIth the posslbllltv of unregulated har~sts In th. FeZ, the ~.sourc. appears to be unde~ an unac· captabl. biologIcal rIsk. Th. No ActIon alt.rnatl~ do.s not comply wIth the Intent of ~FCMA and N.tlon.1 Stand.rd on. because It would allow an actIvity whIch would ~.sult In o ... ~flshlng. Inc~ementll costs to Industry (marIn. flsh.rles), the public, and go ... ~nment woul~ mean t~. ~ra· dual loss In ~ .... nue, ~.c~ •• tlon.' particIpatIon, and tax.s from decr.ased coral and coral reet product I vI ty. 7. A. fhe Impact of this me.sYr. would be an unnec.ssary regulatIon and an Increase In costs to t~e fede~al go ... rnment for enforcement. Sand K.y and Samba Reefs are not Included as HAPCs because of thel~ sl~llarlty and proxl~lty to oth.r HAPCs In the FlorIda Reef t~act and ~cause they a~e located In the t.r~ltorlal sea. B. fhe Impact of thIs measure would be an unnecessary ~egulatlon and an I'nc~ease In costs to "'e fede~al go ... ~nment fo~ ento~cement. A ... llable data a~. InsuffIcIent to meke a ~.commandation at thIs time for Inclusion as an HAPC. c. file Impact of thIs measYr. would be an unnecessary ~es~lctlon of gea,. wh.~. It might ~ used wIthout sIgnIfIcant jamege to coral. Only IIIItjor, ~ep~.sentatl ... a~eas of the coral a~e Includ.d In the ~estrlcted a~eas deSignated as the HAPCS. D. Special measures we~e ~'jected after Looe K.y was desIgnated as a N.tlonal Merlne Sanctua~y unde~ ~OAA's eZM p~og~am. B. The Impacts of thIs measYre would be an unnecessary ~egulatlon by the fed.ral 30 ... rnment. a regu· lato~y bu~d.n on Indust~y. and an rnc~ease In costs to the fed.ral 30 ... ~nment tor enforcement. ~nforC81118nt Its.,t mey be dlftlcurt sl1ce the State of Flo~ld. has no regulatIons co ... rrng the l1ar ... st of octocorals. 1 fhe a~llable data do not suppo~t rest~lctlons on user groups pr .. s.ntly (exc.pt In HAPCs), and Proposed "Ianagement M.asYr.J. 8.(c) co ... rs the pot.ntlal fo~ exc.ssl ... local har ... sts. Und.r thIs measure permIt holders, estlmeted at 40 to 50, would ~ sub ject to mendatory statIstIcal reportIng; at S25 annually per respond.nt, cost to the ted.ral go ... rnment would be SI,Ooo to SI,250. Proc.sslng of p.rmiTs would cost S10 .ach. c. ComparIson of th. Impacts of th. Proposed and Alternat. Measur.s Among three management ~eglmes .... Iu.ted, I.e., the preferred, th. alternatl ... , and No ActIon, the ~ref.,.red management ~eglme protects the resource and maIntaIns Its productIvIty best of ., I, minl mlz.s the ~egulato,.y burden on th. Indust~y and publIc, and minImIzes costs to the Industry, public, and go~rnment. 1. Proposed Measur.s Th. Proposed M.asur.s a,.. th. Councils' app~oach to achIevIng tile FMPs objectl ... s, and to be con· slstent wIth MFCMA, the N.tlon.1 Standards, and ot~er applIcable law and polIcIes (such as :. O. 12291). Th. proposed manag.ment measYres wIll hel~ to maIntain coral and coral re.f ~roductlvlty for noncon sumptl~ as w.,1 as consumptl ... uses. In addition to a larg. but unquantltlable esthetic ... Iue to coral, It ser ... s as a vital habitat area to sa ... ral commercIally· and recreatIonal Iy-Important marine species; without the coral habItat, the continuation ot fIsherIes tor tnese sp.cles would be In jeopardy. These flsherl.s and assocl~t9d annual economic ... Iues are lIsted d/r.ctly below. RJR·IO FiSh.,.:! SpJny lobster ~ink and rock shrimp R .. f Fish Reef Fish Fisheries Dependent on Coral Habitat ~ Gul f and South Atlantic Gulf and South Atlantic Gulf Gul f Sector Comrrarcl al Recreational Comnrcl al . ) Annual "a I ue2 5 16 Iftlilion S 25 1ft I I lion S 15 1ft II lion SIOO million Reef Fish South Atlantic Comrrarclal Recreational Com,.rc I a I Recreational S 4 million : 1977) ~eef Fish South Atlantic S 135 million ( 1975) TOTAL $295 mil II:ln Source: Respectl~ F~s. The exception Is that the stat. prohibits har~st and possession of sea fans, as the F~ proposes (except for research and .ducationl. 2 COllllll8rclal -.elues are at .x ... ssel lell'8l only. While the total -.elue of these species cannot be attributed to the pres.nce of coral and coral reefs the r .. fs do s.r~ as Important sources of ~abltat for these species. Irl addition to th. nonconsumptl~ values, there Is also tne economic activity generated tnrough jivi1c;; . (SCUBA and snorkeling) throughout the management area and through sightseeing (e.g., glass-oottom boatsl. Although It Is dl fflcult to estimate precise dollar amounts attributable to coral and C:lral reefs, almost half of all dl~rs sur~yed (Sl(in Ol~r Sur ... y, 1977) do so for r .. f exploration; Florida Is one of the top two states with t~e most number of dl~rs; the a~rage total In"'5tment and a ... rage annual trip expenditures by a dl ~r .as 5942 and 5646, respectl~ly (Skrn Ol ... r Sur ... y, 1977l. CI'I':.-ter-ooat act I vi 1'1 es are a I so Important economl ca I I Y and are descrl bed In deta 1/ I n FloP Sect ion 9.1.2.1. Finally, tne Ioelue of har~sted octocorals Is Oelle~d to range between S15,000 and 525,.::>00 annual Iy (F~ Section 9.1.1.2). Cost of tne preferred management measures Include a maximum of 51,700 and 5180 for statistical reporting and processing of permits, respecti ... ly; In addition, th.re Is a potential cost of 5222,653 for enforce,.nt, to be conducted by ~MFS, U.S.:oast (iuard. and state agencies where cooperati ... agreements already .xlst. This Is the estimated cost of ful I scale enforcement If a suffiCient le ... 1 of funding and enf:lrcement ... ssels were availaole. · .. l'Ilch .... r management regime Is sel.cted, de ... lop ment costs for this F~ ha ... a'lready occurrea. These costs are approximately 5300,000 Oy ooth Council s. The Impacts of the proposed measures. accordl'g to the criteria listed aboloe In Section I II. A, are 'ndlcated In Table 1. 2. Alternate M.asures The a I ternate rlBasures, I riC I ud I ng No Act lon, do '101' ;lrot9ct the resource and the hab Ita l' va I ue i 1" :r vldes to I~ortant marine fisheries. SxiS1"i1g scientitic intormation woull not support ~nregulat90 Figure 1. Option I - Proposed shelf-edge Oculina Coral Reef Habitat Area of Particular Concern (RAPe) off . central eastern Florida. (Triangle = Oculina coral reef bank, 17-25 m relief: x a coral thicket: dot a 'colonies of live coral). ~36 30' 90· I \ ·':t \ 30' ( ~ • • • 1ft • 0 ,. - • \ -... \ -. ... 28 r-'~ •• 1:;-0 I 'J ' •• I ." ;--1 ,~I . I I ( I I • . , • ,.. I . ., , A-A I l J 30' FL . " . ' o • • St. Palm I Table I. Summary of Econo.lc Impacts of the Proposed Mdnagemant Medsurus Proposed Manage .. nt Internat londl Mcsrket Go\l8rnl1lltnt Recreational Measure Price Supply E/lPloYlII8nt R ewnues Productl vlty IlIIPact Structure Costs PII,.Ucl~atlon I. A. o o Intdln IlliSlntaln B. o o o o Statlstlcdl Reporting 2. See" Mudsure ~ Udlow 1. A. 0 0 0 0 !l.(a) 0 0 0 0 lb) 0 0 0 0 lc) lIIdy decrease llliSy Increase may Incradse may Increase 4. 0 0 malntdln IlliSlntaln 5. A. 0 0 malntdln IlliSlntaln 40 - 50 hours reporting 18 hours reporting 0 maintain slight Increase In sor tI ng t I 1118 uncertain Hldlntaln IMlntaln; large \I8ssels nust use other sl tes for anchoring o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 Mlntaln "80 o '1,450 - ",700 0 0 0 0 See 4 Mlntaln 0 See 4 0 0 See 4 0 0 " 16,5002 Intaln 0 See 5.b Mlntaln ;;0 ....... ;0 0 ..... w laLliu I 'contd.) SUlllllklry of Economic I~acts 0' the Prupo!iod Mdlld!JulllUn' Mudsurt .. S ProjJosed Managttmant Measure Price 5. B. 0 c. 0 6. A. 0 B. 0 c. 0 SURUMry SUPJlI'l Employment 0 IIICIlntdln 0 !Mlntaln 0 maintain 0 0 0 maintain ~ellBnues nulntdln malntdln malntdln 0 IIIillntdln nulnt.:!ln annUd I re IIBnues ot ollBr '300 million AssulllUS dual-permit !loystum with I-U~ as Rtt!.llonal Ulrttctor's duslgneu. Intttrndtiondl Product Ivl ty IIIillntdln malntdln maintain possible reduction of regulations flIijlntaln 56 - btl hour s rttportlng l!!Eact 0 0 0 0 0 Misrket Gowrnmant Rttcreat lonal Structure Costs Part lei ~dt 1011 0 '65.2682 IIIdlntdln 0 ., 25.1652 0 .5 maintain 0 possibly 0 reduce 0 0 maintain '180 permit costs 11.450 - 11.700 statistical rejJortln!.! '222,683 enforcemant2 1224.313 - '224.56} 2 fttdttrdl !jOlIBrllmant enfor<.:emunt. source; C. fuss, ldW Enforcemunt Uj vision, NMfS. St. Ptttersbury, florida. Misrch }I. 1961. sejJdrattt mudsurus dre for COdst Guard only. NMf5 estlllklte Is '15.150 • Lstlnutes abow undur .5 DejJond:> on the avallabl i I ty ot funds and scojJe of program. .,' (. Table 2. SUlNllilry of EconomIc I~acts of the AI ternat 1118 Mcsn ... ~umant MedSurttS ManagelllBnt International Market Gowrn nt ReCrtNit lonal Measure Price Sueell E!!f 10lmant Rewnues Product I vi t~ I~act Structure Casts Partlcleatlon ", I. possibly possibly possibly possibly decrease; IIDre uncert.sln tend to I uncertain Increase decrease decrease decrease regulation concentrdte 2. 0 0 0 0 possibly 0 0 2 uncertain malntdln l. 0 0 IIIilIlntaln mal ntdl n llliilntain 0 0 2 IIIiIIlntaln 4. uncurtdln uncertain uncertain uncertain uncertain; IIDru 0 uncertain I uncertdln ;;0 rtlgu I at Ion ..... ;;0 I 5. ..... jlos~lbly jlosslbly possibly possibly short-term 0 0 I uncertain ~ decrease Increase Increase Increase Increase; long term negat 1118 6. possibly possibly uncertain rl sk lasing risk of over- uncertain uncertain I ducrease decrease Increase revenue from harvest dependent .arlne fisheries, $300 million dnnually 7. A. uncertain uncertdln uncertain uncertain possibly maln- 0 uncertain I uncertain taln; IIIOre regulation ;0 ...... ;;0 i ..... U1 Table 2 (contd.) SURllMrV of Economic l"¥lacts of the AI htrndt Iw Mdnd!.lomtUlt Mttasurus International Market (JowI-nment Recreat lanai Management Measure Price SupplV Enployment Hewnues f>r-()~ C!!~HL I "¥ldCt Structure .costs Partlfljlatlon 7. B. uncertdln c. uncertdln D. ullcorfdlll 8. o SUfflllldrv uncertain uncertain uncertain uncertdln un<.urfdln unctlrtdln o o uncertain uncertain uncerfdln o rI!.k of los I n!;! value at ralateu I114rlne fisheries; BOO million per year Entorcamullt cost 0' 'l99, ~88. Source: C. ~us~, NMI::i, Apr II, 1911l. 2 LJepulIlltlIIt 011 IttllUl anu aVdllabll1 tva' funulng posslblV main tain; rore reguldtlon posslbl V IIIdln taln; more regulation posslblV main tain; more regulation IIIDre regulation; 40 - 50 hours report Ing 40 - 50 hours reporting burden; nvre regulation o o o o uncertain uncttrtaln uncerfaln uncertain I I , 1,000 - 'I, 125 report Ing costs; '400 - 1500 for permit!.; plus enforcement '~OI,OU 1114)(lmuJn III cosfs to fttderal gowrnBllttnt uncertdln uncertain uncertain uncertdln tlshlng o~ eYen trIal fIsherIes fo~ an Indeterlmlnate numbe~ of seecles. Any Sho~t-term benefits f~am Inc~eased harvest ~ coral would be greatly exceeded by declInes In landIngs and value ot co~al­ dependent marIne fIsherIes. The No ActIon alternatIve In partIcular would expose coral and co~al ~ .. ts to Indl sc~lmlnate destructIon by camme~clal and amateur collecto~S. The costs of the alternatIve meas~es a~e g~eate~ than those ot the preferred meas~es. The cost of the No Action alternatIve In partIcular Is the ~/sk of losIng the value ot coral-decendent ~a~lne tlshe~les and other actlvlrles. upwardS ot S300 mil lion annually. This loss would be felt by the Industry and publIc. Costs of the alternate ~eas~es. excludIng No ActIon. Include up to S500 for p~ocesslng at permits. UP to SI.250 for statIstical ~eportlng. and S299.388 for enforcement: the entorclment estimate Is·the best estimate since the alternative ~eas~es are general Iy ~o~e ~est~lc­ t Ive and r8dul re more regul at Ions than the proposed ",.as~es. AI ternatlve AlP develOl)ment costs of S300.000 would stll I be applIcable In the No Action alternative. The Impact of the alternative meas~es. accordIng to the c~/te~/a lIsted above In SectIon III. A. a~e Indicated In Table 2. D. ~aoarwork Reduction Act (44 U.S.C. 350 et sea.l The propoSed ~anagement measures wll I not Increase the reporting burden for commercIal. scIentific. and educatIonal users sIgnIficantly. or over p~esent amounts (FlorIda r8Qul~es recortlng of Its cermlt holders. and FDNR may be the Regional Director's deslgneel. The major change .11 I be a Shift fram voluntary to mandatory reportIng and the add I tion of needed InformatIon. Actual costs and ~ecort/ng burdens are IndIcated In Meas~e I, SectIon IV, A. E. Reaulatory Flexibility Act (5 U.S.C. 501 et sea.l A review of this F~ indicates that there .11 I be no signIficant economic Impacts from Its Implemen tation on small business entitles' In the coral and coral reef fishery. or other related flsherle5. The statIstical recortlng and permit reauiraments are not ~ajor imPediments to busIness activity and. in almost all cases. the reQuIrements are already In place through State of Florida regUlatIons. The proposed rule was publIshed In the Federal Register (48 FR 39255) for a period from August 30, 1983. through October 14. 1983. No comments were received from sma I I businesses objecting to thIs proposed ru Ie. Due to the absence of negat Ive comments f,.om sma I I bus i nesses. NOAA conc I udes tllat this rule wil I not have an adverse Impact on sma I I busInesses. F. DetermInation of Major/MInor Rule ThIs F"fJ Is a mInor rule under the Interim au/1ellnes establIshed on June 17.1981. by tile Office of the Assistant AdminIstrator for FIsheries. This determInation of a minor rule for thIs F~ Is based on the InSIgnIfIcant Impacts as a result of this F~ on the fol lowing criterIa: t') Increase In the total cc ,. or p~ Ice of goods of 15 ml I lion oar year; 2) Inc~ease In cost or prIces of ten pe~cent or more: 3) adverse Impact on campetl tlon: 4) adverse Impact on emp I oyme" t: 5) adverse Impact on I nves1'ment: 6) adverse Impact on product iv i ty: 7) adverse impact on exports. RIR-16 REFERE~ES Shinn, E.A. 1979. COllecting blologle and geologic specimens In sou~h Florida. Atlantic Reef Commltt ... Information Circular No.1. 4 PP. 1980. Sclen.tlflc Collecting In South Florida: Pr-oblans With Permits. Coastal Zone '90, VOl. 111:2017-2026. Skin Olver. 1977. Reader Survey '77; Petersen Publishing Company, Los Angeles. Cal I tor-nia. RIR-17 APPENDIX l. StH4ARY OF' palt ctM£NT Thi. ~ix sw.ariz .. tntillany an the draft FMPIEIS at to the Council. Ind the Natianal Marine Fisherie. Service. cie. are included in thia ~"'dix. five public he.ring. or su~itted by letter Sa.e lett.r. fr~ ... oci.tione Ind agen Appropri.te reepon ••• to the c~nta have been provid.d herein by the Council •• Oculin. Bank HAPt (1) Caa.ent: A portion of the Oculin. coral bank o'f Florida'. centr.l e.at coa.t should be includ.d ae a HAPC with speci.l regul.tion. to protect the cor. 1 'ra. daaage 'ro. fi.hing ge.r. (2) C~ent: The bound.ry line. should exclude adj.cent scallop 'ishing grounda which extend to about '9 fathont •• (3) C~ent: BottOli longlin •• Ind fish trap. are nat a.t an coral where there i. danger of gear 10 .. but are set in cloa. proxi ity. (4) C~ent: A propo.ed .rea of '90 nautic.l square ile. 1s too large becau •• in much of the are. prohibited gear can be used without d ••• ge to cor.l. (5) COII.ent: Boundary of HAPC should be extended northw.rd to of' Dayton. Beach where rough bott~ may cont.in Oculin. cor.l. (6) COIIIIIent: Roller tr.wl fishermen avoid trawling over coral banks bec.uee of po.sibility of ge.r loss. (7) Comment: Gear should not b. prohibited without docuNent.tion that it c.u ... c..ag. in u.e. (8) Comment: Establishment 0' • '90 square mile .re. in which fish trapa are prohibited i. discrt.i netory ag.inst conmerci.l fishing and thus violat .. National Standard •• Respons. to CQlllllents 1 through 8: The Councils have includ.d .. In HAPC only a repr •• entative portion of the Oculina Blnks cont.ining the highest known den.ity of th.se cor.l thickets. Only ge.r typ •• which are de.tructive of cor.l are prohibited in the four by 2' .ile are.. Fish.r.en .. y u.e oth.r ge.r for ~ercial or recreation.l fishing. Florid. Middle Ground. HAPC (9) Camment: The boundary of the HAPC is too large and includ •• sub.tanti.l are. where prohibited g •• r .. y be used without d •• age to cor.l. (10) Caa..nt: Anchor o..aqe .. y have ~re impact than dam.ge inflicted by botta. longlin ••• (U) COIIIIent: The prohibition of bottOli longlines and fish tr.p. should be extend.d to.U .re •• in8id. of 20 f.tholl. and to the "elbow" are. off T.rpon Spring •• Respon.e to COIIIIent. 9 through 11: The Councils have adjueted the bound.ries 0' the HAPC to includ. the high relie' are. cont.ining coral and exclude are •• where prohibited ge.r .. y be used without dSIl.ging r.~rals. Anchor d .... g. by sm.ll vessels at this till~ appears to be within an acceptable lev.l, anc .:noring i. dllo.t .... ntial in 80111e fishing activities Ind for sa'e diving practices. Restriction . botta. 'i.hinggesr U1 high use area. is IIOre appropriately addr ... ed in the reef fish plan. L-l nower Garden Bank. HAPC (12) CONNent: Concern that anchoring by vessels under 100 reet in length csn damage coral. Response: See reeponse to C~t 10. (13) C~ent: The boundary of the HAPC would be better defined br using geographic coordinatea or a depth contour .s shown on nsvigationsl charts. Response: The boundary has bean changed accordingly to follow the SO fathom contour. (14) C~ent: The plan and OEIS do not adequately addreas possible coral damage from oil and gas develo~ent and exploration activities. Response: Lease agree~ents for oil and gas exploration and production isaued by SLH stipulate meaaurea and practices for the protection of corals. Additionally, the Environmental Protection Agency regulates discharge of materials that may be nar.ful to corals. While this plan proposes regu lations to prohibit destruction of stony corals, these agencies have .ore effective control with authority to regulate nonfishing activities that may pose a threat to the coral. (lS}COIIIIIent: Consider the uae of mooring buoys to minifilize anchor da~age to cords. Response: ~ooring buoys were considered; however, the size and cost at the flower Garden Banks plua damage potential from tether chains far outweighed any benefit to be obtained. Restriction to anchoring by ~aller vessels was a more practical alternative. (16) Comment: There should be no fishing on the flower Garden Banks. Reaponse: The Councils found no indication of over fishing of fishes and thus do not restrict fishing excePt gear detrimental to coral. (17) Comment: The lower portions of the flower Garden Banks (below 100 meters) should be included in the HAPC because of the presence of crinoids. ~esponse: There may well be other fragile ecosystems in need of some type of management; however, the objectives of this rHP are nec .. sarily restricted to the management of corals. (IS) C~ent: Include additional coral areas as HAPCs. Reaponse: The fHP prohibita the taking or destruction of all stony corals and sea fans in the ~snage­ ment area. Additional special restrictions may apply in HAPCa. Areaa which .. st the criteria set forth in the fHP (Section 6.3) .ay be nominated for inclusion as HAPCs by plan ..."d....,t. (1') C~ent: HAPC. could be better managed as ~ational Harine Sanctuaries. (20) Comment: The designation of HAPCs is a duplication of effort and thus violates ~ational Standard 7. Response to Commente 19 and 20: . The fHP identifies coral habitats in the management area which meet the criteria set forth. Where manag~ment is provided by other agencies, no regulation is propoaed through the rHP. In fact the Councils were in coordination with the Office of Coaatal Zone Management during the development of Looe Key and Gray's Reef as National Harine Sanctuaries. This action aasured that any .anagement regi.e proposed to the Secretary would address the concerns of the Councils and OCZM. · ) P","lts (21) eo..m.nt: Would tropical fish collectors need both Florida and NMFS permits to use chemicals to collect fish? Response: Manage.nt l4easll'e 4 I n Sect Ion 12.4 has been III)d I fled to reeom.nd that a eompat I b Ie permit arrange.nt be .stabl I shed with the Florida Oepart.nt of ~atural ~.sources. (22) Co~nt: Would permits be Issued to al low remo~1 of stranded ~ssels on coral reefs? Response: Manage.nt l4easure 1, Section 12.4, prohibits the d.struetlon of coral and coral re.fs. Indeed U.S. v. Alexander was brought about by the destruction of a portion of Looe ~.y during the sal ~ge of a ground.d ... ·5S.I. Wh II. no p.rml t arrang •• nt Is provl d.d, proseeutor I al d I ser.t I on "ou I ~ b. warranted In such Instances of una~ldabl. loss of coral. (23) Comment: Th. Issuance of p.rmlts for scientific and educational collection of stony corals and sea fans could result In a limited entry program. Response: Th. Councils ha~ clarified intent In guld.llnes for Issuing permits (Section 12.4, ~easure 2). (24) Comment: ~ndatory reporting should be required of p.rmlt holders. Response: S.ctlon 12.4, ~asur. 2, provld.s for thIs. (25) Comment: Th. F~ is unnec.ssary, al I HAPCs are either established or nominated National ~arlne Sanctuarl.s. (26) Comment: Th. stat.s can bett.r manage coral; tederal manag.ment is unnecessary. Response to Comments 23 and 24: Section 4.0 has be.n revised to provide the Councils' rationale i, determining that menag.ment Is ne4ded and justified. (27) Comment: There is no evidence to show that fiShing gear prohibited in the HAPCs d.stroys or damag.s coral. Response: The scientific literature contains little documentation on the I~act of fishing g.ar on coral, probablf because It Is a basic assumption. Section 6.2.1 (fishing) does cite some I,stanees of damage, howe~r. Because the Councils do not "Ish to restrict gear use unn.e.ssarlly, they ha~ confined such restriction to thr .. HAPCs. Th. boundaries ha~ been reduced to Inc Iud. a minimum of bottom fishable by the prohibited g.ar. (28) eomn.nt: 8LM and OZeM are not protect I ~ I" the Gu I f of '4exl eo. Response: Eae~ agency has Its own authority and responsibility. Section 12.4, ~asure 7, addresses coordination alll)ng the ... rlous agencies. (29) COlllllllnt: I nad ... rtent har~st of cora I shou I d be reported. R.sponse: S.ctlon 12.4, ~asur. 3, requl~es the return to the "ater of stony coral and sea fans t~Ken Incidentally In oth.r flsh.rles •. Exception Is provld.d for unsorted catches where no silnlflcant alll)unt Is exp.eted to be taken. (30) Co~nt: How many enforcement o~rtl Ights are Included in c~st estimetes? Response: Cost estimates .ere based on 38 hours of flying time, $O~ of ~hlch may be I, ~Iti;ur,ose patrols. I •••• closed shrimp season. drug patrol. etc. (31) Comment: Fines tor violation Shoul~ be substantial enough to co~r e~ensl~ enforcement :~s~s. Response: The ~FCMA provides tor civil penalties not to exceed S25,000 tor each ottense. (32) Comment: All ages of c~rals and each reefal ecosystem snould be protected. Response: Section 12.4,.Measure I, prohibits the taking or destruction of stony corals and sea '3ns and coral reefs. L-4 .;'10"."., JA II 2 8 '9B~ ; ... i UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY \SJ REGION VI "~41 1IIJIdC~(.' 120 I ELM STREET January ~G, 1982 Mr. Wayne E. Swingle Executive Director CALLAS. TEXAS 75270 Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council Lincoln Center, Suite 881 5401 West Kennedy Boulevard Tampa, Florida ·33609 Dear Mr. Swingle: We have completed our review of your Draft Environmental Impact State ment (EIS) for the Fishery Management Plan for Coral and Coral Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic. Generally, the material reviewed was thorough and well prepared; however, the effects of oil and gas exploration on reef banks was discussed too briefly (see page 6-12). Additional information can be found in the "Preliminary Report: An Environmental Assessment of Drilling Fluids and Cutting Released onto the Outer Continental Shelf" 'preoared in 1981 by the Industrial Permits Branch and the Ocean Programs Branch of EPA in Washington, cr.C. We classify your Draft EIS as LO-l. 5pecifically, we have no objections to the project as it relates to Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) legislative mandates. The Statement contained sufficient information to adequately evaluate the possible environmental impact which could result from project implementation. Our classification will be published in the Federal Reoister in accordance with our responsibility to inform the public of our-~ on proposed Federal actions under Section 309 of the Clean Air Act. Definitions of the categories are provided on the enclosure. Our procedure is to categorize the EIS on both the environmental conse quences of the proposed action and on the adequacy of the EIS at the draft stage, whenever possible. We appreciated the opportunity to review the Draft EIS. Please send our office five (5) copies of the Final EIS at the same time it is sent to the Office of Federal Activities, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. Sincerely yours, ~ Jl- . k Whittington, P.E. I Regional Administrator Enclosure' L-5 LO - Lack of abj~~~ions , - . -., . - • .." t E?A has no objections to ~'e proposed ac!ion as ~~sc~~:ed in ~~e impac! stata~ent; or suggests only minor c~anses in :~e :~::oSe~ ~ ::1vir~nr.:ental Reser'/ations E?A has roeservations c~ncerning the envir~nmental eff:~~s of cer:a'in aspects of the proposed ac:ion. E?A believes that fur:her st~dy of suggested alternatives or modifications is-re~uired and has as(ed t~e originating Federal agency to re-assess these aspec:ss E!J - E:wiror:menta 11 v Unsati sfac::r', } ~?A believes t~at t~e ~rcCOSed action is unsatisfac::rj ~e~ause of i:s potentially ha~ful effec: on the envir:n~ent. ~~rt~er~ore, :~e ~sency believes that the potential safeguards whic~ might ~e utiliz2d may not adequately protect the environment fr:m hazards arising f~cm this ac~~on. The Agency recommends that alternatives to the ~ction be analyzed further (including the possibility of no action at all)~ ADE~UACY OF iriE !~P~ CT Si~ ~:NT Ca:e~orv 1 - ~de~uate The draf~ impact stat:T.ent ace~uat=ly sets f:r:h :~e envir:nmen:al i~~a of the ~r:posed proje~t or ac:icn as well as a:te~~ati~es reasonab1y available to the project or ac:io~. C.at=~or" 2 - r:'lsuffic~e~t !nfoliiaticn E?A believes the draft i~act statement does not centain sufficient infor~ation to assess fully ~ie envircn~~ntal imcac: of t~e prOPcsed project or action. However, fr:rn t~e infe~at~on sutmi:~ed~ t~e ~gency is able to make a preliminary cete~inat~on of t~e ;~cac! on ~ie environment. EPA has re~uested t~at t~e originator provice ~ie information that was not included in t~e draft sta~arr.ant~ Cats~orv 3 - !~ace~uate .. ~'" .... , Ie'" t th d -~' ~...... ... ' .. 1 c:.. ~ we 11 eves l.il! I e rar", i:::;ac: .. s .. a~;7.=n ",:oes not ace,::u a .. e y assess the environ~ental i~=ac~ of t~e ~roposed ~roj!ct or ac~ion, O• .... a· tl.e s"'a"---nt l'na"':J'Tu2-= 1" ;anal v~~s -=,:s"n 2 ;" i v 2'/~"··;-' 'T Q , ' •• 1 ,-.1 .. '-=,.= '- ~ ..... 'r • I '-' eJ J .. I e..., 1 aitar!'lati'/es. 'ine :'cenC'/Mas l"'~cues:ed ::':C:": ~ilfor~at~on and :na:'/s1s .. . ~ C -nc=~-:~~ • ... 0 ~o"=n·~a·1 -"V~~-r:-=n"2l ~a--~~~ .:n~ "'~s .:~~=~ -~~-... ...1.1 III': t...e ,. '- . 1 : ... II w 1111 10... .. ...;.:. .. ........ LI~ .,, .. ".5~ su ;"s~~n·~al -=V"Sl'On ~e -~~= -~ .. ~O :--.:~- S"-·-~~· .~-,- .: ~r 2-,··. ial '-6 , oJ ,.H ... .... !,....J '-.'''''' II.I~~ "-c:.~.: ••• .;a... S ·a·-~e~t ,'S ':SS,'~"O~ 2 ~··-~O~·I' ~o ~2·~n~ ~,'11 ~e ~~~a O~ ~"'a .. :'::.1& .1 ... :H ·~ ... 1",,':' =: I .. w, II 1 .1 ":" w i&I I '.,, ~roje~~ or ac~~on, sincs : basis ~ces not ;snerally exis: en ~hic~ to ~ake a cets~ina:ion. February 1, 1982 Mr. Wayne E. Swingle Executive Direcior ..... a.t', Ii' . . . . \. ,;-l ',fill Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council Lincoln Center, Suite 881 S401 West Kennedy Boulevard Tampa, Florida 33609 Dear~$~ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NatiaMI Oc .... c and Atmosph.,.ic Adrninistr.tion OFFICE OF COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT WaSI'lIngton 0 C 20235 CZ/SP/CC . ,- -.' r t -) r . "': . - . .... 1 ... W""-"'. .4 ••.• .:: ... t ...... ''''' .' ~.,; t.Ql TAMPA. FU)RJOA MJ9 We have reviewed the draft Fishery Management Plan (FMP) for Coral Reef Resources (December 1981) and, in accordance with our established Memorandum of Understanding which provides for exchange of information and advice, we offer the following comments. We are pleased that our previous comments on the FMP (February 2, 1981) were incorporated into this draft. For the most part, the FMP adequately and accurately describes the Offi"ce of Coastal Zone Management's (OCZM) role in managing national marine sanctuaries which complement the protection objectives of the FMPi .however, a few sections could be improved as follows: o page 2-4, section 2.7.S.b.d. To be consistent with descriptions of the other national marine sanctuaries, the description of Key Largo Coral Reef National Marine Sanctuary should be expanded to include location, area, and special management measures. I suggest the following: Key Largo Coral Reef National Marine Sanctuary. Designated in 1975, this sanctuary consists of a one hundred square nautical mile section of the upper Florida reef tract. Regulations prohibit, among other activities, removal or destruction of hard and soft corals within the boundaries of the sanctuary. o page 6-28, section 6.3. The description of Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary should include reference to sanctuary regulations to be consistent with descriptions of the other national marine sanctuaries. I suggest that the following sentence be inserted after (Antonius et al., 1978) in the second paragraph: 1.-7 In order to protect the reef's resources the following activities are prohibited: taking or damage to sanctuary resources, including tropical fish and corals; spearfishing; using . wire fish traps, poisons, or electric charges; littering; and lobster trapping within the fore reef area of the Sanctuary. 2 o page 7-1, section 7.1.2. Reference to Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary is not included. We appreciate the opportunity to comment on the coral FMP. We feel sure this cooperative exchange of ideas can only lead to more effective implementation of both our programs. ~-8 Sincerely, }p~ Nancy Foster Deputy Di rector Sanctuary Programs Office • DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION UNITED STATES COAST GUARD ·Mr. O. B. Lee, Chairman Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council Lincoln Center, Suite 881 5401 W. Kennedy Boulevard Tampa, Florida 33609 Dear Mr. Lee: MAILING ADDRtSS: (G-O u.s. COAST GUARD t WASHINGTON. D.C. 20513 PHONt:(202) 7SS-11~ A4:A-26 • 16214 FEB r r 1982 The Draft Fishery Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement (DFMP/EIS) for Coral and Coral Reefs dated November 1981 has been reviewed. The manage ment measures are straightforwarded and generally should offer no problems to enforcement. The measures outlined should not require extensive additional Coast Guard enforcement effort. It is understood that the general prohibition on taking coral will be enforced primarily at dockside by the NMFS and the Florida Department of Fish and Wildlife. Coast Guard enforcement will center around protection of the Flower Garden Banks and Florida Middle Grounds, habitats of particular concern. Enforcement in other areas will be incidental to enforcement of other FMPs and other laws. This will provide an efficient enforcement method at a moderate cos t. The East and West Flower Garden Banks first described on pages 6-22 would be best described by geographic coordinates such as described below: The East and West Flower Garden Banks habitat of particular concern is that area described by rhumb lines connecting the following point.: C1 27- 46 .S"'N latitude, 93- 57 .o ... w longitude; C2 27- 56 .O"'N latitude, 9:r 57 .o ... w longitude; C 3 2ee 04 .O"'N latitude, 93" 32.0"'w longitude; C 4 27- Sl.0"'N latitude, 93- 28 .O"'w longitude; Cs 27- 47 .O"'N latitude, 93" 45.5"'W longitude; C 1 27- 46 .S"N latitude, 93- 57 .O"'W longitude. This will enable aircraft (the primary enforcement piatform) to easily determine whether or not vessels are inside the area. It will also simplify the navigation problem of vessels in the area. Since aircraft cannot determine the depth of water a vessel is actually in, it is recommended that water depth as a criteria for fishing and anchoring restrictions not be used. A depth contour such as the 50 fathom (91.5 m) contour as shown on navigational charts would be an appropriate limit • L-9 Subj: Comments on the Draft Fishery Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement for Coral and Coral Reefs dated November 1981 In Section 13.10 the cOlts of Coast Guard enforcement have increased. Paragraph 1.6 Cost of Patrols, 1s now $4440 per day using an average of 95 foot and 82 foot class patrol boats for a total of $106,500 for 24 patrol days. Paragraph 2.b. Cost of patrols is now $1813 per hour using an average coat of HC-130, HC-131 and HH-3F helicopters for a total of $65,268 for 36 patrol hours. This total cost of enforcement of $171,828 reflects current fiscal year 1982 estimates of Coast Guard costso The opportunity to comment on this DFMP/EIS is greatly appreciated. If you have any questions regarding this matter please contact LT B1.11 CHAPPELL of my staff at (202) 755-1155 commer1c.a1 or-.FTS. Copies to: SAFMC CCGD7 (oil) CCGDB (oil) COMLAN'l' AREA (Aol) NMFS. F/CMS ~11FS, F / CM6 mfFS SER COMI>T, G-WS-1 Sincerely, cBt.JlA~ B. F. THOMSON, III Commander. U.S. Coast Guard Chief, Fisheries Law Enforcement Branch By direction of the Commandant 2 . ) United States Department of m~ ·m~~~iOr·~.:j.}~.~ •. ' ..... r". : ..... ...... 1\ ~;"'\oI" OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY WASHINGTON, D.C. 20240 In Reply Refer to ER 81/2660 Wayne E. Swinq~e, Executive Director . Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Counc1l Lincoln Center, Suite 881 5401 West Kennedy Boulevard Tampa, Florida 33609 Dear Mr. Swingle: 1 i982 This is in response to the request for the Department of the Interior's comments on the draft Fishery Management Plan/ Environmental Impact Statement for Coral and Coral Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic. We find the Management Plan/Impact Statement to be thorough and complete. with few exceptions, it takes a reasonable view of offshore oil and gas activities and does not propose unnecessarily strict prohibitions, even within designated Habitat Areas of Particular Concern (RAPC). We believe that under some circumstances the prohibitions are not strict enough. Since anchoring is the single most important cause of damage to coral areas, we recommend that anchoring from any size vessel be prohibited within the Flower Garden RAPC and within those portions of the Florida Middle Ground RAPC that our Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has designated as "No Activity Zones" (map enclosed). Other HAPC's might benefit from such a prohibition as well. This Department has commented several times during the development of the Flower Garden Banks sanctuary propo.sal that anchoring damage from boats is our greatest concern. Our comments have stated that we believe the lOO-foot vessel length restriction is too high and should be substantially lowered. We reiterate this concern and the concern that a mooring bouy system be required in the area. The discussion of BLM's and Interior's roles in protecting and managing coral resources recognizes the pioneering efforts we have made in funding studies and managing coral areas in the Gulf of Mexico. Since the court decision in U.S. v. Alexander, which held that BLM authority to protect coral was restricted to activities connected to the adminis tration of mineral leases, most coral and coral reefs are without management or protection. In general, because of the Alexande~ decision, BLM authority in this area has been negated.' To the degree there is a need for management action, we support efforts through the Fishery Management councils' plan to protect coral. specific Comments section 5.1. Information on, and classifications of, northern and northwestern Gulf of Mexico hard-bank communities could be enhanced considerably by using Texas A&M's five-volume report published in March 1981. It covers topographic highs from the Florida Middle Grounds to the Texas Hard Grounds. This is a continuation of BLM's study entitled "Northern Gulf of Mexico Topographic Features Study," Technical Report No. 81-2-T. Pages 6-19 and 6-20. Continental Shelf Associates, Inc., could be added to the tables on these pages for mapping topographic highs and "live bottoms" in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic. This is a BLM-funded study, August 1980, entitled, "Video and Photographic Reconnaissance of Phleger and Sweet Banks, Northern Gulf of Mexico." Pages 6-23 and 6-24. A discussion should be included to descr~be how des~gnation of the Flower Garden Banks as an HAPC and the protective measures proposed for them would change if the area is actually designated a National Marine Sanctuary. Again, we reiterate our concern that the 100-foot vessel length anchoring restriction is too high. . Page 6-28 The area for Fort Jefferson National Mouument should be corrected to read 64,657 acres. Page 6-32 to 6-35. The size of the Florida Middle Ground area (748 sq. miles) as deserving special management seems questionable. No justification is apparent as to why the entire area is critical or whether some smaller unit might be more deserving of special management protection. Also, the descriptions of the Florida Middle Grounds should be cited and listed in the "Literature Cited." Page 6-36. Depiction of the Key West National Wildlife Refuge in Figure 6-11 is 1naccurate. The Refuge includes all except one island west of Key West to the Marquesas Keys (see enclosed map). Fish and W1ldlife Service jurisdiction, however, includes only upland, not marine habitat. Page 6-39. The st~tement in the third paragraph that " ... recent OCS Sale No. 48 1n the Gulf of Mexico ... 11 is in error; Sale 48 was a Pacific sale. Also, the reference cited (Bureau-of Land Management, 1978) is not in Section 17.0, "Literature Cited." 1..-12 .} Page 6-40. The National Natural Landmarks Program is listed as being administered by the 'Heritage Conservation and Recrea tion service. The Heritage Conservation and Recreation Ser vice has been abolished and most of its programs have been transferred to the National Park Service, including the National Natural Landmarks Programs. ' Page 7-2. The second paragraph under Fish and Wildlife Ser vice (FWS), DOI, should read liThe FWS, under Department Man ual 655-1, is also involved ... 11 The Secretarial Order was a temporary measure, and the coordination procedure is now included in the DOI Manual. Page 7-9, 7.4.2. Flordia's CZM plan has been approved. Page 12-9. We enthusiastically support Measure 7. Because of the extensive nature of overlapping jurisdiction among agencies that have roles in protecting coral, a system of coordination such as Memoranda of Understanding could serve a useful purpose. Page 17.1. Adams is listed incorrectly. He was with BLM before coming to Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) over 2 years ago. Likewise, Table 6-4 (page 6-19) should be changed to show that Adams is now with the FWS. Page 17-6., The citation is incomplete for Davidson 1979. In summary, we support the Fishery Management Coun"cils' and National Marine Fisheries Service's proposal for management of coral and coral reef resources and thank you for the opportunity to review the EIS and Plan. Sincerely, / . / :/ / / J q, /1~~ ~c,A {, LA .. ,G-'t. //. .. " " ~~ruce Blanchard, Director c.,... Environmental Project Review Enclosure \..-13 3 SWGED-E IE'U TO &fTuno. OF: Mr. Wayne E. Swingle Executive Director DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY GALVESTON DISTRICT. COI'S OF ENGINEUS '.0. lOX 1229 GALVESTON. TEXAS 11553 .' 8 March 1982 . .. . . , . .:-..•. ---......" ......... : ,", ... -" ' .... J Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council :: =:. ..• ., :-:~ ~~;:l~.~~·.~~~:l··-;:i:~:·':··:·~ ·T: ..... ' , .'""::~,-,,, :::~,j Lincoln Center, Suite 881 5401 West Kennedy Boulevard Tampa, FL 33609 Dear Mr. Swingle: This is in response to letter from Ms. Joyce M. T. Wood dated 11 December 1981, which provided a copy of a Draft Environmental Impact Statement/Fishery Management Plan for Coral and Coral Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic, for review and comments. We have no comments on the document. The opportunity to review the document is appreciated. Copy furnished: Ms. Joyce M. T. Wood Director Jffice of Ecology and Conservation U.S. Department of Commerce Room 5813 Washington, D.C. 20230 Sincerely, WQ.~~ JOSEPH C. TRAHAN Chief, Engineering Division :'-14 OEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE . ~ 'I \, . ~I REGIONAL CIVIL ENGINEER, EASTERN REGION (HQ AP'ESCI III TITLa .UILDING. JO ~It.,Olt 'TltaaT. '.W. ATLANTA, GaOltGIA SOJOS .4..8JCCT; TO, ~OV2 2eviev of :::e ::raft ?is::ery ~·!anag~ent ?lan =:nviror'.men':al I:::-;:act S'::ate~e!",; L:::5) for Coral and Coral ~eefs of the Gulf of ~'!exico and South Atlantic ~ul.f of :·!exico ?ishery :·!anagement Co~cil Attn: :·!r. 'tlayne =;. Sving2.e ~xecutive Jirector :'incoln Center 54.]1 'tiest Kennedy =cule-.-ard. 3ui'!".e 831 ~~pa, :lorida 33609 1. 'tie ::ave revieved the sub.~ ect SIS a."ld =-.ave the folloving cOI:lIllents: a. :evel::pI:lent of a :~ishery :::ana,;e!:lent plan for the area described in the ~e!:lcrand~~ attached ';0 the s~tject EIS will not adversely affect no~al Air :orce operations in the :loriia area. ..... Shculi it cecc:::e necessary to search for and retrieve dowr..ed aircraf"; or:Jther Air :crce e-::.~:';:::ent i:1 t:-.e described area ve reserve ~he right to car~f out anynecessa~J ~nde~~ater search and salvage ~;era~::~5 :~ ~~e i~~e~es:5 :~ ~~::cnal defe~se. 2. :::a."' ~ you for t!':.e oppor:uni tj' t.::l reyiev this ::.-":::. Our 'Coint of con":s.ct is ~rr ..... iinfred :t. ::odson,:o:'.::lercial telephone (404') 221-6a21/ 6776 or ?:s: 242-6a21/6776. r."t:!",'l'" -...... c:'~,!".. .... """ .. ~.:J ...t • ..., .... ~ .C~:'ef ~~vir~~~e~tal ?lanning Division L-15 :'1 to: CS)':£ /:~::v 6550 A3:'i/'JE'21 ':3 'JOC I::~s. ~.jood 30u~h Atl~~tic ?isherJ Council/Mr. '30uld )1 \. HARBOR BRANCH FOUNDATION, INC. UNit 'OU • lUll t. lOX I.' • ,rOIlT "IIICI. FLOIIIOA 33450. U.S.A. • 30S/'es-2~ January 8, 1982 Mr. Wayne E. Swingle Executive Director Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Lincoln Center, Suite 881 5401 West Kennedy Blvd. Tampa, Florida 33609 Dear Mr. Swingle: Council ~ 'AN 15198!'~ ~ ~ r,t,. ,,~ / . 'f""4r,t:~ Once again I urge the Gulf of Mexico and Sou Atlantic Fishery Managenent Councils to accept the shelf-edge Oculina coral reefs off central eastern Florida as a Habitat Area of Particular Concern (nAPC) in their Coral and Coral· Reef Fishery Management ·Plan. This reef system is a major coral habitat, satisfying nearly all criteria for the identifica tion of a RAPC, and its inclusion is necessary if all major coral community types are to be represented as RAPCs within the management area. I respectfully resubmit the nomination of the she~f-edge Oculir.a coral reefs as a RAPC. This nomination is enclosed as a separate report. In accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, I have ·reviewed the Draft Environmental Impact Statement/Fishery Management Plan for Coral and Coral Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic (December, 1981 ~raft) and offer the following comments: 1) page 5-9, Table 5-3: Oculina varicosa Lesueur - known as far north as Cape Ha~~eras, Nor~h Carolina from subtidal to 152 m (Reed, 1980b). Known from W~ Indies and St. Tho~as, Virgin Islands (Verrill, 1901; Quelch, 1886). 2) page 5-16, Fig. 5-4: Include shelf-edge Oculina banks as a prominent feature from Fort Pierce to Cape ~anaveral, Florida along the 80° longitude (see attached Fig.). 3) page 5-17, 2nd paragraph: Oculina specimens collected from Gray's Reef have been iden:~:ied as O. varicosa (specimen on loa.n :=c~ !o!s. A. Edwards, skidaway Institute Ccear.c;=a~~y, GA, identified by J.R. Reed, Harbor Eranch F01.!!'l.da~ior.).' L-16 Wayne E. Swingle January 8, 1982 Page three I First of all, the denial based on the large area of the banks is inconsistent with the presently accepted HAPCse Three options of an Oculina HAPC were proposed in my letter of November IS, 1980, to the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils and consisted of areas covering 576, 3&6, and 92 n mi2 • "This third option is well within the size limits of the RAPCs which include the Middle Grounds covering 74~ n mi2 and the Key Largo Coral Reef covering 100 n mi • Secondly, the denial stating that the only potential threat is from roller trawls is incorrect. Other potential impacts include OCS oil and gas exploration and development, bottom longlines, traps, the discharge of substances (since the banks are along major shippi~g routes), anchors (lost anchor lines have been observed from submersibles on these banks), and other types of unregulated dredge and trawl gear. 11) page 17~19: add Reed, J.K. 1981. In situ growth rates of scleractinian coral Oculrna-varicosa occurring' with zooxanthellae on 6-m reefs and without on 80-m banks. Proceedings Fourth Intero Coral Reef Symposium, Manila Philippines, May, 1981. Reed, J.K., R.H~ Gore, L.E. Scotto, and X.A. Wilson. 1982. (In press). Community composition, structure, .areal and t.ropr.ic relationships of decapods associated with shallow- and deep-water Oculina varicosa coral reefs. Bulletin Marine Science 32(3). 12) page C-3, Appendix C: RA. danae Aaassiz" should read .~. danae Agassiz". 13) page a-I, 2nd paragraph, 9th line: "scraped to dept~s of 203 mm" is incorrec1:, possibly should read "2-3 rom". 14) page 1-2, section 1.3, 1st paragraph, 3rd line: deeeer waters" should read "deeper waters". Isc cc: ~ance Leary Robert Hahcod David Gould Joyce H.Tc Wood .-022 Sincerely, «KI2~ 4o~n K. Reed 1.-18 NOMINATION OF A HABITAT AREA OF PARTICULAR CONCERN (RAPC) NOMINATED BY: John K. Reed Route 1, Box 196 Fort Pierce, Florida 33450 Phone (305) 465-2400 SITE NOMINATED: Shelf-edge Oculina coral reefs off central eastern Florida. This includes banks, thickets and rubble zones of the scleractinian Oculina varicosa. The banks consist of Oculina colonies growing up to 1.5 m high, hundreds of feet long, and capping pinnacles up to 25 m in relief at depths of 70-100 m. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION: 'One of the following ,options is suggested: , ~ 1) '"Option I -' 27°30 'N to 2s035 'N and 7f056 'W to 80002"~'1: 1 65 x 6 n mi; 390 n ~2 (see Fig. 1). ~his area contains all the presently mapped shelf-edge Oculina banks (17-25 m relief), ~jor Oculina thickets and coral rubble pinnacles (ap to 25 m relief). 2) Option II - 27°30'N to 27·53'N and 79°56'W to SO·OO'W: 23 x 4 n mi; 92 n mi2 (see Fig. 2). This area contains four {presently known) Oculina banks, several thickets, and coral rubble pinnaclese The area off Sebastian has very irregular topography of high relief. In addition, the longitudinal boundaries of either Options I or II could be based on bathymetric contours which ~ould more precisely define the limits of the Oculina banks' L-20 , " • The qreatest relief and densest coverage of Oculina coral, however, is in the area of the proposed RAPC off central eastern Florida. 1.b. Oculina varicosa is endemic to the management area (Table 5-3, Draft FMP/EIS for Coral and Coral Reefs, 1981). The banks of Oculina, however, occur" exclusively in the region off eastern Florida although thickets and isolated colonies occur elsewheree The precious black coral Cirrhipathes (£. lUtkeni, £8 desbonii) are abundant within the proposed RAPe. 3 l.c. The shelf-edge Oculina reefs are a unique ecosystem.' They are monospecific, comprised of a single species of colonial coral, and form delicately branched bushes 1.S m in, height, hundreds of feet long, and covering hills and'pinnacles with 25 m relief. These are the only known banks comprised of monospecific colonial coral that occur on the continental shelf « 200 m depth) anywhere in the U.SoA. The deep-water ahermatypic coral Lophelia prolifera forms banks at much greater depths of 420 to 869 m ~n the Blake Plateau and in the Gulf of Mexico (Stetson et al., 1962; Moore and Bullis, 1960). The shelf-edge Oculina reefs are part of a system of topographical highs (discontinuous hills, pinnacles, and ridges) which stretches from Florida to North Carolina, but greatest relief and densest coral coverage is off Florida. Surrounding the coral capped pinnacles, the bottom is l '~ . " • 5 following scientific studies are completed or presently underway: Ecosystem research - The macro invertebrates that are directly associated with Oculina were sampled quantitatively every 2-3 months for one year. dundreds of species (see above) occur in dense populations on and among the coral branches. Over 2000 individual invertebrates were found on a single, 27 em diameter colony. The community structure, areal and trophic relationships are being analyzed in addition to the effects of various envi ronmental parameters on the community (see Reed!S !!., in press) • Species specific research - Studies are continuing on the ·growth rates of Oculina and the effects of various environmental parameters (Reed, 1981). Basically the coral ~s extremely slow growing at an averaqe 1.6 em/year. Studies are underway on breedinq behavior ana feedinq.habits cf several of the qrouper species includinq qaq ana scamp ~hich depend on this coral habitat (R. Jones, G. Gilmore, EBF). Several papers have worked up the larval life histories of various species of decapod crustacea co~ected " ~rom the Ocu1ina (see Scotto and Gore, in press~ Gore, 1979: Gore ~ !.!., 1981: Wilson, 1980: Andrys%ak ana Gore, .in press). The larval history of a sipunculid worm, Gol!incia misakiana, associated with the coral was described by Rice (1981). ~tiller and Pa~son (1979) desc:ibed a new subspecies of ho1othurian found en these reefs. L-24 · . ( 7 shelf; 6) the reasons the coral has faster linear growth rates in cooler, deeper water where it lacks -zooxanthellae than it does in shallcw water where it possesses zooxanthel lae: 7) the accretion ~ate of the reefs; 8) the health of the reefs, are they dyinq and what. caused the extensive areas of dead coral rubbleg There are also questions as to the impact of offshore oil and gas development as well as the effects of trawlers and other fishinq methods~ 2.b. The shelf-edqe monospecific banks of Oculina coral are unlike any other reef system on the ccntinental shelf in the U.SQA. They demonstrate the building of deep-water pinnacles under cool and turbid conditions by a single species of coral which lacks zooxanthellae. (In shallow-water, however, O. varicosa possesss zooxanthellae .but only forms small, < 30· cm ciiameter colonies and does not £o~ thickets). From submersible observations it is ~ostulated that individual hemispherical colonies coalesce to form long linear rows which grow into thickets and banks. Low relief hillocks may represent young bank formation. One 16 m high bank was probed ~ith a rod to a depth of 3~7 m without hitting rock substrate.. Only coral debris and mud was encountered. The proposed sar.c~~ar)· site is a unique region of topographical highs an= apparer.tly is a drowned reef and coastal reqion that-~as exposed during the last low sea level stand (10,000 - 14,000 B.P.) when the sea level was .apprd~icately SO m lc~er than present. The eastern most 1.-26 ) • , . \. (Draft FMP/EIS for Coral and Coral Reefs, 1981). The fauna associated with Oculina have both temperate and tropical affinities. Many of the decapod crustaceans .and fishes are eurythermic tropical species which can endure c~ld water (pers. comm., Dr. R.B. Gore, Smithsonian Inst.; G. Gilmore, HBF, respectively). 3. Exploitation a. The black coral Cirrioathes lutkeni (and C. desbonii) which has potential commercial value (Appendix 0, Draft FMP/EIS Coral and Coral Reefs, 1981) is abundant in the proposed RAPC. Specimens of Oculina spp. are also known to be sold in the marketplace such as shell shops for prices ranging from $1-3 for a 15 cm piece (Table 9-7, Draft FMP/EIS Coral and Coral Reefs, 1981) (It should be noted that Oculina arbuscula, 2. diffusa and 2. varicosa are all quite similar in morphology and could be easily confused by wholesalers) • Large pieces of 2 .. varicosa are occasionally for sale in dive and bait shops along the east Florida coast. 3.b. OCS oil and gas exploration and development have potential impacts on the proposed P~C. The Secretary of the Interior is now considering opening up the entire OCS area from Virginia to the Florida Keys for oil and gas leasing (pers. comm., M. Rinkle, OCS Representative to Governor of Florida and Chairman of BLM Technical Group South Atlantic). L-28 9 · . ( ( 4. Recreation a~ Grouper and snapper comrrlercial fishing off Florida is dependent on the shelf-edge reef system a. fishing, feeding, breeding and ~ursery gro~ndss Commercial finfish include scamp grouper, gag grouper, black sea bass, snowy grouper, red grouper, speckled hind, along with warsaw grouper, amberjack, red porgy, and red snapper (see Appendix 1 for scientific names)e Possible commercially important invertebrates include the delicate ivory tree coral, Oculina varicosa: black coral, Cirri~athes lutkeni: and squid, Illex oxvgonius. Illex sp. was seen to spawn on these reefs; previously its breeding grounds were unknown. Illex sp. is known to form 4n important portion of the diet of sailfish (pers. comm., Dr~ B. Voss, Oniv. Miami). 11 Recreational finfish which utilize these shelf-edge reefs either as feeding and breeding grounds or migration pathways. include snapper, grouper, king mackeral, amberjack, little tunny, sailfish, wahoo, tiger shark and hammerhead (see Appendix 1). Charter and private boats commonly fish this region ar.d sailfish tournaments are well known here. Actual catch statistics have not been compiled. 4.b. The shelf-edge Oculina banks are a sul:Jmerged scenic area. The sight of pure white bushes of delicate coral growing in steep terraces on 2S m high hills with a L-.30 15 Studies on decapod crustacea from the Indian River region Floridas XXIV. Bulle Mare Scie 32(3). \ Rice, M.Es 1981. Larvae adrift: Patterns and problems in life histories of sipunculans. Amo Zool. 21: 605-619. Scotto, L.E. and R.H~ Gore. In press. Studies on decapod crustacea from the Indian River region of Florida. XXIII. The laboratory cultured zoeal stages of the coral gall-forming crab Troalocarcinus corallicola Verrill, 1908 (Brachyura: Hapalocarcinicae) and its familial position. J. Crustacean Biole 1(3). Shipp, R.Le and T.S~ Hopkins. 1978. Physical and biological observations of the northern rim of the'De Soto Canyon made from a research submersibleo Northeast Gulf Sci. 2:"113-121. Smith, N.P. 1981. An investigation of seasonal upwelling along the Atlantic coast of Florida. Proc. 12th Int. Liege ColloqQ Ocean Hydrodynamics, p. 79-98. Stetson, T.R., D.F. Squires, and R.M. Pratt. 1962. ~oral banks occurring in deep water on the Blake Plateau. Amer. Mus. Nov. 2114: 1-3ge Taylor, C.B. and H.B. Stewart, Jr. 1958. Summer upwelling along the east coast of Florida. J. Geophysical Res. 64: 33-400 Thompson, M.J. and L.E. Gillilando 1980. Topographic mapping of shelf edge prominences off southeastern Florida. Southeastern Geology 21: 155-164. Wilson, K.A. 1980. Studies on decapod crustacea from 13 REFERENCES Anaryszak, B.L. ana R.H. Gores. In press. The complete larval aevelopment in the laboratory of Microoanoce scultipes Stimpson, 1871 (Crustacea, Decapoda, Xanthidae) with a comparison of larval characters in western Atlantic Xanthid <J.enera. Fish. Bull. 79 (3) • Anonymous. 1981. Draft fishery management plan, environmental impact statement for coral ana coral reefs of the Gulf of ~lexico and South Atlantic.. Gulf of Mexico ana S. Atlantic Fish. Mang. Councils, December. Avent, R.M., M.E. King ana R·.H. Gore. 1977 •. Topographic and faunal studies of shelf-eage prominences off the central eastern Florida coast. Int. Revue ges. Hydrobiol. 62: 185-208. Gore, R.H.· 1979. Larval development of Galathea rostrata under labo~atory conditions, with a discussion of larval development in the Galatheidae (crustacea Anomura) ~ Fish. Bull. 76: 781-806. Gore, R.B., C.L. Van Dover, and X.A. Wilson. 1981. Stuaies on decapod crustacea from the Indian ·River Region of Florida. xx. Microcanope barbadensis (Rathbun, 1921): The complete larval development under laboratory conditions (Brachyura Xanthidae). J. Crus. BioI. 1: 28-50. NOAA. 1981. National Marine Sanctuary Program. Program developrr.ent plan. NOAA, Office 0: Coastal Zone Management, Draft Aug. 1981, 4 appen., 55 p. L-l2 ~ . \ ' . , \... Appendix 1 Species list of fishes observed or collected on shelf-ed;e oculina reefs otf central eastern Florida. Species MURAENIDE Gymnothorax niqro~arginatus Muraena m~liar~s CLt1PE I DAE Sardinella anc~ovia SATRACHOIDIDAE Opsanus pardus SOLOCENTRIDAE Corniger spinosu. Holocentrus ascensionis SERAA.'UDAE Centrocristis ocvurus c. ph~iacel?hica ~. str~ata Oiplectrum for~os~~ Ep~nephelus acscensionis E .. drurnrnondhavl. 1'. ~taJara !'. mor~o E. nl.gr~tus !". n~veatus Hemanth~as vivanus Holoanth~as mart~nicensis Ll.opropoma eukrl.nes Mycteroperca bonac~ l'i. m~crolep~s R. phenax ~lectranthias carrucellus . Serranus phoebe . !. subl~gar~us GRAH.'"1ISTIDAE Rypticus maculatus !. saponaceus PRIACANTHIDAE Priacanthus arenatus Pr~st~genys alta APOGONIDAE Apoqon pseudomaculatus Cotmlon Name Morays Herrings Spanish sardine 'roadfishes Squirrelfishes Seabasses Bank seabass Rock seabass Black seabass Sand perch Rock hi.nd Speckled hind Jew fish Red grouper Warsaw grouper Snowy grouper Red barber Wrasse basslet Black grouper Gag grouper Scamp grouper Tattler Belted sandfish Soapfishes Bigeyes Cardinalfishes • 0 o o l • f Species SCOMBRIOAE Acanthocvmbium solandri Euthvnnus a!le~~era~~s SCOmberomorus cavaLla Scomberomo~us macula~us SCORPAENIDAE Neomerinthe hemin~avi Scor~aena bras~liensis ! d~spar MOLIDAE Mola mola MOBULIDAE Manta birostris CARCHARHINIDAE Gaieocerdo cuvier.i SPHYRNIDAE 2Phyrna lewini 0 i" . L-42 Common Name Mackerals and Tunas Wahoo Little tunny Kine; mac:keral Spanish mackeral Sc:orpionfishes Molas OCean sunfish Mantas Atlantic: manta Requiem sharks 'l'iqer shark Hammerhead sharks Scalloped hammerhead / ')