Seychelles’ Updated Nationally Determined Contribution

Article 4, paragraph 9, of the Paris circumstances. Agreement; (d) Each Party with a nationally (i) How the economic and social Not applicable determined contribution under consequences of response measures

Article 4 of the Paris Agreement have been considered in developing that consists of adaptation action the nationally determined contribution; and/or economic diversification ii) Specific projects, measures and Not applicable plans resulting in mitigation co- activities to be implemented to benefits consistent with Article 4, contribute to mitigation co-benefits, paragraph 7, of the Paris including information on adaptation Agreement to submit information plans that also yield mitigation co- on: benefit. 5. Assumptions and methodological approaches, including those for estimating and accounting for anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and, as appropriate, removals (a) Assumptions and Seychelles has accounted for its anthropogenic GHG emissions using the methodological approaches used for 2020 Supplement to the 2006 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change accounting for anthropogenic (IPCC) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, IPCC Good greenhouse gas emissions and Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas removals corresponding to the Inventories specifically, by way of the Sectoral approach. It will use the same Party’s nationally determined methodology to account for other categories of emissions and removals as contribution, consistent with part of the third national communication. decision 1/CP.21, paragraph 31, and accounting guidance adopted by the CMA. (b) Assumptions and See 5(a) above. Seychelles will also apply specific assumptions and methodological approaches used for methodologies, where relevant, when accounting for progress of various accounting for the implementation policies and measures in its Biennial Update Report or Biennial Transparency of policies and measures or Report strategies in the nationally determined contribution (c) If applicable, information on Seychelles is and will continue to use methods and guidance prepared under how the Party will take into account the Convention as per 5(a) above existing methods and guidance under the Convention to account for anthropogenic emissions and removals, in accordance with

Article 4, paragraph 14, of the Paris Agreement, as appropriate (d) IPCC methodologies and Seychelles’ emissions for CO2, CH4, are derived using the 2006 IPCC metrics used for estimating Guidelines (2020 update) using The Tier 1 methodology via the Sectoral anthropogenic greenhouse gas approach. Higher tier methodology will be used, where relevant and emissions and removals depending on availability of data. HFC emissions (of the RAC sector) are projected using the 2006 IPCC Guidelines (2020 update), Tier 2a approach (emission factor approach which considers activity data (sales) and installed equipment as well as emission factors during operation and disposal of RAC equipment). Electricity related emissions of the RAC sectors are derived from the projected electricity consumption of the installed equipment 13 (e) Sector-, category- or activity- Seychelles will account for reporting of GHG emissions and removals from specific assumptions, the LULUCF sector in accordance with the 2020 Supplement to the 2006 methodologies and approaches IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories consistent with IPCC guidance, as (i) Approach to addressing GHG emissions and removals from appropriate, including, as emissions and subsequent natural disturbances, if any, will be applicable removals from natural accounted for in accordance with the disturbances on managed lands prescribed 2006 IPCC Guidelines. (ii) Approach used to account for Due to insignificant scale of harvested emissions and removals from wood products in Seychelles these were harvested wood products not included in the NDC. (iii) Approach used to address the Seychelles will estimate GHG emissions effects of age-class structure in and removals in the LUCF sector, using forests; the maximum tier for which data is available. It will apply country-specific data resulting from field inventory measurements undertaken at regular intervals and estimated by modelling approaches. The field measurements will take into consideration tree growth information across the range of tree species and diameter classes for all forest types. (f) Other assumptions and methodological approaches used for understanding the nationally determined contribution and, if applicable, estimating corresponding emissions and removals, including: (i) How the reference indicators, To develop the NDC, extensive technical studies were undertaken, including baseline(s) and/or reference an assessment of Seychelles’ economy-wide energy efficiency and renewable level(s), including, where energy potential. Studies included assessing GHG mitigation potential of applicable, sector-, category- or actions in the energy sector, waste management and transportation sector. activity-specific reference levels, These were discussed and validated with national stakeholders in a validation are constructed, including, for workshop before being sent to cabinet of Ministers for official endorsement. example, key parameters, Stakeholder consultations were carried out through online means in view of assumptions, definitions, Covid19 restrictions in place at the time of the update. “The Greenhouse Gas methodologies, data sources and Inventory & Mitigation Strategies for the Refrigeration and Air Conditioning models used; Sector in the Seychelles (2020)” was the main data source for assessing RAC sector mitigation measures. (ii) For Parties with nationally Not applicable determined contributions that contain non-greenhouse-gas components, information on assumptions and methodological approaches used in relation to those components, as applicable; (iii) For climate forcers included in Not applicable nationally determined contributions not covered by IPCC guidelines, information on how the climate forcers are estimated (iv) Further technical information, None as necessary; (g) The intention to use voluntary Seychelles is committed to contributing to discussions on international cooperation under Article 6 of the cooperation under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. Depending on the Paris Agreement, if applicable outcomes, the country will explore the development and application of these mechanisms to support the achievement of its NDC targets. 14 6. How the Party considers that its nationally determined contribution is fair and ambitious in the light of its national circumstances (a) How the Party considers that its The calculated emission of Seychelles under the second national nationally determined contribution communication is less than 0.003% of global emissions. Seychelles is also a is fair and ambitious in the light of net sink and under the business as usual (BAU) scenario calculated in the its national circumstances second national communications. It is expected to be a net emitter in 2025. The Seychelles economy was severely impacted by Covid19 in 2020. Despite (b) Fairness considerations, this, Seychelles is still implementing economy wide emission reduction including reflecting on equity; targets, which has been further enhanced to complement adaptation strategies. In this context the contribution of Seychelles is considered fair and ambitious. (c) How the Party has addressed

Article 4, paragraph 3, of the Paris Agreement; (d) How the Party has addressed Seychelles updated NDC is an economy-wide absolute GHG emissions

Article 4, paragraph 4, of the Paris limitation target, which reflects its effort as a developing country Party to Agreement; address Article 4, paragraph 4, of the Paris Agreement. e) How the Party has addressed As per 6(d) above

Article 4, paragraph 6, of the Paris Agreement. 7. How the nationally determined contribution contributes towards achieving the objective of the Convention as set out in its Article 2 (a) How the nationally determined Seychelles target to limit GHG emissions in the above sectors to 820.7kt CO2e contribution contributes towards in 2030 and increase its adaptive capacity is in line with the objectives under achieving the objective of the Article 2 of the Paris Agreement and will help achieve the temperature goal Convention as set out in its Article set out in Article 2 paragraph 2(a) and Article 4 paragraph 1 of the Paris 2; Agreement. (b) How the nationally determined contribution contributes towards

Article 2, paragraph 2(a), and

Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Paris Agreement. 15 4. Mitigation Contribution Deeply supportive of the goals and objectives of the Paris Agreement to limit the global temperature increase to 1.5°C below pre-industrial levels, the Republic of Seychelles submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in 2015. This update deepens and moves beyond the initial set of actions and commitments with respect to scope, sector ambition, balancing of mitigation and adaptation actions, transparency, governance and loss and damage. With its new and enhanced mitigation contributions, Seychelles seeks to achieve a substantial mitigation benefit, lowering the GHG emission to a level of 817 ktCO2eq by 2030, relatively to baseline emissions, as well as a lasting adaptation impact in terms of energy and water security for Seychelles and improved resilience across communities. The enhanced mitigation contributions include: • The 2030 commitment to reduce economy-wide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 26.4% below business-as-usual (BAU); • The long-term commitment to achieve a decarbonized economy by 2050 and to boost electricity generation from renewable energies, including marine energy technologies, bio-energies, such as biomass and waste-to-energy, and the use of environment friendly intermittent energy storage technologies; • The 2030 commitment to shift progressively to low carbon transport, including active modes and international maritime transport, starting with public transportation; • The 2030 commitment to use renewable energy (RE) for water supply mobilisation and to secure a sustainable and resilient water management system; • The 2030 commitment to ensure that sewage systems and wastewater treatment facilities include nutrients and energy recover; • The commitment to ensure “Responsible Tourism” in a circular economy, defining a 2030 target of reducing GHG emissions from the sector. Seychelles supports the use of all of the enhanced ambition instruments under Art. 6 of the Paris Agreement, focusing on energy and mobility under the provision on cooperative approaches (Art. 6.2 Paris Agreement) and on targeting adaptation benefits for rural communities (food and water security and healthy soils) as well as interventions on sustainable tourism and blue habitats (ecosystem services from coastal wetlands and marine resources) under the non-market approaches provision (Art. 6.8 Paris Agreement). 1. Reducing energy intensity and fostering energy efficiency 2. Increasing renewable energy targets 3. Lowering the carbon intensity of mobility 4. Shifting towards responsible tourism and circular economy Key contributions of Seychelles to the Paris Agreement Seychelles’ new key contributions include: • By 2030, Seychelles commits to reduce economy-wide GHG emissions by 26.4% below the BAU scenario. • The 2030 commitments are set with the long-term goal of achieving a decarbonised net-zero emissions economy by 2050. • Key implementation targets focus on modernize the entire electricity sector, increased electricity generation from renewable sources, improved energy efficiency across sectors, the shift from fossil fuel- engineered transport to electrified transport and individual active mobility, enhanced resource rehabilitation and land mitigation measures. • To plan, manage and track progress, Seychelles will build a national climate governance system centered 16 on inclusive consultations, institutional coherence and scientific excellence. Seychelles plans to continue creating an enabling environment for the adoption of appropriate and relevant green technologies. Similarly, Seychelles’ mitigation commitments directly yield a range of significant adaptation and resilience benefits, and vice versa. Energy sourced from renewables means enhanced energy security for Seychelles across islands as well as self-relied access to clean water. These in turn provides climate resilience for urban and rural families and communities, encourages the production of local farming productions; it also considerably improves the livelihoods of those households living in poverty. Conversely, many adaptation measures directly yield mitigation co-benefits. Seychelles’ forests, soils and coastal wetlands are important carbon stocks, and all measures directed at protecting and enhancing these ecosystems – meant to reduce erosion, improve or protect against flooding and salination – also maintain and improve the country’s carbon sink capabilities. 5. Adaptation Contribution As a Small Island Developing State, Seychelles is inherently vulnerable to the impacts and risks associated with climate change, and thus gives high priority to climate adaptation strategies that will improve its resilience to these. Climate change adaptation has been on Seychelles’ national agenda since 1992 and the country has since developed a number of broad national policies, roadmaps and strategies that integrate climate change risks within the social and economic development sectors. This includes the 2019-2023 National Development Strategy. These plans continue to form the backbone of Seychelles’ commitment to climate change adaptation under this NDC, and will contribute to Seychelles becoming a climate resilient economy. Seychelles new key contributions to climate change adaptation under this NDC include the following commitments and targets, focused on safeguarding the Blue Economy and Blue Carbon ecosystems: • Seychelles intends for coastal planning and infrastructure to be regulated at the national and local level to prioritize the consideration of “blue” Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for climate resilience. • Seychelles will protect its blue carbon ecosystems, i.e. at least 50% of its seagrass and mangrove ecosystems by 2025, and 100% of seagrass and mangrove ecosystems by 2030, • Seychelles will establish a long-term monitoring programme for seagrass and mangrove ecosystems by 2025 and include the GHG sink of Seychelles’ blue carbon ecosystems within the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory by 2025. • Seychelles commits to the implementation of its adopted Marine Spatial Plan and the effective management of the 30% marine protected areas within the Seychelles’ Exclusive Economic Zone. In addition, Seychelles commits to continue integrating climate change considerations into plans and strategies across all key sectors by 2030 through the following priority actions: • Prioritizing nature-based solutions to protect coastal ecosystems from climate change impacts such as storm surges, flooding and erosion, using the Coastal Management Plan as a guideline for implementation of nature-based solutions; • Adopting an integrated Ridge-to-Reef approach to coastal management that brings together the Seychelles Marine Spatial Plan, the Coastal Management Plan, the Blue Economy Roadmap, the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan and other ongoing initiatives to guide development in sectors such as fisheries and aquaculture, tourism, agriculture, waste management, water resources, biodiversity conservation and urban development; • Developing a Port Development Master Plan, which also caters for growth and includes a climate adaptation strategy; • Improving the management of freshwater resources, implementing the existing Water Resource Management Strategies as part of the Seychelles Water Supply Development Plan, and implementing new strategies to reuse water; 17 • Developing and implementing a climate change strategy for the tourism sector, incorporating long- term sustainable planning and management of tourism infrastructure, and coastal management, in partnership with the private sector; • Updating and continuing with the implementation of the Seychelles National Agriculture Investment Plan and promoting climate smart agriculture including water efficient irrigation, rainwater harvesting and expansion of climate adapted crops and livestock; • Developing and implementing effective, sustainable and license-based fisheries management plans, integrating climate change adaptation, to ensure sustainable use of resources and avoid overexploitation; • Strengthening sustainable land-use planning and management and effective implementation of integrated sustainable development practices, and; • Implementing the National Integrated Emergency Management Plan. These combined actions will result in the development of climate resilient coastlines, critical infrastructure, blue and green ecosystems, and fisheries, tourism, and agricultural sectors. 6. Cross-cutting areas for action Several climate change mitigation and adaptation priorities cut across many different sectors and require coordinated actions between government, civil society, women, youth groups and private sector partners to build effective climate resilience. These include: 6.1 Capacity Building and Climate Change Education This is a cross-cutting theme in most of the mitigation and adaptation sub-sectors. Helping citizens and professionals understand how their sector contributes to climate change, how it is affected by climate change (or will be in the future) and what can be done to adapt - these are critical to the achievement of Seychelles’ NDC commitments. The Seychelles Climate Change Policy (2020) affirms Seychelles’ commitment to “strengthen capacity and social empowerment at all levels to adequately respond to Climate Change”. To achieve this objective, Seychelles plans to build local capacity through: • Integrating climate mitigation and adaptation content into the curricula of University of Seychelles and other post-secondary education institutions (e.g. Seychelles Tourism Academy, Maritime Training Academy, Seychelles Institute of Technology, Seychelles Institute of Agriculture and Horticulture, etc. • Investing in local skills development, professional development and peer-to peer support networks to assist in mainstreaming climate change mitigation and adaptation considerations into key economic sectors, (e.g. construction and engineering, coastal management, fisheries, agriculture, transportation, energy, tourism) • Expanding and supporting climate change, blue economy and marine education curriculum development, programs and internships, in the formal education system, particularly those that strengthen Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)1 • Supporting informal climate change education programs for the public, businesses, faith groups, and other audiences in collaboration with the media and other partners In addition, Seychelles plans to: 1 These capacity building activities should be developed together with relevant ministries, to ensure a connection to Seychelles’ needs and ambitions. The University of Seychelles and other local training institutes need to be equipped with resources to facilitate these programmes, focusing on climate change, sustainability and business, technology and innovation (BTI). 18 • Build capacity to monitor disaster and climate risks within the Department of Risk and Disaster Management. • Build capacity to implement and monitor climate change actions in sectoral plans and strategies, including in health, energy, agriculture, coastal management, disaster and risk management, tourism, etc. • Make climate change part of human resource planning and development in order to effectively respond to climate change impacts and protect the most vulnerable population in society. • Promote collaboration in climate change capacity building and education programs among partners from government, schools, professional groups, civil society, women, youth groups and the media • Fulfil the rights and aspirations of key populations, vulnerable groups (women, youth children and others) indigenous peoples, disabled persons and other marginalized groups through investments in climate adaptation with particular focus on those left behind. • Expanded opportunities for young people, who are stepping up to the advocacy and innovation challenge of climate change • Encourage life skills and family life education that integrates comprehensive sexuality education as a key part of building climate resilience among young people especially in vulnerable communities prone to climate impacts • Develop pre-service midwifery curricula and other relevant in-service training materials that incorporates climate risks and impacts • Build the capacity of local governments to create permanent and specialized task teams whose year round job is to ensure the maximum protection of the most vulnerable groups before disaster, during and post disaster as well as encourage costing/quantification of costs of inaction on climate change, and • Share best practice at the Paris Committee on Capacity Building to support other Parties. 6.2 Data Collection, Monitoring and Research It is important for Seychelles to consolidate its knowledge base by developing formal systems for collecting and maintaining data to support informed decision-making and adaptive management related to climate change adaptation and mitigation targets. Examples of this knowledge base include ocean reports, systematic and standardized data collection and methodologies, to build a better (national) knowledge base on the fundamentals for adaptation and mitigation. This will include the development and application of disaggregated population data, particularly for its climate change adaptation actions. To ensure robust implementation in line with the Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF) established under the Paris Agreement, Seychelles plans to enact dedicated legislation covering comprehensive monitoring, reporting and evaluation of GHG data, mitigation action as well as adaptation action, and defining a cross-institutional climate governance framework. Seychelles also commits to undertaking research to better understand, plan for and address the vulnerability across all key sectors. This includes improving understanding of the: • vulnerability of Seychelles’ critical infrastructure to climate change impacts, to identify gaps and priorities • vulnerability of the key economic sectors to climate change, e.g. fisheries, tourism, agriculture • the links between climate change and health trends • Impacts of climate change on marine and terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystems 6.3 Climate Finance For the implementation of existing climate mitigation and adaptation policy documents, it is important to identify funding resources and mechanisms to secure funding from various sources. While mobilising substantial domestic funding, Seychelles will rely on international support – technological, 19 capacity-building and finance – to achieve its 2030 contributions. The Seychelles Government will adopt a Climate Finance Strategy and Roadmap to establish and prioritise how best to incentivise domestic investments and how to direct funding from international public, private and sources for use in different project preparation and financing stages. It will also commit to undertake a cost assessment of all of our future commitments. An example of this includes implementing a State of the Coast assessment program (tied to the monitoring of the Coastal Management Plan) to understand the real costs of loss of coastal and marine ecosystems, through monitoring the status of key coastal features and the services they provide. In addition, it will, identify financing mechanisms to support its NDC implementation e.g. multilateral and bilateral funds, insurance products, debt-for-nature swaps, private investment, blue carbon credits and bonds, and other innovative conservation financing mechanisms. 6.4 Cross-sectoral coordination From an institutional standpoint, the success of climate mitigation and adaptation will hinge on improved governance, leadership capacity and coordination between different actors including government, civil society, women, youth groups and the private sector, as well as developing the capacity to plan for climate change impacts, effectively implement and adaptively manage these strategies. The need exists to improve the ability to address low carbons strategies and climate resilience within governmental agencies and institutions, as well as incorporating this knowledge in the policy, legal and regulatory framework. An assessment of the consistency, coordination and incorporation of low carbon pathways and climate resilience is required to enable better coordination among governmental agencies. This will be undertaken through: • Establishing linkages between responsible government entities to ensure the adoption of appropriate adaptation approaches and improved coordination during the implementation of national plans and strategies that safeguard critical infrastructure and a sustainable blue economy from the impacts of climate change • Strengthening linkages and collaboration between government agencies and private sector organisations to ensure effective coordination of Seychelles’ climate mitigation targets • Operationalising the National Climate Change Council with representation from private sector, women and youth, and • Seeking to involve youth in the Monitoring, Reporting and Verification system of the NDC Implementation. 7: Supplementary information to the updated Seychelles NDC 7.1 Mitigation Deeply supportive of the goals and objectives of the Paris Agreement to limit the global temperature increase to 1.5°C below pre-industrial levels, the Republic of Seychelles submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in 2015, which became its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) upon Seychelles’ ratification of the Paris Agreement on 29th April 2016. This update deepens and moves beyond the initial set of actions and commitments with respect to scope, sector ambition, balancing of mitigation and adaptation actions, transparency, governance and loss and damage. The revised submission comes immediately after the global SARS Covid 19 pandemic that severely paralysed the country’s fragile economy with earnings from the production sectors of tourism and fisheries significantly below normal. These threats, coupled with environmental threats such as Climate Change is likely to be harder felt by Small Island Developing States like Seychelles than other countries hence re- iterating the need to formulate more effective adaptation strategies. With this submission, the Republic of Seychelles hereby updates its NDC, reiterating and improving upon its commitments towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions. 20 With its new and enhanced mitigation contributions, Seychelles seeks to achieve a substantial mitigation benefit, lowering the GHG emission to a level of 817 ktCO2eq by 2030, relatively to baseline emissions, as well as a lasting adaptation impact in terms of energy and water security for Seychelles and improved resilience across communities. The enhanced mitigation contributions include: • The 2030 commitment to reduce economy-wide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 26.4% below business-as-usual (BAU); • The long-term commitment to achieve a decarbonized economy by 2050 and to boost electricity generation from renewable energies, including marine energy technologies, bio-energies, such as biomass and waste-to-energy, and the use of environment friendly intermittent energy storage technologies; • The 2030 commitment to shift progressively to low carbon transport, including active modes and international maritime transport, starting with public transportation; • The 2030 commitment to use renewable energy (RE) for water supply mobilisation and to secure a sustainable and resilient water management system; • The 2030 commitment to ensure that sewage systems and wastewater treatment facilities include nutrients and energy recover; • The commitment to ensure “Responsible Tourism” in a circular economy, defining a 2030 target of reducing GHG emissions from the sector. To ensure robust implementation in line with the Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF) established under the Paris Agreement, Seychelles plans to enact dedicated legislation covering comprehensive monitoring, reporting and evaluation of GHG data, mitigation action as well as adaptation action, and defining a cross-institutional climate governance framework. While mobilising substantial domestic funding, Seychelles will rely on international support – technological, capacity-building and finance – to achieve its 2030 contributions. The Seychelles Government will adopt a Climate Finance Strategy and Roadmap to establish and prioritise how best to incentivise domestic investments and how to direct funding from international public, private and sources for use in different project preparation and financing stages. Seychelles supports the use of all of the enhanced ambition instruments under Art. 6 of the Paris Agreement, focusing on energy and mobility under the provision on cooperative approaches (Art. 6.2 Paris Agreement) and on targeting adaptation benefits for rural communities (food and water security and healthy soils) as well as interventions on sustainable tourism and blue habitats (ecosystem services from coastal wetlands and marine resources) under the non-market approaches provision (Art. 6.8 Paris Agreement). 1. Reducing energy intensity and fostering energy efficiency 2. Increasing renewable energy targets 3. Lowering the carbon intensity of mobility 4. Shifting towards responsible tourism and circular economy 7.1.1 Key contributions of Seychelles to the Paris Agreement Seychelles’ new key contributions include: • By 2030, Seychelles commits to reduce economy-wide GHG emissions by 26.4% below the BAU scenario. • The 2030 commitments are set with the long-term goal of achieving a decarbonised net-zero emissions economy by 2050. • Key implementation targets focus on modernize the entire electricity sector, increased electricity generation from renewable sources, improved energy efficiency across sectors, the shift from fossil fuel- engineered transport to electrified transport and individual active mobility, enhanced resource 21 rehabilitation and land mitigation measures. • To plan, manage and track progress, Seychelles will build a national climate governance system centered on inclusive consultations, institutional coherence and scientific excellence. Seychelles plans to continue creating an enabling environment for the adoption of appropriate and relevant green technologies. Similarly, Seychelles’ mitigation commitments directly yield a range of significant adaptation and resilience benefits, and vice versa. Energy sourced from renewables means enhanced energy security for Seychelles across islands as well as self-relied access to clean water. These in turn provides climate resilience for urban and rural families and communities, encourages the production of local farming productions; it also considerably improves the livelihoods of those households living in poverty. Conversely, many adaptation measures directly yield mitigation co-benefits. Seychelles’ forests, soils and coastal wetlands are important carbon stocks, and all measures directed at protecting and enhancing these ecosystems – meant to reduce erosion, improve or protect against flooding and salination – also maintain and improve the country’s carbon sink capabilities. 7.1.2 Sectors and gases covered Power sector, including the Refrigeration and Air Condition subsector, Land Transport and Waste Management. The Greenhouse Gases covered are Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) and Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC). 7.1.2.1 Energy Seychelles is an island country with a high external energy dependence, both for energy production and transportation, since it needs to import the most used fuels, namely petroleum products and their derivatives. Biomass consumption is mainly focused on firewood in rural areas and the outskirts of cities for food preparation. RE sources are mainly wind and solar, with hydropower, wave, waste and biomass sources playing almost no role in Seychelles’ energy matrix. With respect to electrical energy, the vast majority are produced from thermal power plants using diesel and fuel oil. 7.1.2.1.1 Power sector For the Power sector, the target in the previous NDC is being maintained which was derived from the Energy policy of 2009. The policy and energy strategy are currently being reviewed. The target is 15.5% energy efficiency and 15% renewables in 2030. These targets are very ambitious for a Small Island Developing State and Seychelles is currently producing 5% RE and will need to scale to 10% in 10 years taking into account economic growth. CO2 emissions from RE and EE targets in power sector 500 Reference CO2 emissions, ktCO2 450 400 EE (15.5% by 350 2030) 300 RE (15% by 2030) 250 200 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 EE + RE Year Figure 1 – CO2 emissions from RE and EE targets in power sector 7.1.2.1.2 Refrigeration and air conditioning sector 22 For the RAC sector, emissions from hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) used as refrigerants are addressed by the commitments made under the Kigali Amendment (KA) to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as ratified by the Republic of Seychelles in July 2019. The Kigali Amendment mandates a capping of HFC consumption in 2024 and a first reduction step of 10% from 2029 onwards. The cap of HFC consumption is estimated at 30.0 ktCO2e. The hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) part of the baseline is not considered. In order to prevent a lock-in of highly climate-damaging HFC refrigerants during the period between now and the first KA phase-down step in 2029, the Republic of the Seychelles aims to implement early action on the reduction of HFCs and the introduction of climate-friendly alternatives. The key RAC sub-sectors for mitigation are split air conditioners (split ACs), domestic refrigerators and stand-alone refrigerators for commercial operation (commercial refrigeration). Minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) and labels will be introduced to increase the energy efficiency of appliances leading to a decrease of emissions from electricity consumption (indirect emissions). The transition to energy efficient and climate-friendly cooling solutions will be supported by skills enhancement programs for RAC technicians that cover the handling of low-GWP, and especially of natural refrigerants. The compliance with regulatory measures is supported by skill development of custom officials. Figure 2 – RAC mitigation measures – mitigation potential To contribute to the key climate change mitigation actions reducing energy intensity and fostering energy efficiency, Seychelles undertakes to: Reduce energy demand through change in the energy mix and 15% energy efficiency improvements by 2030. With adequate support, the reduction commitment can be increased below BAU projections. To contribute to the target the following measures are planned: • Decrease electricity consumption in 2030, giving more emphasis on energy efficiency. • Modernize and strengthen the electricity transmission and distribution networks. • Accelerate smart grid development and general use of smart meters. • Increase energy efficiency practices in public lighting, buildings, appliances, and other practices of energy efficiency and savings. • Adoption of technical specifications and criteria in building codes for low-carbon, low-tech, passive, bioclimatic, self-reliant construction techniques. 23 To contribute to the key climate change mitigation actions to increasing renewable energy targets, Seychelles undertakes to: Make a major shift towards the low-carbon economy by increasing the RE share in the electricity supply to 15 % in 2030. The RE target may go up to 100% in outlying islands. • Promote bioenergy and marine energy technologies. • Increase RE storage capacity. • Implement micro-energy network in outlying islands. • Installing waste-to-energy plants for methane recovery in landfill areas. • Introduce solar desalinisation plants. To contribute to the key climate change mitigation actions to increasing the share of energy-efficient and climate-friendly cooling appliances, Seychelles undertakes to: • Transform the three sub-sectors of split air conditioners (split AC), domestic refrigerators and stand- alone refrigerators for commercial operation (commercial refrigeration), towards energy-efficient and climate-friendly appliances. • Implement and enforcement of regulations to incentivize the transition to low-GWP through a staggered levy system and VAT exemptions and thus support the reduction of HFC-related (direct) emissions. These regulations are in effect since February 2021. • Ban on high-GWP refrigerants for both air conditioning and domestic and commercial refrigerators (stand-alone units) starting in 2025 (domestic and commercial refrigerators) and 2030 (split ACs). • Introduce Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) and labels to induce a reduction of emissions from electricity consumption (indirect emissions). • Introduce skill development programmes for RAC technicians to guarantee proper handling of low- GWP and especially natural refrigerants and for customs officials to ensure compliance with regulatory measures. 7.1.2.2 Transport The transport sector for its part remains a major consumer of fossil fuels as motor vehicles: in passenger cars, sea and air vessels, burn gasoline, diesel or jet fuel in internal combustion engines. The Government of Seychelles has identified the promotion of active and electric mobility as a strategy for reducing road transport-related GHG emissions as well as increasing the share of RE storage and penetration. To contribute to the key climate change mitigation actions on lowering the carbon intensity of the mobility sector, Seychelles undertakes to: • Reduce high-carbon mobility by urban planning and use of TIC. • Create secure and attractive urban cycling and walking pathways and routes • Reduce GHG emissions in domestic maritime transport. • Electrify the vehicles fleet with a priority for public transportation, collective, high-passenger load, duty and commercial vehicles over private, individual, low-passenger load vehicles, to make mobility shift socially inclusive and create public adherence and local jobs. • Promote EV mobility in Seychelles. 7.1.2.3 Solid Waste Management 24 For waste management, the Government policy in the previous NDC was to capture 50% landfill gas from disused Providence I landfill for flaring by 2025 (17kt CO2e). At the time of this update (2021), the Country is making use of Providence II landfill (disposal unit 1) since 2015 and with expected end life of 2025. The previous target was based on methane capture from Providence I in 2025, which will be very low. This revision now assumes that this will be done for Providence II landfill where higher gas volume will be available. The strategy to install machinery to extract and flare methane by 2025 is being maintained however there the target is being made more ambitious by collecting 80% methane from Providence II. This is expected to result in mitigation of 71.2kt CO2e in 2030 reducing the business as usual (BAU) emission from 88.96kt CO2e to 17.79kt CO2e. Over the next 20 years (2030-2050) this measure will mitigate 1,349kt CO2e from the atmosphere. GWP for methane used is updated to 28 in accordance to the IPCC 5th assessment report. 7.1.2.4 Responsible tourism and circular economy The tourism sector is capable of generating a lot of economic benefits, including positive impacts on the local economy and small businesses. Traditional tourism is organised in a linear way and thus may well lead to exploitation of natural resources, especially on islands that are primarily accessed by tourists through air travel. Circular economy has been proposed in recent years as a model that can help make tourism more sustainable. The tourism sector has the capacity to combine economic, social, cultural and environmental dimensions of sustainability and contribute to their mutual improvement. The circular tourism sector refers to its ability to trigger and stimulate circular flows with the aim of aligning the tourism sector and sustainable resource management. Seychelles’ contributions for 2030 are as follows: To contribute to the key climate change mitigation actions on responsible tourism and the circular economy, Seychelles undertakes to; Strengthen sustainable tourism as a factor for local empowerment and economic development, ensuring climate resilience and diversification and increasing decent employment. International and national efforts combined seek to reduce overall GHG emissions from tourism by 20% per visitor/day by 2030. Seychelles undertakes to develop a roadmap for the phased transition to a circular economy for the years 2030 to 2040. The circular economy aims to contribute to climate protection and adaptation to climate change. To contribute to the target the following measures are planned: • By 2025 mechanism(s) to facilitate importation (pending an appropriate tax regime of electric transport infrastructure must be in place such as electric charging power stations • By 2030, 30% of large tourism businesses (DMCs, taxis, etc) must have electric transport in their fleet. • By 2030, small and medium tourism businesses (omnibuses, taxis) must have 20% electric transport. • 30% of large hotels must phase out HFCs and move towards hydro–carbon refrigeration and centralized cooling systems by 2030. • By 2030, 30% of large hotels must have water harvesting and recycling systems in place. • 20% of small and medium tourism establishments must have water harvesting and recycling systems by 2030. • Upcoming developments should mainstream climate adaptation and mitigation measures in their initial development plans including adaptation to nature ecosystems. • Current developments should have a re-greening program for their properties by 2030. • By 2030, all tourism accommodation and catering businesses should have phased out the use of non- recyclable plastic bottles and replace with recyclable containers. • All management and employees of tourism businesses must be educated on energy efficiency and renewable energy practices by 2030. 25 7.2 Adaptation As a small island developing state, Seychelles is inherently vulnerable to the impacts and risks associated with climate change, and thus gives high priority to climate adaptation strategies that will improve resilience. The country adopts a ‘Ridge to Reef’ approach to adaptation, recognizing the interconnections between terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems and adaptation strategies to protect, manage and restore them 2. Seychelles’ “Blue Economy”3 recognizes the centrality of marine and coastal ecosystems to sustainable development, resilience and human well-being, and is hence an integral part of the country’s climate adaptation response4. Ninety percent of Seychelles’ economic activities, livelihoods and critical infrastructure are concentrated on the narrow, low-lying coastal zones of the main islands, often only 2-4 meters above sea level4. Successful adaptation to climate change will of necessity involve effective management of coastal resources, building coastal resilience and strengthening the capacity of Blue Economy sectors to withstand and manage climate- risks5. Such adaptation strategies will require significant investments in a variety of key areas such as 6, 7: • Strengthening of technical and institutional capacity in monitoring and research • Improving the quality of forecasts, early warning systems and climate information services • Vulnerability assessments and protective measures informed by sex-disaggregated population data • Development and implementation of better and appropriate policies for integrated coastal zone management • Building more climate and gender responsive social protection systems • Improved response and recovery from climate and disaster shocks Seychelles’ Blue Economy and associated sectors depend on ecosystems, natural capital and protected coastal assets, which are directly affected by climate change. Unsustainable use of natural systems in Seychelles enhances the impacts of climate change. Examples include coastal erosion and loss of valuable coastal habitats, potentially increasing the population’s vulnerability to climate change. Tourism and fisheries are Seychelles’ most important economic sectors, which depend on thriving and resilient ecosystems, beaches and safe coastlines. These geographic and socio-economic characteristics make Seychelles and its economy vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Scientific evidence indicates that Seychelles already experiences climate change. Increased average annual temperature change8, changes in rainfall patterns and flash floods since 19909 illustrate this. Ocean heat content increases since 1970 and incidences of El Niño events are expected to result in more frequent coral bleaching10. The primary impacts of climate change on Seychelles are expected to be caused by sea level rise (0.3 meters by 2050 and 0.6 meters by 2100, relative to 2010) and an increase in storm severity, creating coastal hazards and increasing coastal vulnerability11. Natural habitats and biodiversity, the coastal zone and human settlements, agriculture, water resources, fisheries and human health are the key socio-economic sectors considered for sensitivity and vulnerability to climate change in Seychelles6. 2 Government of Seychelles (2020). Seychelles’ National Climate Change Policy. 3 The Blue Economy refers to the sustainable and integrated development of economic sectors in healthy oceans (World Bank, https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/problue). 4 Government of Seychelles (2018). Seychelles Blue Economy: Strategic Policy Framework and Roadmap: Charting the Future (2018-2030) 5 IMF. (2017). Seychelles Climate Change Policy Assessment. African & Fiscal Affairs Dept. 6 UNDP. (n.d.). Climate change adaptation—Seychelles. https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/africa/seychelles 7 World Bank. (2019a). The World Bank Group Action Plan on Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience. (p. 24), Washington, DC: World Bank 8 FAOSTAT. (2020). FAOSTAT [Global database]. Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations - FAOSTAT DATA. 9 SMA. (2019). New patterns of rainfall distribution are emerging in Seychelles compared to two decades ago [Meteorology]. Seychelles Meteorological Authority. 10 NOAA, T. (2020). Global Ocean Heat and Salt Content. National Centers for Environmental Information - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 11 World Bank, & MEECC. (2019). Seychelles Coastal Management Plan 2019–2024. World Bank; Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change. 26 Adaptation progress The Republic of Seychelles recently updated its climate change policy and is currently revising its Climate Change Strategy and Adaptation communication in line with Article 7 of the Paris Agreement and Decision 9 CMA.1 and its annexes. The country is also currently working on its Third National Communication to the UNFCCC. Climate change adaptation has been on Seychelles’ national agenda since 1992 and the country has since developed a number of broad national policies, roadmaps and strategies that aim to facilitate climate change adaptation in Seychelles12. Most recently, the Seychelles National Climate Change Policy was adopted in 2020 with the aim “to facilitate a coordinated, coherent, proactive and effective response to the local, regional and global challenges and opportunities presented by Climate Change”. Another key response is Seychelles’ Blue Economy Strategic Framework and Roadmap adopted in 2018, which focuses on the principle of “reducing vulnerability to economic and environmental shocks and resilience planning” 13. In addition, Seychelles has several sectoral policies and plans that address climate resilience, including for coastal management, fisheries, health, disaster and risk management, biodiversity conservation and food security. These plans form the backbone of Seychelles’ climate adaptation response under this NDC. Priorities for climate change adaptation in Seychelles under this NDC This updated Nationally Determined Contribution for climate change adaptation provides an overview of the current vulnerability, context, and priorities for action for each of the following sub-sectors critical for Seychelles’ development: 1. Coastal Management 2. Critical Infrastructure 3. Fisheries 4. Tourism 5. Agriculture and Biosecurity 6. Resilience of Blue Carbon Ecosystems 7. Biodiversity Conservation 8. Health 9. Early Warning and Disaster Risk Management 7.2.1 Coastal Management The granitic rocky outcrops and white sandy beaches along Seychelles’ coastline are its’ main tourist attraction4, 14, however the country’s coastal ecosystems also include mangrove forests, freshwater wetlands, dunes, seagrass beds and coral reefs. Seychelles’ Blue Economy sectors, particularly tourism and fisheries, rely on these rich coastal ecosystems, natural capital and the services they provide, such as flood and erosion protection, fish nurseries and recreation. This subsector focuses on the protection, restoration and management of coastal areas, critical for climate adaptation and the Blue Economy. The subsequent subsector focuses on built, critical infrastructure located in the narrow coastal zone within these ecosystems. Vulnerability Seychelles’ coastal ecosystems help to protect the coast from erosion and flooding aggravated by climate change, but are themselves subject to climate impacts. Coral reefs are important for Seychelles’ Blue Economy, due to their wave attenuation capacity, provision of nursery grounds and habitat for many fish species, and aesthetics for tourism and recreation. Reefs are threatened by increasing sea surface temperature, ocean acidification15 and coral bleaching events like those of 1998 and 2016 in Seychelles, both of which are 12 Government of Seychelles. (2020). Seychelles’ National Climate Change Policy—"Making Seychelles Climate Resilient" (p. 34). Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change. 13 Republic of Seychelles. (2018). Seychelles Blue Economy: Strategic Policy Framework and Roadmap Charting the future (2018-2030) (pp. 88–88). 14 Payet, R. A. (2007). Impact of Climate Change on Tourism in Seychelles and Comoros (p. 110). Department of Environment. 15 Mendler de Suarez, J., Cicin-Sain, B., Wowk, K., Payet, R., & Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2014). Ensuring survival: Oceans, climate and security. Ocean & Coastal Management, 90, 27–37. 27 poised to increase in intensity and frequency due climate change16, leaving little time for reef recovery between these events17. Loss of live coral contributes to a reduction in flood and erosion protection by these natural breakwaters18, impacting coastal infrastructure and livelihoods connected to the fisheries sector as well as the tourism sector. Seychelles is known for its pristine beaches, which are important for attracting tourists19. Wide and slowly sloping beaches can reduce wave energy while healthy dune vegetation can create stability and coastal protection. Degradation of coral reefs, sea level rise, storm surges, loss of dune vegetation and poorly conceived coastal development have contributed to the erosion of Seychelles beaches11. Beach loss is observed and expected to increase in the decades to come. Planning and implementation Seychelles’ Coastal Management Plan (CMP) 2019-202411 is currently the country’s main adaptation strategy against coastal erosion, flooding, tidal variations and cyclones. The CMP focuses on the three main populated islands and emphasizes nature-based and hybrid engineering solutions such as the restoration of beaches and dunes, coral reefs and wetlands20. In addition to beaches, coastal habitat protection and restoration in Seychelles focus on coral reefs, seagrass, dune systems and mangroves. Seychelles has implemented several Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EBA) projects focused on dune and mangrove restoration as well as reconnecting coastal wetlands to improve drainage and reduce flooding. Several NGOs are implementing coral restoration projects in multiple sites21 and a six-year Adaptation Fund project recently commenced aims to restore 2.5 ha of coral reefs and build capacity in this field. Seychelles’ Marine Spatial Plan (SMSP) which began in 2014 and is expected to be launched in 2021, focuses on planning for and management of the sustainable and long-term use and health of the Seychelles’ EEZ. The key challenges covered in SMSP include climate change adaptation, marine protection and supporting the Blue Economy and other national strategies. As part of the SMSP, 30% of the EEZ has been designated as marine protected areas (MPA)22. A GEF-funded Ridge to Reef project is currently being implemented by the Government of Seychelles with partners from civil society, integrating strategies to protect, manage and restore terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems. To contribute to the key climate change adaptation actions on coastal management, the following actions are planned: • Prioritize nature-based solutions to protect coastal ecosystems from climate impacts such as storm surges, flooding and erosion, using the Coastal Management Plan as a guideline for implementation of nature-based solutions. • Adopt an integrated Ridge to Reef approach to coastal management that brings together the SMSP, CMP, and other ongoing initiatives and guides development in sectors such as agriculture, agriculture, environment, water resources and urban development. • Build capacity for sustainable coastal zones management to enable the assessment of climate change impacts, the design of coastal protection projects (hard, hybrid and nature-based solutions), and the 16 Wang, B., Luo, X., Yang, Y.M., Sun, W., Cane, M.A., Cai, W., Yeh, S.W., Liu, S., (2019. Historical change of El Niño properties sheds light on future changes of extreme El Niño. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116 (45), 22512-22517. 17 Koester, A., Migani, V., Bunbury, N., Ford, A., Sanchez, C., Wild, C. (2020). Early trajectories of benthic coral reef communities following the 2015/16 coral bleaching event at remote Aldabra Atoll, Seychelles. Nature Scientific Reports, 10(1), 17034. 18 World Bank, & MEECC. (2019). Seychelles Coastal Management Plan 2019–2024. World Bank; Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change. 19 Payet, R. A. (2007). Impact of Climate Change on Tourism in Seychelles and Comoros (p. 110). Departement of Environment. 20 World Bank. (2020). Assessment of government’s institutional and technical capacity for implementation of Seychelles’ Coastal Management Plan 2019-2024. 21 Republic of Seychelles. (2018). Seychelles Blue Economy: Strategic Policy Framework and Roadmap Charting the future (2018-2030) (pp. 88– 88). 22 Republic of Seychelles (2015). Seychelles Marine Spatial Planning Legislative and Policy Review (p. 96) [Unpublished report to Seychelles MSP Initiative]. 28 drivers behind observed ecosystem loss. Invest in local skills development and peer-to-peer support networks to assist in mainstreaming and supporting upskilling. • Implement a State of the Coast assessment program (tied to CMP monitoring) to understand the real costs of loss of coastal and marine ecosystems, through monitoring the status of key coastal features and the services they provide. • Improve data and knowledge management by creating a database that brings together existing patchy data to maintain updated comprehensive coastal habitat maps. 7.2.2 Critical Infrastructure Vulnerability Most of Seychelles’ critical infrastructure is located along an exposed coastline, and includes the main transportation network on the three main islands, the electricity generation/distribution network, the water distribution network, food storage warehouses, airports, ports and fisheries facilities, schools and hospitals. Most of this critical infrastructure is essential to the Blue Economy, such as ports (including oil storage facilities), facilities supporting fisheries, tourism establishments, water supply systems and landfills. Due to their exposed location, most infrastructure is vulnerable to storm surges, erosion, heavy/decreased rainfall, sea level rise and inundation. For its motorised transportation networks, the country continues to suffer excessive damage due to climate change induced high intensity rainfalls. The road network is at particular risk to climate impacts, both in low lying areas where roads are damaged as a result of coastal erosion and flooding, and at higher elevations where they are susceptible to landslides and rock falls during periods of intense rainfall. Damaged critical infrastructure could result in major economic ramifications including shortage of water supplies, impacts on tourist and employee transit, compromised port operations, impacts on the import and export of goods and services, reduced operations of fishing fleets, limited interisland transport between Mahé and Praslin and the well-being of Seychellois22. Planning and implementation At present, the country lacks a comprehensive and overarching national climate change adaptation plan for critical infrastructure. However, some of the Blue Economy sectors have developed plans that address climate adaptation for specific critical infrastructure: • The Seychelles Port Authority’s Strategic Plan takes into account climate vulnerability and requires future development to be conducted according to the Green Ports Initiative (GPI) 23. GPI enhances waste management facilities whilst reducing marine pollution and aims to source power from renewable sources24. • Seychelles Waste Management Policy 2018-2023 aims to ensure that waste is managed in a sustainable manner, in order to protect the integrity of the environment and improve the quality of life in Seychelles. Adaptation measures include minimizing solid waste on landfills, applying financial levies to the entry of high carbon footprint products and directing this flux to recycling schemes. • The Integrated and Comprehensive Sanitation Master Plan (ICSMP) targets the upgrading and constructing of ten operational wastewater treatment plants on Mahé, two on Praslin and one on La Digue by 203025. • Seychelles Water Supply Development Plan 2008-2030 aims to refurbish the current four desalination plants and construct new plants26. • Seychelles plans to develop a comprehensive road transport strategy to reduce vehicular congestion and fuel consumption with co-benefits for climate change mitigation and health. The strategy will include infrastructure development for bicycles and expansion of public walkways to encourage 23 Seychelles Ports Authority. (2019). Seychelles Ports Authority Strategic Plan 2019-2023 (p. 36). Seychelles Ports Authority. 24 Republic of Seychelles. (2018). Seychelles Blue Economy: Strategic Policy Framework and Roadmap Charting the future (2018-2030) (pp. 88) 25 Bozorgy, B., Drozdz, J., Horton, B., Jalocha, R., Charlette, I., Ismail, U., Mallik, M., & Martin, M. (2017). Integrated & Comprehensive Sanitation Master Plan for Seychelles (MWH 47501657; p. 442). 26 Mussard, S. (2014). Seychelles Water Supply Development Plan 2008-2030. 14th African Water Facility Governing Council Meeting, Tunis, Tunisia 29 walking and cycling in selected areas. These actions will be complemented with a review of urban development in Victoria, the need to divert vehicular traffic from the city centre and adapting nature- based solutions to keeping urban areas cool. To contribute to the key climate change adaptation actions on critical infrastructure, the following actions are planned: • Undertake research to better understand, plan for and address the vulnerability of Seychelles’ critical infrastructure, in particular to climate change impacts, identifying gaps and priorities. • Establish linkages between responsible government entities to ensure an appropriate adaptation approach and coordination between the implementation national plans and strategies addressing climate adaptation for critical infrastructure. • Establish a national infrastructure database with information on the location, use, ownership and compliance with safety standards of critical infrastructure. • Develop and implement a responsive education and awareness program targeting infrastructure users, supported by appropriate research and reflexive monitoring. • Develop a Port Development Master Plan, which caters for growth and integrate climate change considerations. • Improve communication on waste management (repairing, reducing and recycling waste) as well as providing incentives to encourage a circular economy approach for Seychelles. • Improve management of freshwater resources and implement new strategies to reuse water27 and implement the existing Water Resource Management Strategies as part of the Seychelles Water Supply Development Plan. • Undertake the risk assessment of existing and future road networks and construction of retaining walls and drains are important adaptation actions, which need to be further developed and implemented in collaboration with key partners. • Develop and implement a comprehensive road transport strategy to promote active, safe and sustainable transportation such as walking and cycling. 7.2.3 Fisheries Vulnerability Fisheries is one of the main Blue Economy sectors of Seychelles, employing around 17% of the population28. The sector, including both artisanal and commercial fisheries, is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on ocean temperature and acidification, on habitats which affect commercial species such as tuna and coastal demersal fisheries resources, as well as on the infrastructure on which the sector relies. Studies indicate that the medium to long-term impact of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture is linked to loss of production and damage to infrastructure due to extreme weather events. Fluctuations in ocean temperature resulting from climate change can affect important habitats such as coral reefs, consequently affecting the marine food web and commercial fish as well as the distribution of highly migratory tuna species. Short- term impacts on fisheries and aquaculture consist of increased risks of diseases, parasites and harmful algal blooms, and these are expected to increase in severity beyond 2030. A warmer and less productive ocean environment is likely to cause relocation of purse seine tuna fishing zones after 2050, possibly to outside Seychelles’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). This would affect the landing of tuna at Port Victoria, negatively impacting Seychelles’ primary export of canned tuna.29. Moreover, it will affect indirect revenues of the sector such as port and shipping as well as the services provided for export of tuna. 27 Government of Seychelles. (2017). Technology Needs Assessment Report—Adaptation (p. 88). Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change. 28 World Bank. (2017). Third South West Indian Ocean Fisheries Governance and Shared Growth Project (SWIOFish3)—Process Framework for SWIOFish3 Project (p. 78). World Bank Group; Ministry of Finance, Trade and Economic Planning Republic of Seychelles. 29 Barange, M., Bahri, T., Beveridge, M. C. M., Cochrane, K. L., Funge Smith, S., Poulain, F., & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2018). Impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture: Synthesis of current knowledge, adaptation and mitigation options (p. 654) [FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper]. 30 Planning and implementation The Seychelles Fisheries Sector Policy and Strategy 2019 provides the policy framework for the sector. Other policy drivers for adapting to the vulnerability of the sector are the Coral Reef Policy (in development), the Blue Economy Strategic Framework and Roadmap, the Seychelles Fisheries Comprehensive Plan 2019, the Seychelles National Aquaculture Policy 2018-2022, the Seychelles National Agriculture Investment Plan (SNAIP) Programme 3 on fisheries and the Mahé Plateau Demersal Fisheries Management Plan30. The aim is to transition to sustainable fisheries and develop aquaculture activities that can contribute towards, and sustainably support, livelihoods, jobs and income generation of one of the largest economic sectors, as well as generating increased food security for the population31. To contribute to the key climate change adaptation actions on fisheries, the following actions are planned: • Develop and implement effective, sustainable and license-based fisheries management plans, to ensure sustainable use of resources and avoid overexploitation. Climate change adaptation should be integrated into all fisheries related plans and strategies. • Work with the private sector to support diversification of the sector with a focus on promoting investment in sustainable aquaculture. • Invest in research to understand the vulnerability of the various fisheries and the sector to climate change. • Promote awareness and utilization of existing funding options that support sustainability transitions and empower climate adaptation of the sector • Promote inclusion across gender in the downstream of the sector 7.2.4 Tourism Vulnerability Tourism is Seychelles’ most important economic sector and a key pillar of the Blue Economy. The sector is being severely negatively affected by the travel restrictions following the COVID-19 pandemic. The tourism sector depends on pristine beaches, thriving marine life and well designed, climate-resilient critical infrastructure. Tourism establishments such as hotels, bed & breakfasts and self-catering facilities are highly exposed along the coastline of Seychelles and a number of tourism services and activities are ocean based. The impacts of flooding and extreme weather events make the sector vulnerable and coastal erosion undermines the quality of the beaches. The impact of climate change is long-term and cumulative due to multiple pressures, as the sector relies intricately on vulnerable critical infrastructure and the conservation of the natural environment32. Planning and implementation Seychelles Sustainable Tourism Label (SSTL) was introduced in 2011, encouraging the hospitality sector to operate in a more sustainable manner, and the Tourism Department has been working to mainstream climate change mitigation, adaptation and disaster and risk management into their policies and programs. Educational resources and outreach support by staff for hotels and guesthouses on climate change adaptation and disaster risk preparedness are available. The Tourism Department works in partnership with other government and civil society organisations to support climate mitigation and adaptation initiatives. To contribute to the key climate change adaptation actions in the tourism sector, the following actions are planned: • Apply the results of the ongoing Tourism Satellite Account (due in 2022) will be used to understand where the major climate impacts occur and how adaptation can be streamlined. 30 Republic of Seychelles. (2018). Seychelles Blue Economy: Strategic Policy Framework and Roadmap - Charting the future (2018-2030) (pp. 88– 88). 31 Seychelles Fishing Authority. (2018). Seychelles National Aquaculture Policy 2018-2022. 32 Maillard, L., Summerlin, T., Wilder, A., Rice, H., Rumschlag, J., Xie, D., Rood, R., & Basu, A. (2020). Evaluating the Impacts of Sea Level Rise and Storm Surges on Seychelles’ Critical Infrastructure 31 • Develop a climate change strategy for the sector can be developed, based on the recommendations from the Tourism Master Plan and the Tourism Value Chain Analyses. • Develop long-term sustainable planning and management of tourism infrastructure should be envisioned by Seychelles, including regulations on set-back distances and beach management plans. • Diversify the sector to create economic resilience, e.g. including eco-tourism and alternatives to coral reef dependent activities whilst simultaneously engaging the local community. • Give, special attention to the engagement of SMEs in climate change adaptation, since Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) are often less capable of adapting to climate change, • Increase transparency in public versus private responsibility for the implementation of adaptation measures to assist in identifying finance options and the development of incentives. • Continue building local adaptation capacity in the tourism sector, tertiary education institutions such as the University of Seychelles’ Master in Sustainable Tourism and the Seychelles Tourism Academy courses will continue to work on explicit integration of climate adaptation and sustainable coastal and marine tourism-related content and/or case studies. 7.2.5 Resilience of Blue Carbon Ecosystems Blue Carbon Ecosystems -mangroves, seagrass and saltmarsh ecosystems - help to buffer against storm surges, filter water, shelter and nourish a wealth of biodiversity, providing economic opportunity and intrinsic value for communities whose well-being and livelihoods are tied to their healthy function. Their importance for coastal protection and climate resilience has been highlighted in section 4.1 of Seychelles Coastal Management Plan. There is also a growing appreciation for the important role played by these ecosystems as “blue carbon sinks”, due to their high potential for carbon sequestration. “Blue carbon” ecosystems capture perfectly the measurable climate benefits that can be realized through the application of nature-based solutions. However, these coastal ecosystems need to be healthy, functional and maintained through protection in order to fulfil their critical roles for both climate change mitigation and adaptation. Vulnerability Globally, coastal wetlands are in critical need of protection, with approximately 50% lost in the past 100 years. In Seychelles, many coastal ecosystems have been degraded or destroyed due to development since colonization, and continue to be threatened by coastal development, economic activity, pollution, warming sea temperatures and ocean acidification induced by climate change. Planning and Implementation Seychelles is committed to recognizing within its climate goals the interlinked climate, ecosystem and biodiversity benefits provided by its mangrove and seagrass ecosystems, including fully mapping their extent and assessing their carbon stock capacity. The 2013 IPCC Wetlands Supplement provides a framework that allows countries to measure the rate at which coastal and marine ecosystems sequester and store carbon. Through the application of cutting-edge technologies in partnerships specifically designed to strengthen local, scientific, methodological and governance capacities, Seychelles intends to map the full extent of seagrass and mangroves (blue carbon) habitats within Seychelles’ territorial sea and EEZ and assess carbon storage capacity within these ecosystems. This will include the first assessment of the below-ground carbon stocks for seagrass, through the application of pioneer new technologies, the learnings of which will be shared to help further advance global understanding of the climate and ecosystem benefits provided by this vital ecosystem and form the basis of better protection and conservation of these ecosystems within Seychelles waters. Seychelles commitment is not only to advance the protection of these benefits within its own waters, but also to contribute to the global understanding of this vital ecosystem. To contribute to the key climate change adaptation actions on nature-based solutions, Seychelles commits to: • In conjunction with protections through the SMSP process and MPA network, Seychelles intends for coastal planning and infrastructure to be regulated at the national and local level to prioritize the 32 consideration of “blue” Nature-based Solutions (NbS) and to achieve the country’s NDC commitments. • Seychelles will put in place protections including but not limited to the ongoing SMSP and marine protected area (MPA) network, for at least 50% of Seychelles seagrass and mangrove ecosystems by 2025, and 100% of seagrass and mangrove ecosystems by 2030, subject to external support and identification of financing mechanisms to support the implementation and protection, e.g. multilateral and bilateral funds, insurance products, debt-for-nature swaps, private investment, blue carbon credits and bonds, and other innovative conservation financing mechanisms • Establish a long-term monitoring programme for seagrass and mangrove habitats by 2025 and include the GHG sink of Seychelles’ blue carbon ecosystems within the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory by 2025. 7.2.6 Agriculture and Biosecurity Vulnerability Climate change impacts on SIDS are broad, threatening the base of SIDS food security and nutrition. Seychelles is reliant on imported foods for about 70% of local nutrition needs33, but has a small yet important agriculture sector for local fruits, vegetables and livestock. Farms in Seychelles tend to be small scale, located in coastal areas as well at higher elevations. The Agriculture sector in Seychelles is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change including changing rainfall patterns (heavy rains as well as droughts), crop damage due to winds and heavy rains, increased temperatures affecting livestock and crops, landslides at higher elevations, and salt water intrusion in low lying coastal areas. These impacts can be further exacerbated by the introduction of alien and invasive agricultural pests and diseases. Food imports are vulnerable to changing availability and pricing due to climate impacts being experienced in exporting companies, as well as to impacts on shipping and storage. Responding accordingly involves increasing agricultural development, reducing dependence on imports and mitigating direct climate change threats in this sector. Planning and Implementation The Seychelles National Food and Nutrition Security Policy (2013) recognizes the impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and commits to “strengthening resilience and capability within Seychelles’ internal systems to anticipate and respond to internal and external shocks and changes in the food systems, including weather and climate change extremes”34 The Republic of Seychelles’ strategy towards food and nutrition security and agricultural development is captured in the Seychelles National Agriculture Investment Plan (SNAIP) 2015-2020. Programme 4, focused on Food security and Nutrition, aims to increase agricultural production, increase diversity of crops and livestock, implement integrated pest management and good agricultural practices. Seychelles has also been exploring the promotion of agroforestry practices to enhance food production and biodiversity conservation given the likely shift of agriculture to higher elevations due to coastal development and climate change35. To contribute to the key climate change adaptation actions on agriculture and biosecurity, the following actions are planned: • Continue with the implementation of the SNAIP and explore way to integrate climate adaptation into food security strategies • Promote climate-smart agriculture including water efficient irrigation, rainwater harvesting and expansion of climate adapted crops and livestock. • Expand agroforestry to promote soil conservation, food security and biodiversity conservation 33 Government of Seychelles. (2015). Seychelles National Agriculture Investment Plan 34 Government of Seychelles. (2013). Seychelles National Food and Nutrition Security Policy. 35 FAO. (2017). Developing agroforestry in Seychelles. http://www.fao.org/3/CA2334EN/ca2334en.pdf 33 • Continue to implement biosecurity measures to control and minimize the importation of new agricultural pests and diseases • Ensure that agricultural resilience action is gender-sensitive, gender-responsive and gender- transformative to eliminate gender inequality while achieving a sustainable, equitable and just agricultural sector in Seychelles 7.2.7 Biodiversity conservation Vulnerability Seychelles’ biodiversity is classified into three categories: Forest Biodiversity, Inland Waters Biodiversity and Marine and Coastal Biodiversity. The main threats to terrestrial biodiversity are invasive alien species (IAS) and loss of habitat/change in land use, however, climate change is a cross-cutting threat and a complicating factor in assessing other priority threats to biodiversity. Seychelles terrestrial, coastal, and marine biodiversity and habitats are extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including air and sea temperature changes, changes in precipitation levels, droughts and forest fires, and greater exposure to invasive species. Planning and Implementation Biodiversity conservation in Seychelles is guided by the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, last updated in 2015. Seychelles is a signatory to the UN Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) and the contents and approach of the NBSAP are guided by the CBD, including aspects related to climate change. This is reflected in Seychelles Climate Change Policy (2020) which commits to climate change adaptation measures including recognizing the importance of ecosystem services, adopting nature-based solutions to climate change, and increasing the resilience of critical habitats and ecosystems. The following planned key climate change adaptations actions on biodiversity conservation are derived from the CBD: • Integrate biodiversity considerations into existing Climate Change Adaptation programmes • Update the NBSAP to include costed climate change adaptation actions • Conduct a baseline assessment of Seychelles terrestrial and marine carbon stocks • Conduct a biodiversity impact profile assessment for Seychelles • Strengthen capacity to deal with existing climate threats to biodiversity 7.2.8 Health Vulnerability In general climate change has several impacts on human health including increased exposure to hazards such as very hot days, intense rainfall and increased flooding and landslides, risk of electrical shock, risk of accidents. Climate change also increases exposure to diseases such as dengue fever and yellow fever linked to mosquitoes and increased rainfall. However, climate change impacts in this sector are still poorly understood and adaptation action has been limited to date. Planning and Implementation The Seychelles Climate Change and Health Adaptation Plan (SCCHAP) was developed in 2013, and, along with the National Health Strategic Plan, it aims to reduce the health burden of the country. The SCCHAP was never formally financed but was reviewed in 2018 with support from the GCCA+ project and remains relevant. The Ministry of Health hosted training for their staff and the NIHSS to explore the links between climate change and human health and what the sector could do to respond. The NIHSS has identified areas where climate adaptation can be integrated into the curriculum for professional health education programs including nursing and environmental health. 34 The Climate Change Policy (2020) commits to further action to build capacity and resilience in the health sector, through health systems, to minimize the negative impacts of climate change on human health and well-being in Seychelles. To contribute to the key climate change adaptation actions on health, the following priorities for action derived from the SCCHAP are: • Build local capacity to plan for and address climate change adaptation in the health sector, including capacity for risk assessments and increasing institutional readiness. • Improve health surveillance related to climate change • Undertake research to improve understanding of the links between climate change and health trends • Monitor, evaluate and coordinate climate related actions and research in the health sector. • Work with international and local partners to support the implementation of the SCCHAP and build capacity in this area. Additional planned actions include: • Recognizing that existing health systems in Seychelles are not ready for the array of new and more severe challenges posed by climate change • Committing to strengthening the capacity of health systems to protect and improve population health that meets SRHR needs of women and young people in an unstable and changing climate • Improving the Seychelles health management information systems to incorporate indicators of climate stress linked to major health impacts, including those related to reproductive, maternal, neonatal, child and adolescent health; • Ensuring that health systems strengthening and related financing for climate resilience takes into account risks to maternal and neonatal health and takes measures to reduce these risks. 7.2.9 Early Warning and Disaster Risk Management Vulnerability In response to the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, Seychelles established a Department for Risk and Disaster Management (DRDM) with the mandate to develop mechanisms to effectively prevent, prepare and promote mitigation measures to counter the effects of multi-hazard events. More recently, Seychelles has experienced several natural disasters, the most impactful being tropical cyclone Felleng in January 2013 that caused severe flooding and landslides in three districts on Mahé, as well as impacting Praslin and La Digue. Heavy rainfall overwhelmed existing drainage systems and retaining walls, causing floods, landslides, and rockfalls, resulting in serious damage to homes, public buildings, roads, bridges, drainage systems, water and sanitation systems, crops, and farms. The total damage and losses were estimated at SR 104 million (US$8.4 million), equivalent to 0.77% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). More recently, in 2016 tropical cyclone Fantala caused infrastructure damage in the Farquhar Atoll with damage estimated at US$7.5 million. Planning and Implementation The main strategy for DRDM and the country’s adaptation strategy towards climate risk and disaster is the National Integrated Emergency Management Plan (NIEMP). The NIEMP identifies floods, droughts, cyclones, coastal erosion, spontaneous forest fires, and landslides amongst others as natural hazards for management. A key element of the NIEMP is capacity development to Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDA) and organisations having an operational role under the NIEMP. The Climate Change Policy (2020) reiterates the importance of disaster risk reduction and management to effective climate adaptation. 35 To contribute to the key climate change adaptation actions on early warning and disaster risk management, Seychelles commits to: • Implementing the NIEMP and exploring opportunities to further the integration of climate impacts and adaptation into DRDM programs • Building capacity to monitor risks and hazards related to climate impacts • Effectively coordinating strategies related to respond to and plan for climate change impacts, with key partners from government, the private sector, and civil society. • Building early warning systems that enable early action to reduce impacts of climate hazards on health and wellbeing • Ensuring that climate-related vulnerability assessments and actions take into account sexual and reproductive health and gender-based violence risks and protective measures and are informed by disaggregated population data. • Ensuring that adaptation measures anticipate and meet the health and gender needs of those impacted, displaced and at risk of climate crises, including through humanitarian response and strengthening assistance/social protection programmes for women and vulnerable groups who have lost their livelihoods to climate-related disasters 7.3 Cost of implementation Mitigation Sectors Main action Cost / million USD Energy Energy Strategy 191.7 37.4MW solar PV for meeting demand of electric vehicles 70.48 30% of private vehicles are electric by 2030 66.70 Actions in RAC sector 0.80 Transport Develop electrical charging stations infrastructure $0.7236 Waste Gas management and rehabilitation works $1.137 management Total $331.50 1USD: 14 SCR The costs for the implementation of key climate change adaptation actions are based on a mixture of costs derived from national sectoral strategies that have actions that contribute to addressing climate change impacts, as well as costs from on-going initiatives, and costs from projects with similar objectives funded by the Green Climate Funds. These estimated and indicative costs will be further outlined during the investment planning phase planned as a next step from the NDC. Adaptation Sectors National Strategies Cost / million USD 1. Critical Mainstreaming climate change adaptation $2.838 infrastructure Planning for new development, improvement to building $46.239 codes, and their enforcement 36 Four stations Victoria, North, Anse Royale, West with two outlets each @$20,000 per outlet (120Kw) with 15% shipping, training and installation charges ($0.19m) + civil works at Rs 1.5 million per location ($0.43m) +20 solar panel each (0.1). 37 From Carl Bro 2005; Feasibility for construction of Providence II Sanitary landfill (Euro 0.9 m closure cost) 38 Based on Adaptation Readiness proposal submitted to GCF in May 2021 39 Approved GCF project Resilience to hurricanes in the building sector in Antigua and Barbuda 36 (including water Develop and implement Transport/NMTS Strategy + risk $16.3540 security) assessments Climate risk proofing of port facilities $65.241 Ensuring climate resilient water supplies $60.842 2. Coastal Coastal Risk Mapping and Monitoring $1943 Management and Reduce vulnerability to flooding and landslide $44.144 Tourism Strengthen early warning systems and build capacity in $20.245 coastal areas Adopting a ridge to reef approach $3.8946 3. Agriculture and Protection and Sustainable Use of Agricultural Land and $9.8547 Biosecurity Water Provision of Biosecurity Services $0.8748 Food Security and Improved Nutrition $5.649 Ensuring Climate Resilient Food Security $9.450 4. Biodiversity Applying Ecosystems-Based Adaptation in Seychelles $6.551 Conservation Restoring Marine Ecosystem Services by Rehabilitating $552 Coral Reefs Wetlands and Dunes Restoration $6.653 5. Health Implementing the Seychelles Climate Change and Health $10 Adaptation Plan 6. Fisheries Sustainable Fisheries Management and Aquaculture $46.654 Development 7. Blue Economy Monitoring and Evaluating the Implementation of the $7.04 Strategy Blue Economy Strategy 8. Disaster risk Implementation of the National Integrated Emergency $255 management Management Plan Total $339 1USD: 14 SCR 40 African Development Bank; Seychelles Infrastructure Action Plan 2015 41 Approved GCF project Sustainable and Climate Resilient Connectivity for Nauru 42 Approved GCF project Ensuring climate resilient water supplies in the Comoros Islands 43 Costed under the Government of Seychelles (2018) Seychelles Technology Action Plan – Adaptation: Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change, Seychelles 44 Approved GCF Pacific Resilience Project Phase II for RMI 45 Approved GCF project Multi-Hazard Impact-Based Forecasting and Early Warning System for the Philippines 46 Existing projected funded by a grant from GEF-6. Not including other co-financing. 47 Seychelles National Agriculture Investment Plan Programme 1 48 Seychelles National Agriculture Investment Plan Programme 2.3 49 Seychelles National Agriculture Investment Plan Programme 4 50 Approved GCF project Climate resilient food security for farming households across the Federated States of Micronesia 51 Existing projected funded by the Adaptation Fund 52 Existing projected funded by the Adaptation Fund 53 Costed under the Government of Seychelles (2018) Seychelles Technology Action Plan – Adaptation: Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change, Seychelles 54 Seychelles National Agriculture Investment Plan Programme 3 55 NIEMP is not costed. Estimates for 6 contingency plans (0.15m), 10 SOP (0.05m) and Capacity building (0.2m) / year for five years. 37 Annex: Additional technical information on the NDC targets Energy Year Baseline KtCo2e EE (15.5%) RE EE+RE EE/RE - Baseline 2020 330.25 302.42 313.25 287.3 42.95 2025 385.35 340.39 346 306.35 79 2030 454 388.24 384.22 330.01 123.99 RAC Sector Year 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Direct emission 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.2 3.0 3.9 5.0 6.2 reductions (ktCO2e/year) Indirect emission 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 4.8 6.5 8.4 10.3 19.8 reductions (ktCO2e/year) TOTAL (ktCO2e/year) 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 4.6 7.0 9.5 12.3 15.3 26.0 Waste management Methane Emission (GgCO2e) Methane emission from landfill 2025- Year Business 2025 @80% Difference 2050 as usual reduction NDC target 120 2025 97 19 78 110 2026 109 22 87 100 90 2027 103 21 83 80 Business as Gg Co2e 2028 98 20 79 70 usual 60 2029 94 19 75 50 Target: 80% 40 reduction 2030 89 18 71 30 20 10 0 2026 2029 2032 2035 2038 2041 2044 2047 2050 38 Transport No of Business Emission gasoline as usual Gg CO2e Emission in Transport sector No of Year vehicle with Gg CO2e with 30% vehicles 30% Electric GHG for Electric 240 by 2030 gasoline by 2030 220 2020 18,237 17690 93 86 200 2021 20,061 19459 102 95 Business 180 as usual 2022 22,067 21405 113 105 160 Gg CO2e 2023 24,274 23546 124 117 140 2024 26,701 25900 136 129 120 2025 29,371 28490 150 143 Target 100 2026 32,309 31339 165 158 with 30% 80 Electric 2027 35,539 34473 181 174 by 2030 60 2028 39,093 37921 200 192 40 2029 43,003 41713 220 212 2015 2017 2019 2021 2023 2025 2030 47,303 33112 242 169 2027 2029 39 Overview of key gaps and recommendations for action for climate change adaptation action across Blue Economy sectors Sector Type of gap Description Source(s) Recommendations for action 56 Stakeholder Coastal Technical There are gaps in knowledge on marine (Republic of Seychelles, 2018; Continue local capacity development through ESA, ME. management capacity biodiversity, ocean ecosystem functions and World Bank, 2020) integration of coastal management by investing in ANHRD. Habitat services and impacts of human use. Projects skills development and peer-to-peer support networks. MACCE, protection are often being implemented ad hoc and there Create a network for all policy analysts in order to NGOs and is insufficient capacity to address the original ensure proper coordination of policy development and management cause of environmental loss. implementation of actions in marine and coastal (section ecosystems. Networks will assist in mainstreaming 2.1.1) and supporting upskilling. Develop an integrated sea/landscape management approach (e.g. from ridge to reef) bringing together the MSP, CMP and the ongoing conservation initiatives and further developing measures that prioritize natural features (e.g. wetlands, corals, sand dunes) for their ecological, social and resilience functions. This landscape approach will guide key sectoral plans. Ecosystem An ecosystem services assessment was (Republic of Seychelles, 2018) Develop and periodically update a State of the Coast MACCE, services planned for the spring of 2019 under the assessment program (tied to CMP monitoring), that SFA, Marine Spatial Planning Initiative and is still monitors the status of key coastal features and the SeyCCAT, ongoing at the time of writing this report. services they provide, including real costs of loss of JMF, Understanding of the real economic costs of coastal and marine ecosystems. The information of UniSey- activities should be better translated into the State of the Coast can be used as an input in BERI, marine decision making sectoral planning (i.e. Coastal Management Plan) and MFEPT Land reclamation has altered the provisioning (FBOA, pers. com., 2021) project approval. Develop baseline metrics for of ecosystem goods and services and in some environmentally sound ocean and carbon cases exacerbated the impacts of climate sequestration assessment change on the coastline. Policy and There are several policies related to the (World Bank, 2020) Develop programs to strengthen implementation of DBE, implementation protection and restoration of natural resources regulation and permits under the MSP and CMP, to SeyCCAT, that have experienced limited implementation (Stakeholder pers. com.) ensure the wise use of coastal natural features (by MACCE, or development. These include: landowners, farmers, local governments) and enable MSP • The Protected Areas Policy 2013 climate-resilient development. • The Nature Protection and Conservancy Bill Examine policy development and implementation • Environment Protection Act 2016 process to determine challenges to effective coordination, implementation and monitoring; undertake a policy burden evaluation. Too many polices make it hard to implement and coordinate key actions (DBE). 56 In case a recommendation is provided by the authors this is referenced as “(authors)”. In other cases the appropriate source is mentioned. Review of the State Land & River Reserves Act 1991 in order to support the initiative of the Blue Economy and adaption to Climate Change in terms of leasing and/or allocation of state land (Lands Department). Coastal Planning and A study on the implementation of the CMP by (World Bank, 2020) Develop capacity of adaptive coastal management. SPlA, management implementation the World Bank has identified limiting factors to Provide training to build capacity (e.g. in CAMS, MACCE, Nature-based planning and implementation. These factors planning authority, infrastructure department and land MFAT, solutions for are important within the framework of the Blue transport agency) to continuously update the coastal MFEPT, coastal Economy Strategy and Roadmap and they management summary cards and periodically revise MLH, resilience include the following: action and the CMP. MLGCA, (section communication between stakeholders, Implementation of nature-based solutions should be MIEI 2.1.2) government departments considered as a primary source of adaptation • Limited coherence between different (SeyCCAT). legislation • Resistance to change, new approaches, new Develop the institutional arrangements (i.e. formal technology, innovation roles of sectoral national agencies) and public • Lack of financial support for reforms participation requirements for the preparation and • Low remuneration for coastal restoration work periodic update of the CMP. Develop procedures so • Experience of management and coordination any new green or grey infrastructure is developed and of large infrastructural projects is currently approved based on the content of the CMP. limited. Develop a robust cost benefit analysis program for • Evaluation of (environmental) project permits new infrastructure development or retrofitting of old and implementation of permits needs attention. ones, making sure that key environmental and social • Proper planning is not taking place co-benefits are considered. Develop a program of • Limited capacity for donor project incentives and capacity building to further management operationalize the use of green (e.g. dune, reefs) and • Weak implementation of sustainability grey infrastructure. A study on cost benefit analysis on projects damages to infrastructures vis-a-vis savings on • Limited capacity for coastal EBA restoration investments will provide an opportunity for decision making. Technical The Technology Needs Assessment concluded (World Bank, 2020c). Foster technical capacity of the development of CAMS DBE, ME, capacity that limited technical expertise with regard to and other government departments such as the TEIs, coastal monitoring, mapping and modelling as planning authority, infrastructure department and land UniSey, well as restoration is limited. For the transport agency, regarding planning, design and DRDM, SIT, implementation of the CMP, the World Bank implementation of nature-based solutions. NGOs found that the key technical capacity across all Capacity development needed for the assessment of sectors are coastal processes studies and impacts of climate change, design of coastal design and implementation of coastal protection projects (hard, hybrid and nature-based protection infrastructure, including near shore solutions), and the drivers behind observed ecosystem nature-based solutions loss. Data and There is a lack of historic data on the evolution (World Bank & MEECC, 2019) It is recommended to install a government funded NISTI, information and condition of coral reefs, hampering their monitoring programme to map benthic habitats and MACCE, management with regard to coastal protection monitor beaches. Furthermore, a database should be MICT, DBE, set up to bring together existing patchy data, to ease SOA 41 the assessment and integration of and assess the existing data and information into comprehensive benthic habitat maps. Establish and maintain a green and grey infrastructure database or register and develop technical guidelines for the maintenance, construction, modification and rehabilitation of green and grey infrastructure. Coastal Policy and Policy and legislation regarding seabed mining (Carolus, 2015) A reclamation policy, covering sand mining and Petro management legislation is not up to date: dredging, must be developed so that future Seychelles, Seabed • There is no clear policy on land reclamation reclamation sites may be demarcated in the marine DBE, mining that addresses marine spatial planning. plan (authors). MACCE, (section • Seychelles does require environmental Update the Environmental Impact Assessment SOA, SPlA 2.1.3) authorisation in mining activities as part of the regulations and permits, and the Seychelles Minerals Environment Protection Act, 2016 Act to incorporate mining and climate change priorities The Environmental Protection Act of 2016 should be amended to include specifications related to authorization of mining projects. Fisheries and Data and Lack of adequate insight in the sector’s (Republic of Seychelles, 2018, Invest in an expert review to identify options to improve MFBE, aquaculture information resource rent* Barange et al, 2018) both sustainability and profitability of fisheries, and self- SFA, (section 2.2) * Resource rent refers to the surplus value sufficiency of Seychelles’ economy based on the DBEDBE, after accounting for all costs and revenues fisheries sector (Republic of Seychelles, 2018). DBE, (Scherzer & Sinner, 2006) Invest in sharing and making public of current SeyCCAT, environmental data collection on the national and UniSey- Environmental indicators and ecosystem BERI considerations (e.g. in relation to success of regional level (Barange et al., 2018). recruitment, catchability, fleet movements or Invest in targeted studies/ analyses to further assess the multi-species nature of fisheries) appear in the vulnerability of the fisheries sector to climate the management advice in an external and change (authors), justifying these to the respective qualitative manner only. Thus, although leaders, policy makers and decision makers (DBE). environmental data is available, it is not easily Build the appropriate human resource capacity to accessible by other stakeholders. identify and tap into existing funding opportunities. Adaptation measures are hampered by a lack Increase awareness and facilitation of access to of targeted analyses of the sector’s existing funding options via SeyCCAT, Blue Grants vulnerabilities to climate change and database. associated risks, as well as the opportunities and responses available. Systematic and standardisation of techniques/methods used to collate and process the same type of data. Baseline data is not available in no-take areas; (SIF, pers. Com., 2021) lack of research on climate resilience to critical Capacity building to ensure that appropriate human habitats. resource capacity is available that can identify and tap into existing funding opportunities. Identifying, compiling, and analyzing large (SFA, pers. Com., 2021) amounts of data that are currently scattered among several stakeholders is still a challenge. 42 Technical Forecasting of socio-economic impacts of (Ministry of Home Affairs, Start a transdisciplinary research program to forecast SFA, DBE, capacity climate variability on a tuna economy is Environment, Transport and socio-economic impacts of climate variability on tuna IOTC, EPD, complicated by the fact that these impacts are Energy, 2011) fisheries (and other fisheries) and, consequently, the IOT, FBOA, indirect and the fact that the growth of tuna (JMF, pers. Com., 2021) economy (authors). SeyCCAT, fisheries may be constrained though complex Strengthen engagement with relevant and useful MFAT interactions in tuna value chain, the global regional observational facilities and frameworks economy and geopolitics. This can be (DBE). extended to other fisheries and the Invest in training/upskilling and internship (authors). corresponding socio-economic contexts. Government institutions should focus on the policy and strategic level of capacity building while the University of Seychelles addresses the technical capacity needs. Innovative The potential for innovation in the use of fish (Republic of Seychelles, 2018) Build capacity on innovation in the use of fish by- DBE, capacity by-products is high for the food, products, e.g. by means of training program, twinning SeyCCAT, pharmaceutical, fashion and cosmetic projects (authors). MIEI, industries. Such potential that exist for value Increase awareness and utilization of existing funding addition for fish by-products that can be options that support sustainability transitions and consumed locally receives little attention given (IDC,Pers. Com., 2021) empower climate adaptation of the sector the export-oriented focus on the one hand and the lack of infrastructure on the other hand. This is an area which Seychelles lacks capacity and may not be able to develop in the short to medium term. Understanding of aquaculture and related innovative practice, technology and relation to CCA is weak (SFA). Institutional Lack of stock assessments and efficient (Republic of Seychelles, 2018) Continue with the urgent development and MFBE, SFA capacity fisheries management measures to minimize (Barange et al., 2018) implementation of effective, sustainable and climate MACCE, impacts on exploited stocks, exposing the (JMF, pers. Com., 2021) smart fisheries management plans that account for SWIOFish3, need for scientific studies and evidence upon possible climate change impacts. SeyCCAT, which to base fisheries management. Update the fisheries master plan to incorporate climate NGOs, There is a lack of insight in the type of change adaptation (and mitigation). UniSey appropriate management measures (input vs. Develop a capacity building and incentives program to output control) that are feasible and realistic to enable and support the preparation of fisheries implement. Measures need to be tailored to the management plans. specific characteristics of each sub-sector. Tourism Institutional There remain gaps with policy regulation and (Government of Seychelles, Recommendations from the Tourism Master Plan and MFAT,EPD, (section 2.3) capacity enforcement, as well coordination issues of the 2018a) the Tourism Value Chain Analyses can be used by the DBE, SHTA, Tourism Master Plan. There is no clear Tourism department to develop a climate change NGOs strategy with regard to climate change strategy for the sector. The Department can include adaptation for the sector. stakeholders in the development of strategies, to ensure implementation and mutual understanding of challenges (authors). Ensure UniSey’s Master in Sustainable Tourism is locally relevant through clear integration of climate 43 adaptation and sustainable coastal and marine tourism-related content and/or case studies. Financial There is no clear financial incentive for (Stakeholder communication) Transparency in public versus private responsibility in MFAT, EPD, incentives adaptation in the sector, leading to small and the implementation of adaptation options for the sector MFEPT, medium businesses lagging in progress needs to be established to move forward in identifying MIEI financing opportunities and incentives for adaptation for small and medium businesses (authors). Research should be conducted on how to incentivize Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) engagement in climate change adaptation. Furthermore, understanding the limitations of existing schemes such as the Seychelles Sustainable Tourism Label (SSTL) will provide information that will enable the scheme to be repositioned in order to achieve its mandate. Data and While it is well-known locally that the unique (NCCC, 2009; SIF, pers. Economic valuation of ecosystem services MFAT, information natural beauty and the quality of the natural Com., 2021; D. Dogley, pers. assessment associated with tourism is currently SHTA, environment are unique selling points for Com, 2021; IDC, pers. Com., ongoing. The tourism industry would benefit from SSTF, SSTL, tourism, there is limited tangible action or 2021) communication regarding climate research and S4S, change in-sector practices to maintain this findings, as well as how to interpret, react to, and MACCE, valuable natural environment. implement solutions to such findings. This can assist NISTI, in proactive management of tourism assets and UniSey activities (authors). IDC Enable increased communication of climate research to the tourism sector, including how to interpret, react to and implement solutions to such findings (EPD). Increase interaction with private sector tourism bodies regarding industry perceptions on the transition to medium and long-term climate challenges to ensure knowledge and identify capacity of key stakeholders. Ensure results of the Tourism Satellite Account, due for completion in 2022, are mainstreamed across sectors to understand where the major impacts are and how adaptation can be streamlined into the value chain process (SSTF, authors). Adaptation A number of adaptation options for the sector Payet (2007) Develop long term sustainable planning and MFAT, options have been identified management of tourism infrastructure, including set- MACCE, back distances and beach management plans. SPlA, MLH, Enable diversification of the sector by the local SHTA community to create resilience. Determine a clear policy approach towards high value nature-based tourism, rather than growth in number of beds, including promotion of SSTL. (Payet, 2007) 44 Critical Policy and There is a lack of clear policy on the (UNISDR, 2015; Critical infrastructure and adaptation plans need to be MT, SPA, infrastructure financing protection of (public) critical infrastructure in International Monetary Fund., integrated in Seychelles Department of Transportation MFEPT, sectors Seychelles. While private facilities often have 2017a). activities and policies. MIEI (section 2.4) insurance covers, other infrastructure, like An accurate estimate of the required investments for roads, ports, government buildings, water all critical infrastructure adaptation needs to be sewerage distribution systems have no clear conducted. protection plans. INDC underestimated the value of the required investments for critical infrastructure adaptation Critical Adaptation The Seychelles Port Authority Strategic Plan (Seychelles Ports Authority, Highlight the importance of climate change adaptation SPA, infrastructure planning 2019-2023 makes no explicit mention of 2019) as part of the SPA Strategic Plan and its follow-up MACCE, sectors adaptation. Climate change is, however, activities. EPD Shipping, identified as being a contributor to two threats Ensure that the Master Plan for Port development is port synergistic with the Coastal management Plan and the infrastructure Marine Spatial Plan (authors). and services (section 2.4.1) Critical Data and There is a lack of robust data especially in the (Lai et al., 2016) Invest in a data collection program in order to support MLH, infrastructure information case of toxic (hazardous) and liquid waste (Krütli et al., 2018) management options (authors). MACCE, sectors LWMA, Waste NISTI management Technical Solid waste segregation is far from optimal (Krütli et al., 2018) Invest in solid waste segregation technology to enable MLH, (section capacity and monitoring of waste disposal on the managing authorities to establish a value chain of solid LWMA, 2.4.2) landfill waste in the waste cycle (Krütli et al., 2018) Wastea, The current recycling scheme applied to (Lai et al., 2016) Invest in companies to handle the different classes of MACCE, domestic waste does not seem compatible recyclable waste separately. Invest in the allocation of MH with a pre-sorting of recyclable goods by specific storage on landfills (Lai et al., 2016). households. Mandate and support utilities in the preparation of flood and drought management plans. Invest in the upgrading of sewage treatment plants as a key adaptation target. Circular economy principles should be developed across business models, as mitigative/pre-emptive waste management measures; communication on the importance or repair, reuse, reduce and introduction of recycling to our waste system should be supported (DBE). Critical Technical Solar power, especially floating structures, Solaun & Cerdá, 2019 Building resilience of existing energy infrastructure ANHRD, ME, infrastructure capacity can be vulnerable to the impacts of extreme assets and planned (renewable) projects should PUC sectors weather events, 45 Renewable ensure that renewable energy transition plans are not energy derailed. (section 2.4.3) Critical Technical Seychelles will remain dependent on (Government of Seychelles, Guidelines and procedures should be developed to PUC, MH, infrastructure investments desalination to meet water demands in dry 2017) better handle brine as part of desalination plant MLGCA, sectors periods and will need to continue to increase developments. MLH Desalination its capacity. (section There will be a need for alternative 2.4.4) technologies (e.g. better groundwater harvesting) and investments to implement these. Resource There are limited measures in place to (Mussard, 2014) Progress to address water resources management is PUC, management address the demand side of water being made as part of Seychelles Water Supply MACCE, Development Plan, including a capacity building MH, programme (authors). MLGCA, Develop a National Drought Strategic Plan to MLH understand drought risks, prepare and mitigate drought hazards, refine drought monitoring and forecasting, response and recovery and develop inter- agency and inter-governmental coordination. 46