Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2001-2005

Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Commonwealth of Dominica 2001 - 2005 Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan i Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 2.0 COUNTRY OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 3.0 VISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 4.0 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 5.0 GUIDING PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 6.0 TERRESTRIAL RESOURCES OF DOMINICA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 7.0 COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES OF DOMINICA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 8.0 AGRICULTURE AND BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 9.0 HUMAN SETTLEMENT, DEVELOPMENT, AND BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 10.0 BIODIVERSITY AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE/CULTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 11.0 BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 12.0 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIOSAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 13.0 ACTION PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 14.0 IMPLEMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 15.0 MONITORING AND REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 ANNEX 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 ANNEX 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 ANNEX 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 ANNEX 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 TABLE OF CONTENTS ii Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan The Convention on Biological Diversity, signed by the Commonwealth of Dominica on the 5th July 1994 represents a shared commitment to the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of biological resources, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is intended to implement the country’s obligations under the Convention. For us in Dominica the conservation and protection of our natural ecosystems and species is deeply entrenched in the national values of our people. Indeed, the country has accepted our rich biodiversity as the basis for sustainable national development. In recognition of the need to conserve and protect these vulnerable resources we have established from 1975 a system of national parks and protected areas that presently cover in excess of 20% of our land area. Dominica’s system of national parks includes two marine protected areas and the Morne Trois Piton National Park, which in 2000 was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The Government and people of Dominica are pleased to pledge our support to the implementation of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.This Strategy and Action Plan establishes for the first time a strategic framework to guide the continued conservation and protection of Dominica’s vulnerable natural resources. It also outlines strategies and actions to address newly emerging concerns relating to the control of biotechnology, the impacts of climate change on biodiversity, and the protection and enhancement of tra ditional knowledge, values and culture. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan presents a challenge that must be faced at all levels. It will be a challenge, within our government and the public sector, to ensure that adequate resources are provid ed to implement this strategy. It will be a challenge for our international relations, both bilateral and multi-lat eral; to ensure that financing for biodiversity conservation is secured and mobilized in a responsible way and on terms that are sustainable. And finally, it will be a challenge to all the peoples of Dominica. We must become more aware of how our actions, individually and collectively, affect our environment, our economy, and our nation. We must encourage and continue to foster a responsible and caring attitude towards our truly unique island and the surrounding marine resources, upon which our on-going development as a nation, and indeed our survival, depend. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan represents the commitment by our present generations to put our country firmly on a path to sustainable development in order to secure the future for our young people and for future generations. ………………… HONORABLE PIERRE CHARLES PRIME MINISTER FOREWORD Honorable Pierre Charles Prime Minister Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan iii The Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment wishes to acknowledge persons and organizations for their efforts towards the completion of the Dominica National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. 1. The Steering Committee Mr. Errol Harris, Chairperson Mr. David Lang Dr. Vivian Moise Mr. Harold Guiste Mr. Arlington James Mr. Oliver Grell Mr. Henry Shillingford Mr. Alvin Bernard 3. Permanent Secretary and staff of the Ministry of Agriculture & The Environment 4. All stakeholders and the Media who participated in the consultations and made valuable contributions towards the development of Dominica National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan 5. The UNDP/GEF for providing the funding and the guidelines for the Project 2. Project Team Mr. Mark John, Head of the Environmental Coordination Unit Mrs. Kongit H. Gabriel, National Biodiversity Coordinator Mr. George H. de Berdt Romilly, International Consultant Mr. Oliver Grell - Consultant, Agro-Biodiversity Mr. David Williams – Consultant,Terrestrial Biodiversity Mr. Harold Guiste – Consultant, Marine Biodiversity Ms. Marie-Jose Edwards – Consultant,Tourism & Manufacturing Mr. Charles Pierre – Consultant, Biosafety Mrs. Annie Edwards – Consultant, Geographic Information Mr. Henry Shillingford – Consultant, Legal System Mr. Ronald Charles – Consultant Public Awareness ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Dominica is a small volcanic Island state with one of the lowest population densities and the most intact forest cover in the Caribbean. This Nature Island of the Caribbean with eight active volcanoes and the only boiling lake in the Western Hemisphere, possesses tremendous terrestrial and marine biodiversity and exhibits a high level of endemism. Dominica’s biodiversity is under threat largely from the impact of human activity and natural disasters. Major threats are presented by: In 2000 the Government of Dominica embarked upon the preparation of its Biological Diversity Strategy and Action Plan in fulfilment of its obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity and as part of the Government’s commitment to the sustainable management of the coun try’s natural resources. This Strategy and Action Plan is based on a series of sectoral studies and seven stakehold er consultations (five local and two national workshops). Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan highlights the vision, goals and objectives, and guiding principles that are to direct the implementation of specific strategies and actions for the conservation of the country’s biodiversity. With the high retention of in-situ biodiversity in Dominica and its clear importance to economic development, the implementation of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is an urgent national imperative.This Strategy and Action Plan is a five-year program of action aimed at establishing the mechanisms to provide for the conserva tion and sustainable management of Dominica’s terrestrial and marine biodiversity to facilitate intra- and inter-gener ational equity. Key elements of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan include: • Inventory of biological resources; • Improved and expanded measures for the conserva tion and protection of threatened marine and terres trial ecosystems and species; • The implementation of a comprehensive public edu cation and awareness campaign on biodiversity con servation so as to reduce the impact of human devel opment; • The development of comprehensive legislative and institutional regimes for environmental management, biodiversity conservation, and natural resource man agement; • The establishment of a comprehensive framework for the management of all natural resources to achieve equitable sharing of the benefits derived; • The protection, enhancement and encouragement of traditional knowledge, culture and values; • Adapting to the impacts of climate change on biodi versity and the resilience of natural systems; and • The regulation of biotechnology. • Deforestation; • Over-exploitation of wildlife; • Encroachment; • Unregulated development; • Introduction of foreign species; • Loss of agro-biodiversity; • Impacts from climate change; • Uncontrolled use of biotechnology; • Pollution; • Natural disasters; • Loss of traditional knowledge; • Inappropriate legal/institutional frameworks. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is to be implemented through a collaborative effort involving the public and private sectors and civil society. It will be monitored by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment, in collaboration with the National Biodiversity Committee and will be reviewed in five years to evaluate whether intended goals and objectives have been achieved. Trafalgar Falls 3 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 1. Awareness of the Earth’s dwindling biotic wealth during the years leading up to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro resulted in the conclusion, at this global conference, of the Convention on Biological Diversity.The shared sense of urgency led 156 nations and the European Union to sign the legally binding Convention before the conclusion of conference pro ceedings. 2. Currently, a total of 168 nations have signed the Convention on Biological Diversity. In ratifying the Conventions, nations accept responsibility to safe guard the profusion of species, genetic materials, habi tats and ecosystems that make up the natural world. Signatory nations also agree to foster development that use biological resources in a sustainable manner, and agree to recognize each other’s sovereignty over the biodiversity found in respective territories. Additionally, member nations commit themselves to finding equitable ways to share biodiversity’s monetary and non-monetary values, to spur technical coopera tion, and to establish mechanisms to finance invest ments in maintaining the diversity of life on Earth. 3. In July 1994, the Government of Dominica signed the Convention on Biological Diversity, thereby agreeing to support the following three basic objec tives of the Convention: (a) The conservation of biological diversity; (b) The sustainable use of all biological resources; and (c) The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources. 4. As a means of achieving these objectives, Article 6 of the Conventions requires that: Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities: (a) Develop national strategies, plans or programs for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or pro grams which shall reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention relevant to the Contracting Party con cerned; and (b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-cutting sectoral plans, pro grams and policies. 5. Article 26 of the Convention requires Contracting Parties to submit National Reports to the Conference of the Parties. At its second meeting (Jakarta, November 1995) the Conference of the Parties decided that the first national reports should focus in so far as possible, on the measures taken for the implementation of Article 6 of the Convention, as well as the information available in national country studies on biological diversity. 6. In April 1998, the Government of Dominica secured financial support from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to assist with the development of the country’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, and First National Report to the Conference of Parties of the Convention on Biodiversity. 7. As a first step in the process to develop Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, the National Biodiversity Coordinator was appointed in September 2000.A National Steering Committee was established in October 2000 to guide and implement the development of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. 8. As a next step a series of studies were under taken on the state of Dominica’s biodiversity. These studies are consolidated into a "Country Assessment" which constitutes the technical basis upon which the Strategy and Action Plan has been developed. 9. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan has been developed through an extensive consulta tion process. In order to facilitate the preparation of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, a series of workshops and consultative meetings took place between March to August) 2001. A list of the organi zations and persons consulted in the development of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is con tained in Annex 1 and Annex 2.This process was com plemented with an extensive public education and awareness campaign. 10. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan has been reviewed by the Cabinet of Ministers and was approved on January 15th, 2002. INTRODUCTION Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 4 DOMINICA Rainfall 5 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan DOMINICA – AN OVERVIEW 2.1. Location The Commonwealth of Dominica is situated between Guadeloupe to the north and Martinique, to the south, at 15º 30’ North Latitude and 61º 25’ West Longitude, making the island the most norther ly of the sub-regional Windward Islands grouping. Located in the middle of the Lesser Antilles, with a total land area of 750.6 km2 (290 sq. miles), Dominica is the also the largest Windward Island. In 2000, the population was estimated to be 71,242 with a growth rate of approximately 1.3% per annum. With a population density of 94.8 persons per km2, Dominica is the least populated of the Windward Islands. 2.2.Vegetation, Climate and Geology Sixty-five percent (65%) of Dominica’s land area is covered by natural vegetation ranging from dry scrub woodland on the west coast to lush, tropical rain for est in the interior and a wide variety of flora. The interior is interspersed with rivers, waterfalls and lakes, and these attributes have earned Dominica the name "The Nature Island of the Caribbean". Dominica's climate is classified as humid tropical marine, with average temperatures of 27ºC (80ºF). Because of the island's rugged topography micro-cli matic variability exist within very short distances, influenced by the high moisture content of the air masses that enter the region from the Atlantic Ocean. This makes Dominica a very high rainfall country, with an average rainfall of 175 inches per year ; most of that amount falls during the wet sea son. Rainfall increases from the leeward side east ward towards the central parts of the island where it reaches approximately 400 inches annually. The high rainfall makes the country susceptible to landslides, particularly in the more mountainous regions. Dominica is affected by hurricanes, and as a small island developing State is vulnerable to impacts from climate change.Within the last decade the social and economic infrastructure of the country was severely affected by a number of hurricanes. It should also be noted that besides the impacts on social and eco nomic infrastructure, tropical weather systems also affect biodiversity (e.g. they may introduce new species, or even decimate populations of indigenous species). SECTION 2 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 6 DOMINICA National Parks & Forest Reserve Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 7 SECTOR 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Agriculture -8.1 5.5 1.5 -2.0 -0.5 Manufacturing 2.3 6.0 2.5 16.8 -19.0 Tourism 2.6 -5.4 2.0 -4.0 4.3 Government Services -1.3 1.5 2.9 5.5 0.23 Total 1.6 3.1 2.0 2.4 0.9 Source: CSO/ECCB Table 2.1 - Rate of Growth of GDP by Economic Activity at Factor Cost (1990 prices) ECONOMIC INDICTORS 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 EC$-US$ Exchange Rate 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 Inflation Rate (%) 1.3 1.7 2.4 1.0 1.2 GDP at Factor Cost (1990prices) % Contribution of: 410.3 422.9 431.3 441.8 445.8 Agriculture 20.0 20.8 20.0 19.2 18.9 Manufacturing 6.8 7.0 7.0 8.0 6.4 Tourism 2.8 2.6 2.6 2.4 2.5 Government Services 17.3 17.1 17.2 17.7 17.6 Table 2.2 - Dominica’s Key Econimoc indicators (Source: Central Statistical Office) A volcanic island with a series of complex mountain ranges, Dominica is characterised by very rugged and steep terrain. This mountainous topography has made it difficult to clear the lush vegetation and has contributed greatly to the island's dramatic beauty and the conservation of its natural resources. Forests and arable land estimated at 22.6% and 27.8% respectively of total land area, along with an exten sive network of surface and underground water, make up the majority of the natural resource base. Dominica possesses hydroelectric energy sources, and extensive marine resources including impressive coral reefs. Since the last decade increasing attention has being placed on the sustainable use of these nat ural resources. Dominica's rugged topography, rural ambience, and limited urbanization make it an ideal nature destina tion. Dominica has coined the title "Nature Island of the Caribbean" as its logo for eco-tourism promo tion and offers services such as adventure excur sions, habitat research, hiking, river bathing, sightsee ing, whale watching, and scuba diving. 2.3. Economic Development Dominica's economy has always been based on the utilization of its land resources and on the productive initiatives of an educated and healthy labour force of approximately 40,000. The small domestic market makes economic growth highly dependent on exports. Over the five-year period 1995 - 1999 real growth averaged 2.0% per annum. Growth is esti mated at less than 1% for the year 1999. Decline and stagnation characterised the major productive sec tors, viz.,agriculture and manufacturing and tourism during the period 1995 - 1999. Government servic es contribution, the second largest sub-sector of the economy, has been variable against the background of world-wide reduction in aid flows (Table 2.1). The difficulties experienced in the banana industry and fluctuation in non-banana exports contributed to the deterioration in the visible trade balance for the period, moving from minus EC$142.3M in 1995 to minus EC$185.6M in 1999. However, the inflation rate has been moderate, averaging less than 2% over the last four years, and the exchange rate has been stable (Table 2.2). Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 8 VISION We the people of Waitukubuli recognise Dominica’s unique and fragile ecosystems as the basis for the development and advancement of our people and nation. As custodians of nature’s biodiversity, we aspire to integrate the endowed gifts of our biotic wealth, with our cultural knowledge, to ensure economic, cul tural and ecological integrity for the well being of present and future generations. SECTION 3 The Carib name for Dominica,Waitukubuli, means “tall is her body” in reference to the island steep mountainous terrain. 9 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan GOALS AND OBJECTIVES GOALS 1. The conservation and sustainable manage ment of Dominica’s terrestrial and marine biodiversi ty to ensure intra- and inter-generational equity. 2. The promotion of sound and sustainable agricultural practices and technology within existing agricultural human capital so as to minimise the loss of agro-biodiversity, and reduce vulnerability to desertification, soil loss, and the contamination of water resources. 3. To ensure that biotechnology knowledge and concerns are widely distributed so that all life is guarantee and benefits derived are equitably shared. OBJECTIVES 1. To secure a biologically rich and diverse Dominica which: • maintains optimum systems resilience; • maintains resistance to invasive alien species; • maintains ecosystem structure and function; • maximizes ecological integrity by reducing neg ative environmental impact of human influ ences; and • is populated by a diversity of peoples who promote and undertake the wise and sustain able use of natural resources. 2. To reduce or eliminate the potential risks from the use of biotechnology and its by-products while at the same time exploiting opportunities pre sented that are in keeping with Dominica’s sustain able development agenda. 3. To reduce and/or minimise the loss of ter restrial and marine biodiversity. 4. To ensure that the basis for development is through the sustainable use of terrestrial and marine biological resources. 5. To ensure the equitable and sustainable dis tribution of social and economic benefits from the use of terrestrial and marine biological resources. SECTION 4 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 10 GUIDING PRINCIPLES Dominica as a Small Island State rich in biodiversi ty recognises its ecological, economic, social, cultural and intrinsic values of these biological resources, and therefore all development decisions must reflect their optimal utilisation. All living things including humans are ultimately connected and dependent on each other for their existence. Dominicans depend on biodiversity and have a responsibility to understand, appreci ate and con tribute to its conservation. All Dominicans should be empowered through inclusion in the decision-making process to sustain ably use their biological resources and equitably share the benefits derived from such use. The knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities should be respect ed and mediated by the best knowledge available and approaches refined as new knowledge is gained. The conservation, management, and sustainable use of biological resources should be based on an ecosystem approach, mediated by the best knowl edge available and refined as new knowledge is gained Dominica seeks to co-operate with all other terri tories and regional and international institutions in the conservation of biodiversity and expects reci procity from the said territories and regional and international institutions. SECTION 5 Objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity: (a) The conservation of biological diversity; (b) The sustainable use of all biological resources; and (c) The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources. 11 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES OF DOMINICA 6.1 Terrestrial Flora The island of Dominica was originally covered with dense primary oceanic forest sustained by high annu al rainfall ranging from 10,000mm (400 in.) in the central zone to 1,200mm (50 ins.) on the leeward coast. Numerous plant taxonomists have been attracted to the impressive natural rain forest, which is relatively pristine in many regions of the island. Documentation of the flora of Dominica is very comprehensive. 6.2 Diversity of Flora Dominica boasts a phenomenal plant diversity of approximately 155 families, 672 genera and 1226 species of vascular plants. The number of indigenous species includes Pteridophytes (194), Gymnosperms (1), Monocotyledons (518) and Dicotyledons (1,445). Dominica has several plant species which are record ed as endemic to the island, e.g. Sabinea carinalis (Bwa Kwaib) the National Flower of Dominica. 6.3 Vegetation Communities The natural vegetation is delineated into 7 commu nities, namely: Coastal Swamp, Littoral Woodland, Dry Scrub Woodland, Deciduous/Semi-evergreen Forest (including Grassland and savannah sub-types), Rain Forest, Montane Rain Forest, and Elfin Woodland. Fumarole vegetation associated with geothermal areas is also present. Family Fabaceae Fabaceae Euphorbiaceae Melastomataceae Melastomataceae Melastomataceae Myrtaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Gesneriaceae Bromeliaceae Scientific Name Sabinea carinalis Inga dominicensis Phyllanthus megapodus Charianthus purpureus var. Rugosus Miconia mornicola Miconia ernstii Eugenia hodgei Chromolaena impetiolaris Chromolaena macrodon Besleria petiolaris Pitcairnia micotrinensis SECTION 6 Table 6.1 – List of Endemic Plant Species in Dominica Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 12 DOMINICA Generalized Soils Map Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 13 6.4 Terrestrial Fauna Dominica is host to the most diverse assemblage of wildlife species remaining in the Eastern Caribbean. All the faunal groups are well represented. It is the great diversity of habitats encompassed within this island of only 750 square kilometers (290 sq. mile) that gives rise to this rich diversity of animals and fau nal communities.The greatest diversity of animal life occurs in the rain forest with birds and bats particu larly well represented. 6.4.1 Birds Dominica has the most diverse avifauna of the Lesser Antilles despite its geographic location within the center of the island chain. Numerous studies on species diversity have been conducted, and to date one hundred and seventy-five species of bird have been recorded for Dominica. Many of the birds are migratory, while sixty species breed on the island. Dominica's resident birds include two single-island endemics and nine regional endemic species. Dominica's two endemic parrot species - the impe rial parrot or "Sisserou" (Amazona imperialis) and the red-necked parrot or "Jaco" (Amazona arausiaca) are both considered threatened (IUCN Red Data List) and are "specially protected" birds under Dominican law.The most recent (1999) population estimate put the parrot populations at approximately 200 A. impe rialis, and 1,500 A. arausiaca. Although A. imperialis may never have been abundant in Dominica, it is now considered to be the world’s most critically endan gered Amazon parrot. Both species have been nega tively impacted by the combined effects of forest clearance for agriculture and the damage to the forests caused by hurricanes. The populations of these two endangered parrots reached critical levels, as low as 60 A. imperialis and 200 A. arausiaca, fol lowing Hurricane David in 1979. Vegetation Type Area (ac) % of Landmass Coastal Swamp 74.13 0.1 Littoral woodland 345.94 0.2 Dry scrub woodland 15,419.04 7.9 Deciduous/Semi-evergreen forest 17,717.07 9.1 Rain forest 82,931.18 42.5 Montane Rain Forest 10,971.24 5.6 Elfin woodland 420.07 0.3 TOTAL 127,878.67 65.7 Table 6.2 - Vegetation Types Found on Dominica Sisserou Parrot Source: Prins (1987) State - 51,169 (40%) Private - 76,754 (60%) Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 14 The nine regionally endemic bird species found in Dominica are the Blue-headed Hummingbird (Cyanophaia bicolor), Plumbeous Warbler (Dendroica plumbea), Forest Thrush (Cichlherminia lherminieri), Scaly-breasted Thrasher (Margarops fuscus), Brown Trembler (Cinclocerthia ruficauda), Lesser Antillean Pewee (Contopus latirostris), Lesser Antillean Swift (Chaetura martinica), Lesser Antillean Flycatcher (Myiarchus oberi), and the Lesser Antillean Bullfinch (Loxigilla noctis). Dominica is also important for seabirds and the most common breeding species are the White-tailed Tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus); Red-billed Tropicbird (Phaethon aethereus); Common Tern (Sterna hirun do); Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii); Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus); Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata); and Brown Noddy (Anous stolidus). The Magnificent Frigatebird (Fregata magnificens) is a non-breeding resident species. Breeding colonies of most of the seabird species are small and concentrated on rela tively inaccessible coastal cliffs and islets where pre dation pressures are lower. One of the seabird species of regional interest is the Black-capped Petrel or “Diablotin” (Pterodroma hasitata) recorded on Dominica up to the latter half of the 1800s. For sev eral years the Diablotin was considered to be extinct on Dominica. However, a sighting in 1984 could be an indication that the species may be breeding on remote inaccessible coastal cliffs on the island. 6.4.2. Mammals Eighteen species of wild terrestrial mammals have been recorded for Dominica. These include twelve native species of bats, one species of opossum, one species of feral pig, and four species of rodents including the agouti. Dominica has no single-island endemic species of mammal. Of the twelve bat species recorded on the island four are regionally endemic viz. Monophyllus plethodon, Ardops nicholsi, Myotis dominicensis, and Bracyphylla cavernum. Diversity and density of bats are highest in and around rain forests.The impacts of agricultural cultivation and hurricanes have reduced bat species populations and diversity on the island. The other six wild terrestrial mammalian species found in Dominica were all introduced. The Agouti (Dasyprocta leporinus) was introduced from South America possibly by the pre-Columbian Arawak and Carib Indians. The Opossum (Didelphys marsupialis insularis), the Wild Pig (Sus scrota), two species of rats, viz. the Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) and the Black Rat (Rattus rattus) and one species of mouse - the House Mouse (Mus musculus) were all introduced on the island by Europeans, and have become natu ralised. 6.4.3. Reptiles Nineteen species of reptiles have been recorded for Dominica consisting of fifteen terrestrial species and four marine species. The fifteen terrestrial reptiles include ten lizard species, four sub-species of snake and one tortoise species. Of the ten species of lizards, the Ground Lizard (Ameiva fuscata) and the Tree Lizard (Anolis oculatus) are endemic.The Lesser Antillean Iguana (Iguana delicatissima) is endemic to a few islands of the Eastern Caribbean, from Anguilla to Martinique (Schwartz and Henderson, 1991). Three species of litter lizards have been recorded on Dominica, viz. Sphaerodactylus fantasticus, S. vincenti, and S. microlepsis. Greater Bulldog or Fishing Bat Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 15 Of the four species of snakes, Typhlops dominicana is endemic to Dominica, while Alsophis antillensis and Liophis juliae are endemic to the Lesser Antilles.The Boa constrictor (Constrictor constrictor nebulosa), which is the largest snake on the island, is widely dis tributed throughout Dominica. The Tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria) is considered an introduction to Dominica. 6.4.4.Amphibians The amphibian fauna in Dominica consists of four species of frogs, one of which is endemic to the island. The most prominent is Leptodactyllus fallax, a large frog commonly referred to as the Crapaud or Mountain Chicken, which is endemic to Dominica and Montserrat. The other amphibian species are three species of small (tree) frogs consisting of one single-island endemic species Eleutherodactylus amplinympha - that is restricted to higher elevations on Dominica, and two regionally endemic species , viz. the Tink Frog (Eleutheordactylus martinicensis) and Johnstone’s Whistling Frog (E. Johnstonei) which was first recorded in Dominica following Hurricane David in 1979. 6.4.5. Fish Although the freshwater fish of Dominica have not been thoroughly studied, at least some species have been identified.This includes the American eel, gob ies - which are locally called “lòsh” (Sicydium spp. and Eleoris Pisonis) and "Titiwi" in the post-larv al stage the mountain mullet (Agonostomus monticola), and the striped mullet or "Mèy", among several other species. The majority of freshwater fish species on Dominica migrate between freshwater and salt water, while some spawn at sea. Introduced Tilapia (Tilapia mossambica) occurs in the Freshwater Lake while Tilapia nilotica and T. aurea are reared in ponds and on aquaculture farms. 6.4.6. Invertebrates Invertebrates as a group are well represented on Dominica. However, further scientific studies and ecological surveys are required to determine the true status of various invertebrate species on the island. 6.4.6.1. Crustaceans The terrestrial and freshwater decapod crustaceans in Dominica include eleven species of freshwater shrimps and twenty species of freshwater/terrestri al/semi-terrestrial crabs. None of the crustaceans are endemic to the island and most are widely distrib uted in the Caribbean.The twenty crab species occur in ecologically diverse habitats but most occur in coastal habitats. Shrimps are common in Dominican streams with a distribution ranging from cascading mountain streams to slow flowing river mouths. Shrimps from the following genera have been recorded on Dominica: Atya, Jonga, Micratya, Potimimirum, Xiphocaris, and Macrobrachium. Several of the larger species are used as food on the island. Dominica’s endemic tree frog Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 16 6.4.6.2. Insects The class Insecta has not been fully surveyed on the island and as a result the species list is incomplete. Species from the following Orders are present: Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Tricoptera. The population status of most of these species is not known. Fifty-five species of butterflies have been recorded in Dominica.Two species are endemic to the island and seven are endemic to the Lesser Antilles and are confined to montane areas in Dominica and Guadeloupe. Eleven species of Phasmids (stick insects) have been recorded for Dominica One species (Diapheromera saussurei) is a confirmed endemic for the island, while two others (Diapherodes gigantea dominica and Lamponius dominicae) are supposed to be endemic but need further investigation. The Hercules Beetle (Dynastes hercules hercules), which occurs on montane areas in Dominica, is also found in Guadeloupe. It is one of eight recognized races of this beetle whose distribution extends south from Guadeloupe into much of South America. 6.5. Loss of Terrestrial Biodiversity The root causes of loss of terrestrial biodiversity in Dominica are attributed to the following factors: 6.5.1. Deforestation Deforestation is considered to be the main contrib utor to biodiversity loss in Dominica. Agricultural expansion and to a lesser extent timber harvesting have resulted in the rapid removal of natural vegeta tion on both private and public lands. Forests on unallocated State lands are being sold as a means to relieve agricultural land hunger without adequate controls to protect against soil erosion and other forms of land degradation. Rain forests and other vegetation zones, particularly in coastal regions where littoral forests and dry scrub woodland may be found, have been considerably reduced in the past forty years. The conversion of natural forest to agriculture and for urban expansion has resulted in the fragmenta tion of natural vegetation types, reduction in the per centage of natural forests particularly rain forest, adverse effects on wildlife habitats, and adverse effects on water quality and quantity, with negative impacts on biodiversity particularly aquatic organ isms. Male Hercules Beetle Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 17 6.5.2.Agrochemical Pollution The significant expansion of agriculture, particularly banana cultivation, with the resultant use of agro chemicals has had negative impacts on the island’s biodiversity. Qualitative and quantitative observa tions in and around banana cultivations revealed no marked declines in terrestrial vertebrates (birds, bats, and amphibians) that might be attributable to pesti cide contamination (Rainey et al, 1987). However, bird mortality linked to agrochemical use has been reported. Also, pesticide runoff in streams has result ed in isolated fish kills and may have negatively impacted other aquatic fauna. 6.5.3. Natural Disasters Many natural hazards periodically affect or threaten Dominica, among them are hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, storm surges, and landslides. These natural disasters, particularly hurricanes, can be attributed as one of the root causes of biodiver sity loss in Dominica. Hurricane David in 1979 did significant damage to the forest resource by damag ing 50% of the trees in the southern half of the island. Hurricanes also cause loss of habitat and food sup plies for wildlife species and sometimes result in wildlife mortality. An indirect resultant effect of hurricanes such as “David” is the conversion of wildlife habitat to agri culture. In accessible areas the toppled trees provide an opportunity to more easily clear land for farming, resulting in a further fragmentation of wildlife habitat. 6.5.4.Hunting and Capture of Wildlife The Forestry and Wildlife Act (1976) makes provision for wildlife management and protection in Dominica. The Act also provides for hunting and fishing seasons, both of which usually last six months. Such hunting and fishing activities pose major threats to the wildlife and freshwater fish resources respectively. Legislation is inadequate and fines and fees are low. The resources are not managed on a scientific basis and little is known about the extent of the resource or sustainable exploitation levels.This situation has been exacerbated by the current socio-economic situation which has resulted in increased exploitation of wildlife resources. 6.5.5. Impact of Squatters Squatting or the practice of shifting cultivation is not considered a major problem in Dominica. There have been isolated reports of trespassing and defor estation in Forest Reserves, National Parks and on unallocated State lands. Illegal tree cutting and char coal production is a minor problem. However, they pose a continuing problem as these activities are species selective on forest resources. State lands affected by illegal encroachment and intensive culti vation include lands in the Brandy area and an area along the southern boundary of the Morne Trois Pitons National Park near Petite Savanne, an area which was cultivated long before the Park was estab lished.The slash and burn method of cultivation used by subsistence farmers has proven to cause serious negative environmental impacts on wildlife habitat. Matthieu dam and reservoir, 1997 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 18 6.6 Strategic Directions Strategy 1 - Develop a comprehensive national land use plan / legislation with the involvement of all key stake holders. Strategy 2 - Review / amend existing legislation, and as appropriate develop new legislation with respect to: • Conservation and management of terrestrial biodiversity; • Regulation of the introduction of alien species; • Protection of indigenous species/ ecosystems; • Protection of watersheds, stream bank reserves, and riparian ecosystems; • The implementation and enforcement of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES); • Forestry / wildlife and national parks management; • Management of solid and liquid waste (industrial, agriculture, urban); • Conservation and protection of agro-biodiversity. Enforcement of existing and proposed legislation through empowerment of all relevant agencies and community groups. Strategy 3 - Develop and implement a comprehensive public education, awareness and training programme on issues of environmental protection and conservation of terrestrial natural resources/biodiversity. Strategy 4 - Identification and protection of sensitive / fragile / threatened ecosystems with priority given to the Indian River wetland among others, and Dry Scrub Woodland, and the identification and protection of buffer areas required to protect and conserve threatened flora/fauna and ecosys tems. Strategy 5 - Research to develop wildlife farming technology to reduce stress on wild populations. Strategy 6 - Research, inventory and monitoring to develop a comprehensive database and meta-data on: • Terrestrial/ Aquatic fauna and flora; • Species and ecosystem distribution description; • Medicinal Plants. Strategy 7 - Develop a national policy on water use, conservation and extraction. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 19 Boa constrictor Crayfish Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 20 MARINE AND COASTAL RESOURCES 7.1. Coastal and Marine Areas of Dominica The coastal waters of Dominica are richly endowed with an abundance and very diverse array of aquatic flora and fauna. The island’s shores are washed by the Caribbean Sea on the western side and by the Atlantic Ocean on the East.The sub-marine topogra phy is similar to that of the land, rugged and moun tainous with very deep valleys.There is a very narrow continental shelf around the island and as a result the water plummets to depths in excess of 200 feet very close to shore.There is also a wide range of estuar ine habitats resulting from the many rivers found on the island. 7.2. Marine and Coastal Habitats The topography as well as the geological features, rainfall and climate of the east coast and west coast are different and hence provide differing habitats. 7.2.1. Beaches The beaches of Dominica are predominantly dark in colour due to their volcanic origin. However, the beaches on the east and north-eastern coast, which is washed by the turbulent Atlantic Ocean, are lighter in colour indicating their coral limestone origin. The beaches along the west coast of Dominica undergo dramatic changes at various times of the year, varying from sandy to stony. Some east coast beaches are made of large boulders whilst in other cases cliff faces drop sharply into the sea. These dramatic vari ations of topography, accessibility, wave action and human activity have a profound effect on marine and coastal biodiversity. 7.2.2. River Estuaries and Wetland Areas Dominica is blessed with numerous rivers and streams, which flow from the rugged mountains into the Caribbean Sea on the west coast and into the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of the island. The interface between sea and river varies depending on the size of the river and the gradient of the land as it approaches the sea. In some cases the sea enters the river for some sig nificant distance inland forming a large pool of brack ish water. In other cases the river is slightly elevated above the level of the surf and the river water falls into the sea.This condition enhances the biodiversity of the island by providing a habitat and nursery for many organisms which thrive in brackish water or waters of varying salinities.This habitat also provides a haven for anadromous fish and some crustaceans, which live most of their adult life in the rivers, but whose larval and part of the juvenile stages are spent in the sea. Juvenile marine shrimp also spend some time in the river estuaries. SECTION 7 Indian River Wetland Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 21 DOMINICA Coastal & Marine Resources Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 22 7.2.3. Coral Reefs Dominica has a very narrow continental shelf on the west coast and a fairly large shelf on the east coast. As a result there are not many very large expanses of coral reefs on the west coast of the island (see map). A total of 32 species of hard corals and 16 species of soft corals have been identified, including 28 species of hard coral and 10 species of soft coral in the Scotts Head/Soufriere Marine Reserve alone (Evans, 1990).The majority of corals are in a healthy state. There are marked differences between the species found on the west and east coasts, although some species of coral occur on both coasts. In this regard, many more studies have been done on the western coast owing to the calm nature of the Caribbean Sea, and these studies have indicated that the coral diversity on the west coast of the island is greater than on the east coast. The Scotts Head / Soufriere area in the south of the island possesses some of the most pristine coral reefs with tremendous diversity. Owing to the rugged nature of the sea bed there exists coral grow ing on submarine cliff surfaces that provides for very good wall diving. Corals are also found growing on granite rock, and in cave formations in very deep water. Further north to Anse Bateau are unique fringing coral reefs that withstand the very warm waters pro duced from hot volcanic vents found on the seabed, which are locally called “champagne bub bles”. The most highly stressed areas of coral reef on Dominica occur along the west coast of the island, in an area stretch ing from Point Michel to Colihaut.The greatest factor contributing to the stress of these corals is sedimen tation from quarrying operations along the west coast where the majority of these facilities are locat ed. Corals occurring in deeper waters and on the east coast are in a much healthier state.A 1994 study describing the status of the coral reefs of Dominica found that 75% of the coral reefs were in a healthy state. 7.3.Species Diversity The marine and coastal habitats of Dominica sup port a wide diversity of species. 7.3.1. Fish The coastal waters of Dominica provide different types of habitat for many different species of fish.The coral reefs around the island, which are located at depths between 10m and 60m, are endowed with a very wide diversity of species. No documented list of species has ever been complied for Dominica. Some of the most common species identified in the fish landings of Dominica are lobster, many species of groupers and snappers, squirrel fish, black bar soldier fish, shrimp, goatfish, grunts, many species of wrasse, parrotfish , and file fish. Further offshore in waters of about 200m to 300m in depth, very large groupers and snappers abound. These are called deep slope species and are relative ly under-exploited in Dominica. The main species caught is Etellis oculatus (Valenciennes,1828) the queen snapper. A considerable amount of study is required to determine the potential and diversity of this resource. Coastal pelagics are found in the water column above the reef ecosystem. These include ballyhoo, sardines, jacks, scads, sprats, skipjack tuna and black-fin tuna. Further offshore migratory pelagics occur, including dolphin fish, wahoo, flyingfish, yellow-fin tuna, skipjack, black-fin tuna and other tunas and tuna-like species (e.g. mackerel). Tube Sponge Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 23 Reef Fisheries Deep Slope Fisheries Coastal pelagic Fishery Migratory Pelagics Declining both in terms of catches and size of individual fish Production has remained relatively steady over the years at a low level of exploita tion Shows an increasing trend Increasing trend Fisheries can be sustainable if managed properly Has great potential for increase in pro duction Shows great potential for development as it is caught in large quantities Has greatest potential for development 145.9 67.3 470.8 437 In addition to heavy fishing pressure, there are negative impacts on habitat from land based sources of pollu tion & development activi ties. • Lack of line haulers and other tackle. • Small and unstable fishing platforms for use on the Atlantic Ocean. • Bottom long lines and palangue very expensive to maintain. • Habitat affected by land based sources of pollution. • Some species are under utilized • Small size of boats • Lack of use of navigational aids • Fishing fleet presently operates within a 12 mile radius of the island 7.3.2.Turtles There are four species of turtle found in Dominican waters. The hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) (Linnaeus, 1766) is the most common and nests on Dominica. The leatherback turtle (Dermochelys cori acea) is the next most commonly observed turtle nesting on Dominica, and usually nests on beaches on the east coast of the island. The green turtle (Chelonia mydas mydas) (Linneus, 1758) and the log gerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) are also found in the waters around Dominica. There are reports of the loggerhead turtle being caught in Dominican waters but no evidence of nesting.There has been some evi dence of nesting behaviour of the green turtle on the island. However much is not known of this species’ distribution in terms of nesting areas. Exploitation level (tons)Fisheries Groups Trends ConstraintsPotential Table 7.1 - Status of Major Fisheries (1999) 7.3.3. Marine Mammals The coastal waters of Dominica present a haven for many marine mammals. Several species of whales and dolphins have been observed during studies conducted by the Fisheries Department and under taken in collaboration with Woodshole Oceanographic Institute, including: • Sperm Whale (Physter catodon) • Bryde’s Whale (Balaenoptera edeni) • Short-fined Pilot Whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) • Cuvier’s Beaked Whale (Ziphius cavirostis) • Pygmy Sperm Whale (Kogia breviceps) • Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaenglia) • Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) • Spinner Dolphin (Stenella clymene) • Spotted Dolphin (Stenella sp) • Frasers Dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei) • Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) Dominica has developed a growing whale-watching industry where day trips are organised for visitors and locals alike. The whales are located from about 0.5 miles to 4 miles from the coastline. In some cases land-based whale-watching can also be done. Dominica is a breeding ground for the Sperm Whale which is the most commonly observed marine mam mal around Dominica, and a resident population is observed all year round off the west coast. Mating behaviour has been observed on many occasions, and adult Sperm Whales, with newly born calves with the umbilical cord still attached, have also been seen. 7.3.4. Invertebrates A very wide diversity of marine invertebrates exists in the waters off Dominica. Limited studies have been conducted in Dominica, although studies done on invertebrates in the wider Caribbean region also apply to species found in Dominica. 7.3.4.1. Cindarians The growing dive tourism industry in Dominica is heavily dependent on the quality and diversity of coral reefs present in the waters around the island.A comprehensive list of the coral species of Dominica has not yet been compiled. However, species identi fication undertaken in the wider Caribbean region appears to apply. 7.3.4.2. Crustaceans Dominica possesses an abundance and diversity of crustaceans. These include land crabs, which spend their larval and juvenile stages in the sea, many species of marine crabs, and white brackish water mud crabs. There are also marine shrimp and many fresh water prawn species which inhab it the estuarine conditions of the many rivers found on the island. The mantis shrimp and four species of lobster are also found in Dominica’s waters. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 24 Sperm Whale Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 25 7.3.4.3. Lobster The main species of lobster found in Dominica are the spiny lobster (Panlirus argus) and Panulirus gutatus which are mainly found throughout the island’s deeper coastal waters. Both species are relatively abundant, having been protected from over-exploita tion by a closed season and the fact that they are generally to be found in deeper waters. Additionally, Dominica has prohibited the capture of lobster with SCUBA gear. 7.3.4.4. Porifera Many species of sponges are found in the waters of Dominica.They inhabit the same habitat as corals and experience the same adverse effects from anthro pogenic sources of pollution. 7.3.4.5. Echinoderms A fairly diverse range of species of this group are found in Dominican waters. At least two species of sea cucumbers and the brittle star exist, and two main species of sea urchins, the long-spine black sea urchin (Diadema antillarium) and the white sea urchin (Tripneustes ventricosus) commonly referred to as the "sea egg". The white sea urchin (T. ventricosus), which is found mainly on the east and south-east coast of Dominica, used to occur in great abundance. In recent years there has been a noticeable decline in the population. The reason for this decline is not well understood. There has never been a fishery for white sea urchins in Dominica, and therefore the decline cannot be attributed to over fishing.This variety of sea urchin inhabits very shallow water and uses dead leaves and debris for camou flage. The cause of the decline needs to be investi gated. The long-spine black sea urchin is the most common and well known, and is found on coral reefs in waters all around Dominica. In 1983 and for a few years thereafter, the population was decimated. This was due to a disease that affected the whole Caribbean region.This situation caused an imbalance in the reef ecosystem that resulted in a profuse growth of marine algae and death of coral reefs in some areas. Over the past five years there has been some recov ery and the urchin population has taken an upward turn. 7.3.4.6. Molluscs The molluscs found in Dominica include whelks, nudibranchs, oysters, octopus, squid, chitons and conch species including the queen conch (Strombus gigas). 7.3.4.7. Conch The conch fishery in Dominica suffered a significant decline in the population in the 1970s, and necessi tated the imposition of a ban on harvesting.The ban is still in effect although the conch population has now increased to sustainable levels. There is no sig nificant conch fishery in Dominica, and that is due in part to the very deep waters at which they occur. No export of the conch occurs. 7.3.4.8.Welks The welk (Cittarium pica) is usually found in rocky areas, stony beaches attached to rocks in the surf, and in very shallow waters. This species is prevalent along the entire east coast and on the south east coast of the island. The welks are not present throughout the year. It is not certain where they dis appear to but it is thought that at breeding time they burrow into the sand. Since no studies of the life cycle of this species have been done locally, the behaviour of the welk still is not well understood. However, the absence of the welks for at least 8 months of the year serves as a self-control measure and helps to prevent over fishing. A limited number of welks are harvested by skin divers. White Sea Urchin Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 26 Species Status Cause White Sea Urchin Endangered Exact cause is not known.There is no fishery for this resource - some environmental factors such as poor water quality are suspected Marine Turtles Threatened Illegal harvesting, loss of habitat and nesting grounds Corals Severely Threatened Siltation due to erosion from poor land management practices, anchor damage, scuba diving, collection of coral for export, poor fishing practices, natural disasters. Sea grass Threatened Siltation is the main cause of death of this species Reef Fish and Threatened Habitat destruction, poor water quality poor fishing prac coastal pelagics tices along west coast of Dominica. 7.3.4.9. Marine Algae Many species of algae occur in the waters of Dominica, ranging from green to brown algae. Although no comprehensive study of marine algae has been done in Dominica a few species which are used commercially have been identified. Gracilaria sinensis is the most common alga used in the sea moss industry. Other species identified include Gelidiella acerosa, Ulva fasciata, Dilohus guineensis and Hypnea musciformis. The Gracilaria sp. is processed locally and bottled for local consumption and export. However, most of the raw material is imported from neighbouring islands of the Caribbean. Large quantities of the wild stock of sea moss continue to be removed using harmful harvesting practices which pose a threat to the sus tainability of this small but growing industry. Commercial farming may be a solution to this par ticular problem. 7.4.Loss of Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Although it has not been scientifically proven that coastal and marine species of Dominica are actually threatened with extinction, there have been clear signs of decline in the populations of some species over the years. The loss of biodiversity is most evident in areas of high concentrations of human activity, especially near estuaries and in near-shore areas. With very tall and rugged mountains occupying Dominica’s interior, human settlement developed and continues to expand along the narrow coastal belt and close to rivers.The principal causes for the loss of coastal and marine biodiversity are the following: Table 7.2 - Threatened Coastal and Marine Species Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 27 7.4.1.Human Threats Generally, negative impacts on marine biodiversity caused by human activity can be categorized into five main areas; physical alteration, marine pollution, unsustainable exploitation, introduction of foreign species and climate change. 7.4.1.1 Physical Alteration The development of shoreline and sea defense struc tures contributes significantly to loss of biodiversity in Dominica. These structures replace valuable habitat and in addition alter the pattern of sediment and nutrient transport. The erection of jetties, breakwa ters and submerged groins prevent re-nourishment by currents in some areas along the coast thereby caus ing beach erosion and loss. The development of hotels on the beach also poses problems in addition to the erection of structures for the protection of frontline prop erty. The above alterations impede the transplanting of sea grass to other locations by current activity and have significantly affected the land crab population in the south of Dominica and has totally destroyed turtle nesting grounds in some areas, for example, Pottersville and Mero. Illegal sand mining activities alter the nature of the coastal areas, and predisposes the coastline to ero sion from wave action thereby resulting in sedimen tation of coral reefs. These illegal activities also destroy turtle nesting habitat. Some of the greatest causes of coastal alteration, degradation and loss of biodiversity in Dominica are uncontrolled and unregulated quarry operations. These operations are located along the coast and discharge thousands of tons of mud and silt into the marine environment causing death of coral reef and other marine organisms. 7.4.1.2 Marine Pollution The single greatest source of marine pollution in Dominica is due to improper treatment and dispos al of sewerage.The discharge of untreated sewerage and other liquid waste directly into the coastal and marine habitats has severe negative impact on biodi versity.The turbidity caused by such suspended solids results in death of sea grass beds, marine algae and other dependent organisms. A sewerage collection system is being established in Roseau to gather the city’s sewerage outfalls that will be redirected out to sea through one outfall that terminates 300 feet off shore.Although it is intended that this system reduce levels of pollution occurring very close inshore, it is uncertain as to whether it will have any positive impact upon marine ecosystems and species. Household detergent/chemical disposal, discharge of spent engine oil into drains and waterways, inade quate disposal of solid waste and effluent from fac tories remain some of the main causes of habitat degradation and loss of marine and aquatic biodiver sity. Poor land management and agricultural practices coupled with the very steep slopes of Dominica causes soil erosion and eventual sedimentation of the marine environment. Although no studies have been done to determine pesticide levels reaching the marine environment, very significant quantities of pesticides are used in the agricultural sector and the banana industry in particular, eventually reaching the marine environment. Easy access to beaches with no waste disposal facili ties results in littering of beaches and immediate marine space with plastic and other debris. Ship borne waste particularly disposal of waste from smaller and older ships, poses a threat to marine bio diversity in Dominica. Inadequate facilities exist for the disposal of ship waste, and therefore ships dis charge both solid and liquid waste in the coastal waters of Dominica. This issue is difficult to address due to a lack of surveillance capability on the island. Colihaut Quarry Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 28 7.4.1.3 Overexploitation Unsustainable use of coastal and marine resources is a prime cause of loss of biodiversity. Dominica has attempted over the years to take precautionary measures to address this problem. The artisanal commercial fishing fleet of Dominica is characterized by low technology and the use of small boats. By its mere nature fishing has been sustainable in most of the commercial fisheries exploited by local fishermen. However, in the immediate near shore reef areas, which are very limited in Dominica, signs of decline in many reef species have been noticed both in terms of quantity and size of fish. The catch composition of the fishermen has changed slightly in some fishing grounds along the west coast of the island. Although it is thought that fishing pressure on these resources may have been responsible for some of the decline, it is also very obvious that some forms of land based sources of pollution have played a part. In some areas there are obvious signs of coral and reef fish habitat degradation due to causes other than fishing (e.g. anchor damage from yachts, coral reef bleaching and damage from hurricanes). The status of the lobster and conch fishery of Dominica is not well known mainly because of the deep waters immediately surrounding the island. Some limited lobster fishing is done on the east coast of the island where 95% of the lobster and conch landed are adult size. There is no significant lobster fishery on the west coast. A moratorium has been declared for the conch fishery and for turtles but some illegal fishing for turtle is still observed. However, no significant illegal activity is noticed for conch. Dominica adheres to the management regimes put in place by the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) as far as the management of large migratory pelagics are con cerned. However, studies indicate a general decline in the population of these species. Illegal Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) fishing by foreign fishing vessels and companies pose a very serious threat to biodiversity of migratory pelagic species. Illegal fishing in marine reserves, collection of coral for sale and export, sand mining and use of ille gal fishing methods results in habitat degradation and loss of biodiversity in coastal areas. Marine mammals are threatened by movement of ships and heavy nau tical traffic. From time to time whales die from huge infected cuts from boat propellers. Whales are not hunted in Dominica either commercially or for local use. However, Pilot Whales are sometimes landed as an "incidental catch". 7.4.1.4 Transboundary Movement of Marine Species Introduction of foreign species into Dominica can result in adverse and unexpected biological prob lems. There is little research in this area and subse quently a limited amount known about the impacts created by foreign introduced species. Local species are being smuggled out of the country from time to time.This results in the loss of genetic material from the country. On a number of occasions the Fisheries Department has intercepted persons leaving the country with species of coral, sponges, marine algae, and reef fish. The implementation and enforcement of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) has been hampered by the absence of an enforceable regulatory framework. Stone Beach - Petite Savanne Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 29 7.5. Strategic Directions Strategy 8 - Develop and implement a comprehensive public education, awareness and training pro gramme on issues of environmental protection and conservation of coastal and marine resources/biodiversity. Strategy 9 - Review/amend existing legislation, and as appropriate develop new legislation with respect to: • Conservation and management of coastal and marine biodiversity • Protection of vulnerable/fragile/indigenous marine species and ecosystems • Coastal zone management • Coastal and marine parks and protected areas • The implementation and enforcement of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) • Local and community participation in coastal and marine conservation/management • Management of solid and liquid waste (industrial, agriculture, urban). Enforcement of existing and proposed legislation through empowerment and strengthening of all relevant agencies and community groups. Strategy 10 - Identification and protection of sensitive/fragile/threatened coastal and marine ecosystems and establishment of coastal and marine protected areas and restocking of endangered species where necessary. Strategy 11 - Involve community participation in coastal and marine management and to provide alterna tives to unsustainable exploitation of resources (coastal and marine). Strategy 12 - Research, inventory, mapping and monitoring to develop a comprehensive database and meta-data on: • Coastal and marine species and ecosystems • Species and ecosystem distribution description • Marine and coastal medicinal species Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 30 AGRICULTURE AND BIODIVERSITY 8.1.Agriculture in Dominica The agricultural sector plays a major role in eco nomic and rural development in the country. Throughout the decade of the 1990s Dominica's economy continued to be led by output from the agricultural sector. Gross agricultural output averaged 19.8% per annum of GDP between 1995 and 1999, peaking at 20.8% in 1996. Over the same period contributions from the other output sectors, manu facturing and tourism, remained well below that of agriculture, with averages of 7.0% and 2.6% respec tively. In spite of government policies providing incen tives and investment opportunities in the tourism and manufacturing sub-sectors, the productive capacity of these have not been developed in any appreciable amount to complement and/or match agriculture's contribution. Within the agricultural sector, crop production is of greatest economic importance as it is the primary foreign exchange earner in the sector, accounting for 78.5% of all agricultural production. Although banana production has decreased by 50% over the last ten years, banana still accounts for 30% of total crop pro duction, employing approximately 2,500 farmers approximately 30% of the agricultural labour force. The livestock, fisheries and forestry sub-sectors con tribute very little to foreign exchange earnings, their economic significance being in their contribution made to food security, employment in rural commu nities, and in the case of fisheries and livestock, a vital source of meat for home consumption. 8.2. Crop Production and Biodiversity A wide variety of crops are grown on integrated farms in Dominica. These include bananas, citrus, oil based crops, coffee and cocoa, a number of food crops and non-traditional fruits, vegetables and flow ers. Because of the rugged topography it is not uncommon to see a three-tiered system of farming on the island, with tree crops on the steeper slopes, bananas or food crops interplanted with tree crops on less steep slopes, and bananas or vegetables on the flatter areas. 8.3.Agricultural Diversification Since the early 1950s, banana production has been the main economic activity on the island. Although the banana industry is still a leading contributor to the economy, banana production has been decreas ing since the early 1990s.To offset this decline, pro grammes aimed at diversifying the production base and seeking alternative markets were intensified. These agricultural diversification programmes were designed to support policy objectives of increased foreign exchange earnings, income and employment generation, food security, and agro-biodiversity con servation and environmental preservation. Over the past seven years millions of dollars have been spent on the diversification effort. SECTION 8 Typical diversified farm Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 31 DOMINICA Generalized Land Use Map Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 32 8.4. Food Crops Food crops, including plantains and root crops (dasheen, tannia, yam, sweet potato and to a lesser extent white potato) are important contributors to domestic food production, income and crop diversi ty. Plantain and dasheen are more extensively plant ed and traded. 8.5. Livestock and Biodiversity Over the last few years the contribution of livestock production to overall agricultural production has increased slightly from 6.5% in 1991 to 7.4% in 1999 (CSO, 2000). Based on data from the 1995 Agricultural Census, local production is estimated at approximately 1,209,970lbs of meat annually, approx imately 15% of the total meats consumed. Pork, fresh whole chicken and chevron account for 48%, 11% and 8% of local production respectively. Livestock is produced mainly by many small farmers using traditional systems of production, which are part of the wider integrated farming systems prac ticed island-wide. Pigs (Porcine spp.), goats (Caprine spp.), sheep (Ovine spp.) and poultry (Avian spp.) are the major domesticated species reared commercial ly for meat. Other domesticated species include cat tle (Bovine spp.), rabbit (Laprine spp.), dogs (Canine spp), cats (Feline spp.), horses (Equine spp.) and don keys. Dominica has a comparative advantage in the pro duction of mutton, chevron and rabbit meat. These small stock are effectively integrated into our small farming systems, and their high rates of multiplication, utilisation of local farm by-products and intensively grown fodder enables them to make significant con tributions to farm incomes. They are also ready sources of disposable income. The technologies introduced over the years (shelters, anthelmintic treatment, cut & carry systems and strategic feed supplementation) are relatively simple and therefore have been easily adopted by farmers. 8.6.Agriculture and Biodiversity Dominica’s landscape and rugged topography is char acterized by micro-climates that support indigenous plants in particular conditions that support their cul tivation. Over 30 percent of the island is covered by forest. However, over the years, deforestation for agricultural purposes has been the greatest contrib utor to the loss of natural biodiversity. The agricultural diversification program has been very successful in contributing to biodiversity conser vation. Present agro-biodiversity knowledge originat ed from a combination of knowledge from slaves brought in from Africa and the indigenous people of Dominica, the Caribs, as they made use of diverse plants, livestock, and agro-ecosystems. Over the cen turies, local farmers have employed numerous prac tices to use, enhance, and conserve agro-biodiversity within their traditional integrated/mixed farming sys tems. Penned goats Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 33 For example, the use of diverse species in these sys tems has lessened the risks associated with pests' outbreaks. The integration of different types of fruit trees and the maintenance of windbreaks have enhanced this diversity. Detailed knowledge about biodiversity has allowed agriculture to evolve over thousands of years. Although sometimes perceived as an enemy to bio diversity conservation, agricultural production is very dependent on the combined use of a number of natural resources, including richly diverse biological resources, land, and water resources.The many types of biological resources tied to agriculture include: • Genetic resources, which consist of large quanti ties of genetic information in plants and animals that, are essential for the continued survival of life on earth; • Edible plants and crops including traditional vari eties, cultivars, hybrids and genetically modified plants; • Livestock and freshwater fish and other animals; • Soil organisms that are essential for soil fertility, structure, quality and soil health; • Naturally occurring insects, bacteria, fungi that control insect pests and diseases of domesticat ed plants and animals; • Ecosystems that provide environmental services required for nutrient cycling, stability and pro ductivity that are so essential for agricultural pro duction. 8.7. Impact of Agriculture on Biodiversity Loss of Dominica’s biodiversity is caused primarily by conversion of natural land areas into agricultural and residential development areas. This occurs because farmers generally consider that the rate of return from development of the land is greater than that of conservation. The benefits accrued from develop ment of the land will be greater than the cost because the farmer (or any individual land owner) has a positive rate of time preference, therefore mak ing it more profitable to develop the land than to conserve it. Most of the benefits of conservation are intangible, with no markets existing for them. 8.7.1. Land Use Data collected in the agricultural census conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1995, indicate that only 52,256 acres (27%) of total land area is in farms. Of this 31,631 acres (60.5%) is cropped and 14, 803 acres (8.3%) is in forest. These figures indicate that although there has been clearing of more land for agriculture over the years, there has been only a slight increase in actual percentage of total land area in farms. This is due mainly to the removal of lands from agriculture into other sectors such as housing, tourism and other infrastructural and commercial development. In many of these cases the flat or gen tly sloping more productive land has been removed, leaving the steeper lands more prone to soil degra dation for agricultural production. 70% of Dominica's land resources have been classified as unsuitable for agriculture mainly because of erosion risks, water sat uration due to heavy rainfall, or poor soils. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 34 DOMINICA Landslide Hazard Map Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 35 • Approximately 37% of Dominica’s total land area is classified as land with high erosion risk. • 20% of the total land area is classified as land with moderately high erosion risk, found mainly in the Northern Forest Reserve and the south of the country. • 13% of the total land area is classified as poor agricultural land, found mainly on the southern edge of the Central Forest Reserve and northwest of the Morne Trois Pitons National Park. With increasing settlement on the scarce agricultural lands, steeper lands under forest are being cleared for conversion into agriculture. This has had serious effects, the most visible being soil erosion and land slides leading to loss of soil fertility. Some farmers also practice slash-and-burn during the dry season, mainly along the coastal regions. Many of these fires get out of control and cause destruction of natural habitat, loss of biological resources and landslides.The situation is aggravated when bananas are planted in inappropriate areas and little attention is given to good husbandry practices. 8.7.2. Land Distribution Through land distribution programmes, the Integrated Rural Development Project and other land reform projects, crown lands and several estates were divided into small parcels, usually in plots of approximately five acres and distributed/sold to farmers. Despite these land distribution efforts, farm ers continue to demand land for agricultural produc tion. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Dominica's natural vegetation was cleared at an increasing rate as farmers cleared land for agriculture, primarily for bananas. Much of this land, however, was unsuitable for banana cultivation, and at the same time suitable lands were being under-utilised. Farming on these steep slopes and the clearance of river buffer belts and natural windbreaks have caused soil erosion and nutrient loss through run-off during heavy rains. The expansion into forested lands, the continued conversion of former agricultural lands into other uses and the monoculture of banana production have served to reduce the size and diversity of natu ral habitats, eroding the biodiversity of existing flora and fauna. 8.7.3. Land Tenure In the past, a few individuals owned large portions of land on Dominica. In a census carried out in 1961, the wealthier 1.4% of farmers occupied 56.4% of the land. However, by 1995, through the re-distribution of land, 8,434 farmers held all the farmlands, provid ing an average farm size of a mere 6.2 acres. Sixty five percent (65%) of the 8,434 farmers own their farms, 11% farm family-owned farms, 5.5% farm on rented lands, and 10% have not stated land owner ship status. The division of family land among children into small er farms or parcels has also encouraged the frag mentation of land. This land tenure system also encompasses a number of other issues such as unclear land ownership or title and non-payment of rentals for leased lands. Generally family members or farmers without secure title for land are unwilling to make improvements and undertake investments on their farms, thereby impacting adversely on the con servation of agro-biodiversity. In addition farmers leasing land and squatters place much stronger emphasis on short-term crops and without legal ownership do not adopt any appreciable level of stewardship towards the natural resources of those lands. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 36 DOMINICA Water Resources Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 37 8.7.4.Water Resources Dominica has seven major watersheds found mainly in the central region of the island on both the wind ward and leeward sides.There are also three smaller watersheds located in the north of the island.Water is provided for domestic consumption, export to other Caribbean countries, and for generating hydro electric power.Water from the rivers and streams is also used for fishing, laundering, bathing, swimming, boating and other activities. This abundant supply of fresh water has prevented the early development of irrigation systems for agricultural production. Almost all the forty-three (43) water-catchment areas in Dominica are located on privately owned lands where there are no effective controls on land use activities. Most of these catchment areas are under cultivation, and in some cases inappropriate land use activities such as deforestation and banana cultivation on steep slopes have caused soil erosion and landslides. This has resulted in changes to the landscapes of the ecosystems (e.g. steeper slopes and silting of rivers and streams), but because of the fast growth of ground cover, the impact has been considerably lessened. 8.7.5. Loss of Agro-Biodiversity The diversity of crop species and the diversity of varieties within species have traditionally strength ened the resilience of agriculture.With the introduc tion of new commercial farming practices and as the number of crop species declines, local nitrogen-fixing bacteria, mycorrhizae, predators, pollinators, seed dispersers, and other species that co-evolve over centuries with traditional agricultural systems die-out. While there has been little research conducted into the resilience of domestic varieties, or their evolving adaptation to changing local circumstances, it is apparent that Dominica’s agro-biodiversity is under threat. An important factor contributing to loss of agro-bio diversity is the demise of the tradition of passing on, from generation to generation, information and knowledge of traditional agricultural practices and animal husbandry, and the use of native plants (including medicinal plants), their properties and uses. Dominica’s agro-biodiversity has been affected by invasive vegetation, and periodic outbreaks of pests and diseases. Historically, with few mechanisms in place to control the importation of foreign vari eties/organisms/species and prevent unintended harm to the agricultural sector, there have been inci dents where a foreign introduced species/organ ism/variety has resulted in an unintended impact on domestic agro-biodiversity. Additionally, storms and hurricanes have promoted the use of storm-resistant species by farmers, thereby reducing the variety of crops that are grown. The introduction of high-yielding planting material and varieties adapted for intensive management regimes have lessened the demand for traditional products on the international market.This has led in some instances to the erosion of the genetic pool of traditional agricultural species. However, it should also be recognized that the introduction of new plant material has been beneficial in increasing the overall genetic base on the island. Agricultural productivity assistance such as modernized farm techniques, irri gation and new crop varieties have all helped farm ers cope with marginal lands, and agricultural diversi fication programs have been very successful in con tributing to biodiversity conservation. Dominica does possess, through its wide range of plant and animals species, a pool of genetic material that if properly identified, developed and sustained could be of immense potential to its continued development and prosperity. Continued conserva tion of Dominica’s agro-biodiversity requires that immediate attention be given to harnessing all avail able information that will guide sector/sub sector strategy formulation and future agricultural develop ment. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 38 There are a number of measures that can be taken to encourage agro-biodiversity and sustainable agriculture.These include: • develop all-inclusive inventories or "indicators" of agricultural diversity (e.g. number of vari eties/breeds/species, location, distribution), and establish a monitoring program to document any changes; • eliminate agricultural policies that promote excessive uniformity of crops and crop vari eties, or that encourage the overuse of chem ical fertilizers and pesticides; • establish a gene bank to preserve valuable agricultural genetic material; • institute "genetic diversity checks" for major crop varieties to minimize the risk of crop fail ure, and undertake tests to evaluate threats posed by "genetic uniformity" in Dominica’s major crops/livestock; • preserve traditional knowledge of agricultural practices and animal husbandry, and the use of native plants (including medicinal plants), their properties and uses; • create a greater appreciation for the soil as a living entity important for sustained produc tion; • grow different types of fruit trees and maintain windbreaks for enhancing agro-biodiversity. • regulate land use practices and changes that influence agricultural practices such as shifting from mono-cropping patterns, agro-forestry and tree crop plantations, especially in degrad ed lands and on steep slopes. • encourage sound water and land manage ment practices such as i. Establishing and maintaining buffer zones along riversides and windbreaks; and ii. Conserving tillage and mulching practices that influence the biological processing of decomposition and mineralisation; • promote investment in technology develop ment and research aimed at evaluating and improving various soil conservation/land man agement practices under different agro-eco logical zones and especially in degraded land areas; • monitor changes in soil quality under each land use/management practice and channeling information to the farmers through on-farm technical assistance and extension education. Priority should be given to the use of biological agents as the preferred method of pest and dis ease control.The trend towards organic crop pro duction and marketing should be enhanced and strongly supported. Attempts at converting lands from conventional to organic production are to be given priority in implementation. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 8.8. Strategic Directions Strategy 13 – Develop a comprehensive national land use plan/legislation with the involvement of all key stakeholder. Strategy 14 - Develop germplasm/gene banks. Strategy 15 - Increase agricultural productivity and "value added" through the maximization of the use of appropriate technology. Strategy 16 - Conserve and improve Agriculture Land Base through sound agricultural/conservation practices. Strategy 17 - Research, inventory and monitoring to develop a comprehensive database and meta-data on: • Agro-Biodiversity; • Species distribution description (crops and livestock); • Medicinal Plants; • Traditional agricultural practices. Strategy 18 - Develop and implement a comprehensive public education, awareness and training programme on issues of environmental protection and conservation of agro-diversity. 39 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 40 HUMAN SETTLEMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND BIODI VERSITY 9.1. Human Settlement and Development 9.1.1. Natural Ecosystems and Agro-Ecosystems to Mid-Twentieth Century The immediate pre-Columbian Afootprint com prised Carib small villages with family lands where biodegradable houses were constructed and regular gardening done using a wide variety of well under stood crops with many purposes. Further inland, in small short-lived clearings in rain forest or dry forest were other Carib family gardens, which shifted as necessitated by diminishing returns. During this time trails were of little impact on the natural ecosystems but the Carib agro-ecosystem introduced a few crops, perhaps including the highly important cassava, and some animals. Extraction from the natural forest was selective, with Gommier (Dacryodes excelsa) and Larouman reed (Ischnosiphon arouma) harvested for canoes and baskets, respectively. The whole lasting impact was relatively small. With the arrival of Columbus and the subsequent introduction of European plantations, the country witnessed widespread clearing, on a more extensive scale than previously, especially in valleys near the coast. The development of coffee and then sugar estates, particularly in the dry forest areas, resulted in severe erosion in many places (Atwood, 1791). Smaller proprietors occupied steeper land on ridges and the mainly black peasantry occupied even more marginal land. Permanent structures were built of stone and compartmentalisation of ecosystems by roads began. In some areas land modification by ter racing further affected the natural landscape, the hydrology and the ecology. New crops and new cultivars were introduced from an early stage and some, like the root crops from several sources (Pacific, Africa, Asia) expanded the range of food crops or (e.g. Pandanus), substituted local industrial materials. Successive waves of crop failure and development of a new crop after a peri od of low husbandry affected the pattern of terres trial ecosystem regeneration. The persistence of some crops in long abandoned estates has con tributed to the mixed secondary vegetation of some areas, but information on the old cultivars and their relative persistence is scarce. The development of windbreaks of a single species (Galba, Gliricidia etc.) which persisted, fur ther diversified secondary regrowth.The secondary forest of later years is var ied and reflects the different uses and abuses of var ious systems and the extent to which the extensive ecosystems have been replaced by parcels of differ ing nature. Emancipation saw the spread of coastal villages both at the sea (e.g. fishing villages such as Mero - and on ridge tops (e.g. Morne Jaune) - and use of the ridges and side slopes increased with more shifting cultiva tion and differential impact on native species. The demise of plantations commencing soon after the Great War of 1914 - 1918 saw the increasing peas ant population squatting on abandoned estates and moving inland to extend the areas of modified forest using shifting cultivation. SECTION 9 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 41 DOMINICA Generalized Vegetation Map Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 42 9.1.2. Developments after 1950 Economic development in general, including some agro-processing, attempts at forest exploitation, the development of services such as water supply, the development of banana cultivation, government changes, and the sale of Crown Lands saw the rate of modification increase rapidly. Works of soil con servation introduced long-lasting vetiver lines and short-lived contour drains, then the banana mono culture, avoiding the use of ground cover first by mechanical and later by chemical means, produced major soil modification and erosion over large areas where it had previously been rare and selectively reduced some weeds while encouraging others. Other Anew crops were of less significance, and some government subsidized tree crop plantings have become part of secondary forest. The introduced fire-resistant lemon grass crop began to take over dry forest and is now established along roads and even in a few rain forest areas. Brush fires, especially during the dry season, have resulted in widespread destruction of the dry forest lands on the leeward side of the island and their replacement by invasive lemongrass. Roads constructed to facili tate farming and general movement encouraged landslides, further divided the landscape, and resulted in the loss of ecosystem diversity.The use of bulldoz ers made the cutting of roads easier and badly aligned roads, access roads to farms and construction sites in particular, have greatly increased erosion - the classic examples being where successions of land slides have persisted for over 40 years.The bulldozer also suddenly made the complete clearing of large areas cheaper and easier, but in doing so it rearranged the soil, reduced fertility and modified local hydrology through soil compaction and reduc tion of the capacity of the soil to absorb and hold water, especially on the fragile low bulk density soils of most of the interior. In doing this it replaced the traditional "underbrushing" (cutlassing and burning in place with the larger trees left standing) form of land clearing. Blue Mahoe and Mahogany were planted in areas which had been selectively cut during attempts to exploit the major timber trees of the rain forest. Popular trees such as Gommier, Garapite, Cedar, and others - continue to be selectively felled with or without license, and the harvested land has not been restored to its former state. 9.1.3. Urban Systems The initial pre-Columbian settlements were small and biodegradable.The peasant villages, which grad ually covered many coastal sites, were similarly ephemeral in nature. Plantations introduced small areas of stone buildings and yards which were long lived but could be gradually overtaken by natural forces. In the last 50 years of urbanization, large areas of for merly agricultural land have been covered by con crete houses, shaven lawns, non-native plants, and paved yards, with attendant modified drainage sys tems and roads which further compartmentalize the land. These have extended so far inland that, apart from the national parks and forest reserves, there are no longer continuous areas of natural forest or sec ondary forest of any size.While many of these urban developments exist as isolated "islands" of differing ecology, particularly in their chemistry, urban spread along roads is inexorable and change to the remain ing secondary forest and some natural forest is also likely. The roads, which were formerly longer narrow strips between high forest, have been widened with the use of new technologies and equipment. The erection of telephone, cable and power lines, and construction of storm drains along roads have creat ed ecological barriers and increasing vehicle use have affected the ecology near roadsides. Concomitant with the construction of the new urban areas, largely centred on very resistant and less biodegradable concrete buildings, is the large scale quarrying of stone and tarrish, producing large bare rock surfaces, and new breaks in the continuity of ecosystems. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 43 The removal of wood from forest land for charcoal production and for construction purposes has fur ther contributed to loss of forest cover. With increased urbanisation and modernisation, Dominica has witnessed a change in composition and volume of solid and liquid wastes, with negative impacts on the natural environment. Traditional dis posal practices for largely biodegradable wastes are no longer able to deal with the increased volume and complexity of modern human waste. Modern waste collection, treatment and disposal systems are being established, but are not yet able to signif icantly reduce the impact of human waste on the natural environ ment. The ever-increasing demand for portable water continues to place pressure on the coun try’s limited fresh water supplies. The modifica tions necessary to pro vide water supplies also affect the hydrology and thereby the ecology well beyond the limits of actual urban sites. 9.2.Tourism in Dominica Dominica’s economy has been dependent on agri culture with bananas contributing up to 70% of export earnings.This has declined considerably over the last eight years. As a result, emphasis is being placed on tourism development as a means of diver sifying and boosting the economy. 1999 figures showed that agriculture’s contribution to GDP was 19.1%, and tourism (hotels & restaurants) contribut ing 2.6%.Tourism development is at an infancy stage in Dominica.Total (stay-over) tourism arrivals in 1999 amounted to 73,506. Cruise tourism has developed at a phenomenal rate. There has been an almost three hundred–fold percent increase over the last eight years to 244,603 passengers. This expansion poses potential real threats to the island’s biodiversi ty and, as such, a management plan embracing carry ing capacity issues is an imperative. 9.3. Dominica’s Tourism Product The primary tourism resource base in Dominica is its pristine natural environment.The volcanic landscape with its lush rain forests supports a rich diversity of flora and fauna are of great interest Tourism in Dominica Dominica’s marine environment supports major tourism activities such as diving, snorkeling, whale and dolphin watching, kayaking and to a lesser extent, sports fishing and windsurfing. Approximately 30% of total tourist arrivals are divers. At present, there are six dive operations in Dominica four of which offer whale and dolphin watching tours.While Dominica is still considered to be largely unspoiled by either development or pollution, there are indicators and in fact examples of the negative impact of tourism at two levels - the development of tourism infrastruc ture and services and the utilization of tourism attractions and amenities. The Tourism Policy of 1988 speaks to the conserva tion of animal and plant life within the general and specific objectives outlined.Within the general objec tives, it states that one of the benefits to be derived from the development of the tourism sector is as fol lows: "The conservation of the physical resources of the coun try" and "earning of finance for conservation and devel opment of Dominica’s renewable natural resources i.e. plant life and wildlife and the protection of their envi ronment". Total visitor arrivals to Dominica including cruise visi tors, amounted to 396,221 in 1997. The number of hotel rooms increased from 567 in 1991 to 867 in 1999 an average of 37.5 rooms a year. Contributions to foreign exchange earnings increasing from U.S.$ 28.1 million in 1991 to U.S.$47.9 million in 1999, representing an average annual increase of 8.8 % over the last eight years. Revenue from tourist visits to national parks amounts to EC$4.5 million since the national parks user fee was established in 1997. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 44 DOMINICA Tourism Map 9.4. Impact of Tourism on Dominica’s Biodiversity There are several impacts of tourism development with negative implications for the marine and terres trial environment.These are as follows: 9.4.1. Inappropriate Land Use The lack of zoning for tourism development has allowed development of tourism structures and facil ities to take place in areas that are not suitable for this type of development, and in direct conflict with traditional uses of the resource base. This has been exacerbated by the fact that traditionally, planning for tourism has been oriented towards the needs of the developers and the tourism industry itself and has not taken into account the impact on biological resources. 9.4.2. Disruption of Biological Resources Disturbance of wildlife habitat as a result of develop ing trade in endangered species, and high visitation rates in areas of attraction are some activities with negative impacts on the ecology of the areas. Other serious impacts are increased soil erosion and destruction of flora and fauna. 9.4.3. Marine Pollution The principal causes of marine pollution from tourism related activities include: • Construction, dredging and sand mining; • Solid waste disposal; • Liquid waste disposal; • Chemical pollution; and • Uncontrolled multiple use of marine resources. Most of the major hotels are located along coastal strips south of Roseau, along the west coast, and in the Picard area. The majority of hotels have no sewage treatment plants except for primary treat ment with final discharge into the marine environ mental. In addition to this, wastewater from kitchens, bathrooms and laundry areas of hotel establishments are usually discharged directly to the sea. As such, there tends to be some level of marine and coastal pollution in these areas. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 45 Visitors at Indian River 46 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 9.4.4. Destruction of Coral Reefs, Wetlands and Beaches Tourism related activities have resulted in the destruction of coastal ecosystems through; • Untreated effluent, silting and boat anchors; • Dredging and filling of mangrove wetlands for hotel development, cruise ship berths or for beach nourishment; • Beach degradation from sand mining, dredging or violation of shore line Building Codes and set back requirements; • Solid waste disposal. 9.4.5. Destruction of the Landscape Fundamental change in the landscape as a result of construction of buildings, urbanisation and road con struction leading to deterioration of aesthetic values important in the built environment. Some wetland areas have been disturbed as a result of hotel devel opment.The Cabrits Freshwater wetland fell prey to the development of a hotel in the area.The wetland was drained and this changed the ecology of the area. Some wetland areas have been disturbed as a result of hotel development.The Cabrits Freshwater wetland fell prey to the development of a hotel in the area. 9.4.6. Destruction of Flora While this is not a very serious problem, certain tree species such as "Bois bandé" (Richeria grandis) have suffered from being debarked to the extent of being killed through infestations. Others such as orchids and some species of ferns tend to be pilfered. 9.4.7. Destruction of Fauna The two endemic species of parrots, Amazona impe rialis and Amazona arausiaca, have been threatened as a result of increased tourism and black market trade in endangered species.These parrots are very sensitive to increased human activity within their range. As such, increased tourism activity could con tribute to their decelerating population. Visitors on Trafalger Falls Trail 47 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 9.4.8. Soil Compaction and Erosion In areas like the Emerald Pool and to a lesser extent, the Trafalgar Falls, large volumes of visitors over a short period of time tend to compact and erode the soil. Use of outboard motors for boating on the Indian River has increased erosion of the river bank and toppling of river bank species like Pterocarpus officinalis, "Bwa Mang" a tree species important for the stability of the bank.These conditions bring to the fore the need for carrying capacity consideration. 9.4.9. Impact on Whales The impact of regulated whale and dolphin watching activities on these creatures of the sea may disturb their reproductive processes and parenting activities. 9.4.10.Tourism Infrastructure The development of tourism-related infrastructure – hotels, cruise ship berths, airports, roads- has had the greatest negative impact on Dominica’s coastal and marine resources.There are five major ports of entry for sea and air passenger-three shipping ports and two airports. Both the Canefield and Melville Hall Airports had major impact on the natural courses of the rivers adjacent to them, the Canefield River and the Melville Hall River. In the case of the Melville Hall River, there was a diversion and the airport structure, in fact, was built on the bed of the River. The Canefield airstrip is built over two rivers.The expan sion of the Woodbridge Bay Port modified the beach structure and wave pattern in the area. 9.5. Manufacturing and Quarrying Manufacturing activities in Dominica are very diverse, ranging from agro-processing, to the production of soap, soap products, toothpaste, paints and varnishes, plastic products, solar water heaters, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. Mining operations, con struction and furniture operations all form part of the manufacturing industry. Most manufacturing enterprises are located in close proximity to coastal areas. There are approximately eight quarries in Dominica, five along the west coast, one located in Canefield and another adjacent to the Emerald Pool area and one along the southern coast. 9.5.1. Impact of the Manufacturing Sector on Dominica’s Biodiversity Activities of the manufacturing sector cause the fol lowing impacts upon Dominica’s natural resources and biodiversity: 9.5.1.1.Wastewater Agro-industries generate large volumes of waste water that are discharged into rivers which eventual ly find its way into the sea. A large quantity of waste water used for cleaning or sanitising equipment find its way to rivers and streams and the sea through the sewage or drainage systems. These pollutants affect Dominica’s sensitive aquatic and coastal ecosystems. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 48 9.5.1.2. Solid Waste Solid waste generated by the manufacturing sector consists primarily of plastics, cardboard and carton boxes, broken wooden palettes, pepper, grapefruit and lime residues, metal, plastic drums, broken glass, scrap aluminium, stainless steel, copper, galvanised metal and fibre glass.A small amount of stainless steel and copper is collected for recycling. Grapefruit and lime residues are utilised for animal feed and for other agro-products.All other materials are disposed of at the two landfills or at the Jimmit dumpsite where steel and galvanised metal are disposed. Contamination of rivers from the disposal of solid wastes has resulted in damage to Dominica’s sensi tive aquatic and coastal ecosystems. 9.5.1.3. Heat Heated effluent from some manufacturing entities that drain directly into rivers and streams, has increased the temperature of the receiving areas and has adversely affected the ecology of the steams. Reports from the Forestry Division indicate that the Loubiere River had experienced dead crayfish in 1998 as a result of such discharges. Increased tem perature and chemical outflow has vir tually destroyed the fish life of the Belfast River. 9.5.1.4. Pumice and Silt from Quarries There are eight quarries located near the west and southern coasts of Dominica. The quarrying opera tions themselves negatively impact flora and fauna which are destroyed in the process of excavation. Another major impact of quarries on biodiversity is on the marine and freshwater environment through silting of adjacent rivers and the marine environment. Coral reefs on the west coast are very vulnerable to the impacts of increased sedimentation, which in extreme cases, can result in coral deaths and serious impacts on the marine ecosystems. 1st draft workshop of NBSAP Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 49 9.6. Strategic Directions Strategy 19 – Develop and implement a comprehensive and integrated framework (i.e. legislation, institu tional structures, etc.) for natural resource management and physical planning. Strategy 20 - Develop and implement a comprehensive public education, awareness and training pro gramme on issues of environmental protection and conservation of natural resources. Strategy 21 - Review/amend existing legislation, and as appropriate develop new legislation with respect to: • Integrated natural resource management and physical planning; • Environmental management and protection; • Environmental impact assessments (EIAs); • Environmental assessment, monitoring and auditing; • Local and community participation in environmental and natural resource management, and physical planning; • Pollution control and the management of solid and liquid waste (industrial, agriculture, urban); • Environmental quality standards, certification and licensing programs; • Engineering and architectural standards to reduce impact on natural resources. Enforcement of existing and proposed legislation through empowerment and strengthening of all relevant agencies and community groups. Strategy 22 - Protect, develop and encourage cultural traditions and traditional knowledge. Strategy 23 - Develop inter-agency and inter-sectoral communication and information exchange pro grammes in support of improved environmental protection and integrated resource man agement. Strategy 24 - Provide incentives in support of improved environmental protection and integrated resource management. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 50 BIODIVERSITY AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE/CULTURE 10.1.Traditional Knowledge Indigenous cultures, such as the Caribs of Dominica, are a part of the ecological landscape.These original residents of Dominica possess considerable knowl edge about natural resources, and have important information about how the natural landscape and land uses have changed over long periods of time. The ecological knowledge of indigenous people is most evident in their agricultural systems, which con tain many different varieties of a single crop, and con tribute tremendously to the conservation of local biological diversity. Attempts to harness this knowl edge about medicinal plants have been made in Dominica by non-government organizations such as the Movement for Cultural Awareness (MCA) and the Small Projects Assistance Team (SPAT). In Dominica, knowledge of medicinal plants and their uses originated with the slaves from Africa and the Caribs. This knowledge base, influenced by colonial ism, was passed down from generation to generation and adapted as new uses were discovered.To date, a total of sixty-two (62) plants found in Dominica have been identified as a source of traditional medicines. The potential income which could be derived from biodiversity prospecting - the exploration of biodi versity for commercial value of genetic and bio chemical resource - provides compelling reasons for the identification and preservation of the world's most species-rich ecosystems in the tropics. Plant species are also very valuable for the medicines they provide locally. It is therefore important that tradi tional practices, culture and knowledge of the peo ples of Dominica be preserved and conserved before this valuable resource is lost. 10.2. Loss of Traditional Knowledge and Culture The loss of traditional knowledge and culture in Dominica has accelerated in the past twenty years. This is due to a number of factors that by and large revolve around the globalization of international cul ture and its associated lowering of the value of tradi tional knowledge and culture. The specific elements that have contributed to the process are the lack of documentation on traditional practices and the disuse or breakdown in mecha nisms that have historically been utilized for transmit ting such knowledge throughout the community and to the young. Modern education systems have dis couraged and in some instances dismissed the value of traditional knowledge, practices and culture, while rural and regional migration has contributed to the further loss of such knowledge at the community and local levels. Compared to other countries in the Caribbean region, Dominica still retains much of its traditional culture and knowledge – which largely vests with the Carib peoples who are recognized as a distinct culture that is afforded some protection through the establishment of the Carib Territory and the Carib Council. However, easier access to modern technology combined with the lack of appreciation of traditional values and the associated breakdown of the traditional family and village unit have combined to create a situation whereby access to traditional practices, cultures and knowledge will shortly be for ever lost to future generations unless immediate action to redress the situation is initiated. SECTION 10 Carib Basket Weaver 51 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 50 10.3. Strategic Directions Strategy 25 - Develop inventory of biomaterials and their traditional uses. Strategy 26 - Ministry of Community Development shall develop (through broad consultation) and implement a policy and strategy for the protection, encouragement, enhancement, and con servation of traditional knowledge, culture and values. Strategy 27 - Formulate and implement a Development Plan for the Carib people that shall be fully inte grated into the national development planning process. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 52 BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 11.1. Background Climate plays a primary role in determining both the geographic distribution of organisms and the distri bution of the habitats upon which they depend. Climate also plays a significant role in plant growing cycles, and may impact upon the reproductive regimes of some animal species. Dominica’s natural systems feature unique microclimates, which are extremely sensitive, and any change in climate will therefore have a profound impact upon individual species of flora and fauna, natural ecosystems and biodiversity in general. There is growing concern that increased levels of atmospheric pollutants from the burning of fossil fuels and the emission of other "greenhouse gases" is causing significant changes to global climate patterns. The recently completed Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has confirmed that global warming is already taking place, and that significant changes to global climate patterns are likely to occur in the future. International concern has led to the development of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change that establishes a framework to reduce glob al greenhouse gas emissions, and to address the actual and anticipated impacts of climate change. Dominica signed the Convention in 1993, and is cur rently in the process of developing appropriate strategies to reduce the country’s vulnerability to the impacts of climate change, and to establish appropri ate adaptation options. 11.2. Climate Change and Biodiversity Global warming will result in climate change that may be manifested by: • Sea level rise; • Changes in local and regional temperatures; • Changes in rainfall patterns; • An increase in the intensity and frequency of severe weather events (droughts, floods, hurri canes); and • Changes to ultra-violet penetration levels. Currently, limited research has been undertaken on the impacts of climate change on global biodiversity. However, scientist have indicated that project ed cli mate changes for the next century will result in major impacts on forests, biological diversity, water resources, sea level, marine and aquatic ecosystems, and agriculture. Changes in global climate are likely to present the following threats to global biodiversity: • Impacts as a result of warming that exceeds the migrational capacity of species; • Losses of habitat during progressive shifts in cli matic conditions; • Reductions in species diversity through reduc tions or loss of habitat. Significant impacts are already being witnessed as in the case of the Seychelles islands in the Indian Ocean where extensive coral loss has been witnessed in recent years as a result of a rise in coastal water temperatures. Changing seasonal patterns have also been observed, with a resultant impact on migratory species. SECTION 11 Erossion Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 53 11.3. Climate Change Impacts on Dominica’s Biodiversity Global warming, climate change and sea level rise are issues which can affect coastal areas of Dominica. Hurricane Lenny in November 1999 caused severe damage to the coastline of Dominica. The storm caused transformation of the seabed and coastline in some areas resulting in total destruction of habitat and consequent loss of biodiversity. Hurricane Lenny, which was characterised by extremely high impact waves in excess of 60ft high, took a toll on the inshore coral reefs of Dominica. Huge pieces of reef were ripped from the seabed and tossed unto the beach causing severe loss of habitat to coastal pelagic and reef fishes. A sizeable amount of coral was washed up on the beaches and areas where there was a rocky shoreline were turned into sandy beaches and vice versa. It is antic ipated that global warming and climate change will bring about an increase in the intensity and frequen cy of such severe weather events in the Caribbean region. It is anticipated that climate change will have a signif icant impact on Dominica’s biodiversity in the fol lowing ways: • Intensification of storms as a result will increase erosion and sedimentation in coastal waters, thereby affecting the resilience of natural systems • High energy waves will result in increased coastal erosion allowing the sea to encroach further inland and also causing severe loss of biodiversi ty • Increase in temperature and increase in intensity of ultra-violet radiation will affect sensitive species • Sea level rise will affect low-lying towns and vil lages and result in extensive economic loss, and greater development pressure on natural sys tems • Change in seasonal weather patterns are likely to impact traditional farming practices, and affect the growing cycle of plants: • Changes in the composition of natural vegeta tion are likely to result from changing climatic and hydrological conditions. Climate change is also likely to impact ecological interactions between animal species within and with out these systems. Increased incidents of flooding will increase erosion, and affect soil fertility. Sea level rise will result in the inundation of coral reefs, sea grass beds and mangrove areas. Fish kills and coral bleaching are likely to result from increased sea water temperatures. An increase in pests and dis eases is likely to result from changes in seasonal cli mate patterns. Increased sedimentation from severe weather events will affect fragile aquatic ecosystems. Wind and hurricane damage Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 54 11.4. Strategic Directions Strategy 28 - Adopt and implement Dominica’s Climate Change Adaptation Policy and Action Plan that will, amongst other matters, establish programs for : • Monitoring and research on the potential effects of climate change on biological diversity; • Implementation of both in situ and ex situ measures to conserve species likely to be affected by climate change; • Implementation of measures to maintain the maximum possible biological diversity; • Implementation of measures to conserve sufficient natural habitats to enable natural adaptive mechanisms to function; • Establishment of measures (e.g. pollution control) to enhance the resilience of natural systems. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 55 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIOSAFETY 12.1. Background The Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a supplementary agree ment to the Convention known as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety on 29 January 2000. The Protocol has been signed by 104 governments and as of July 2001, five countries (Bulgaria, Fiji, Norway, St. Kitts and Nevis, and Trinidad and Tobago) have now deposited instruments of ratification. It will enter into force and become legally binding after 50 gov ernments have ratified the agreement. The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the poten tial risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an advanced informed agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the infor mation necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. 12.2. Potential Benefits of Biotechnology Genetic engineering (GE) promises remarkable advances in medicine, agriculture, and other fields (such as new medical treatments and vaccines, new industrial products, and improved fibres and fuels). Proponents of the technology argue that biotechnol ogy has the potential to lead to increases in food security, decreased pressure on land use, sustainable yield increase in marginal lands or inhospitable envi ronments and reduced use of water and agro-chem icals in agriculture. 12.3. Problems with Biotechnology There are a number of problems, which have mani fested themselves internationally since the introduc tion of GMOs into the environment. Biotechnology is a very new field, and much about the interaction of GMOs with various ecosystems is not yet known. Some of the concerns about the new technologies include its potential adverse effects on biological diversity, and potential risks to human health. Potential areas of concern might be unintended changes in the competitiveness, virulence, or other characteristics of the target species; the possibility of adverse impacts on non-target species (such as ben eficial insects) and ecosystems; the potential for "weediness" in genetically modified crops (where a plant becomes more invasive than the original, per haps by transferring its genes to wild relatives); and the stability of inserted genes (the possibilities that a gene will lose its effectiveness or will be re-trans ferred to another host). Consumer groups, environ mentalists, and scientists have pointed out several serious problems such genetic tinkering may cause. 1. Crops engineered to resist pesticides and herbi cides promote reliance on specific chemicals, generally non-organic pest control chemicals, by forcing farmers to buy the type of pesticide or herbicide to which the crops are designed to be resistant. 2. Critics warn that crops engineered to resist pes ticides and herbicides could pass those traits on to weeds, resulting in herbicide and pesticide-tol erant "superweeds". Development of such "superweeds" would force farmers to use more and more herbicides to control plant pests, with unknown effects on the environment and poten tial risks to food and worker safety. 3. Critics note that GMOs may upset biological diversity. According to a report written for the British government, if GMOs eradicate weeds and insects, species that depend on them for food or habitat, including such birds as the corn bunting, partridge, and skylark, will suffer. Researchers funded by the British government found that plants genetically engineered to resist aphids had serious effects on the fertility and life span of ladybirds, which feed on aphids. SECTION 12 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 56 Furthermore, crops engineered to resist insect pests may also be toxic to harmless or beneficial insects, such as the Monarch butterflies, green lacewings and springtails, thereby reducing insect diversity. 4. Genetically modified foods can pose serious threats to consumers with allergies and specific dietary requirements because of ethical, reli gious, or cultural beliefs. For example, people allergic to shellfish could have a reaction to strawberries with transplanted shrimp genes used to enhance their colour. Scientists have warned that the altered corn could trigger dan gerous allergies in some, with children at the greatest risk. 5. GMO’s might pose human health risks. Scientists found that rats fed on the altered potatoes suf fered stunted internal organ growth and weak ened immune systems. The Novartis-maize car ries a resistance gene against a group of antibi otics, which are used in human medicine, like Ampicillin, Amoxicililin and various Penicillin-type antibiotics. These can be transferred to bacteria in the field or in the digestive tract of humans and animals with a result that dangerous bacte ria could no longer be effectively fought with conventional antibiotics. 6. It has been reported that the contamination cases in Europe and North America during 2000 exemplify that genetically engineered organisms cannot be controlled once released into the environment. Through pollen flow, unavoidable grain residues in farm machinery, trucks or ele vators, or through bagging and handling errors, genetically engineered seeds will eventually show up everywhere in the production chain. Due to increase public concern about the environ mental and health risks associated with GE crops major food companies around the world have been rejecting the use of GE foods. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 57 12.4. Biosafety The rapid pace of advancement in biotechnology and the commercialisation of Organisms with Novel Traits (ONT’s)/Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO’s) have prompted an international movement to create regulato ry oversight for biotechnology safety (biosafety). To date, biosafety regulation has focused on the movement of GMOs across national borders and their potential harm to ecosystem conservation and the sustainability of biological diversity. Biosafety is a term used to describe efforts to reduce and eliminate the potential risks resulting from biotechnology and its products. It refers to the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organism possessing a novel combi nation of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology. 12.5.Biosafety in Dominica New initiatives in biotechnology have made it necessary for countries such as Dominica to protect human, animal, and plant life and the environment. The products of Biotechnology, generally referred to as "Genetically Engineered Organisms" (GEO’s), "Genetically Modified Organisms" (GMO’s), or "Living Modified Organisms" (LMO’s), are created through genetic engineering. Scientists transplant the genes of one species into anoth er species to try to transfer "desirable" characteristics. It has been argued that these genetic changes improve resistance to disease, pesticides, and herbicides, enhance nutritional value, and increase yield. Genetically Modified (GM) crops already have been planted in the U.S.A. for harvest and for test purposes without containment meas ures to prevent exposure to the broader environment. A number of organizations in Dominica are involved in biotechnology research, development and commercial application. However, there is little information available regarding the use, importation or distribution of GMO’s and GMO products. Based on the nature of trade with the Western World, it is highly likely that genetically modified foods have been inadvertently introduced into the Dominican environment. 12.6. Biotechnology Biotechnology has great potential economic benefits as well as health concerns. These two issues demand that these areas be of critical concern, especially to the legal and institutional requirements. The development of legal controls in the importation of GM material and in legisla tion that protects our biogenetic pool, as well as, an intel lectual property regime that ensures equitable benefits is a priority. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 58 12.7. Strategic Directions Strategy 29 – Sign and ratify the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Strategy 30 - Develop comprehensive national biotechnology legislative regime to guide the implementa tion of bio-safety measures and to ensure protection and use of cultural knowledge that can yield optimal benefit to Dominica.This legislation must seek to compliment the internation al conventions to which Dominica is signatory. Strategy 31 - Establish technical committee to: • co-ordinate national biosafety program; • foster greater alliance and cooperation with regional and international institution; • work with government, Non Governmental Organization’s (NGO’s), other agencies and institutions to foster a national culture of awareness on biosafty; • co-ordinate the development and implementation of public education, awareness and training programmes at all levels on issues of biotechnology and biosafety. • Develop and implement a national policy on biotechnology. Strategy 32 - Develop Regional Biosafety Strategy to regulate biotechnol- ogy in the CARICOM region, through amongst other things, the establishment of a regional centre to establish the basis for the introduction of standards for inspection, monitoring and use of biotechnology, to facilitate and co-ordinate the establishment of a "clearing-house" mechanisms to track the importation of biotechnology and GMO’s, and to foster greater alliance and co-operation with regional and international institution. 59 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan PROJECT TIMEACTIVITIES AGENCIES RESOURCES 1. Inventory of Biodiversity Resources (Strategy No. 6, 12, 17, and 25). 2.Public Information, Awarenes, and Education Program (Strategy No.3, 8, 18, 20, and 31) • Consultations and work shops • Develop and implement a system for continuous sensitisation of policy decision-makers (public and private) • Development of school curriculum • Inclusion in schools cur riculum • Promotional material visual aids • Broadcast media, village meeting, posters, use of field officers • Massive Media campaign • Web Page • Public data base • Radio/ TV inserts • News Paper • Videos • Books • Teachers Guide • Curriculum • Web page • Funding – US$250,000 • EU CREP Program • Teachers • Field officers • ECU • Environmental Health • Media • Forestry and National Parks • Fisheries • Coastguard • Dive operators • Tourism operators • Private sector • National Youth Council • CBOs • Relevant NGOs • SPAT • CCA 6 months to Launch 4 year program INDICATIVE ACTION PLANSECTION 13 • Identify ecosystems / species for inventory • Design appropriate inven tory parameters - number of varieties/breeds/species, location, distribution, etc. • Undertake all-inclusive inventories of: • Agricultural diversity • Terrestrial diversity • Aquatic diversity • Marine diversity • Traditional plants and medicines • Develop and establish database • Record on database (see Project No. 9). • Establish a monitoring program to document any changes in biodiversity • Department of Fisheries • Department of Forestry and National Parks • ECU • Department of Agriculture • National Youth Council • Carib Council • Ministry of Community Development • CBOs • Relevant NGOs • Land owners • Dive operators 6 months to Launch 4 year program • Equipment • Training for personnel • Consultants on biodi versity inventories • Funding – US$750,000 (approx.) 60 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan PROJECT TIMEACTIVITIES AGENCIES RESOURCES 4. Integrated Land (Resource) Use Planning and Management (Strategy No.1, 4, 13 and 19.) 5. Capacity Building and institutional Strengthening for Environmental Management (Strategy No.1, 4, 13 and 19.) Establish/Strengthen Land Management Unit • Undertake Resource inven tory – terrestrial and coastal • Development of compre hensive resource (coastal and terrestrial) use plan • Development of appropri ate legal and institutional structure (guidelines, zon ing, set-backs, green belts, etc.) • Integration into IDP process • Institutional strengthening • Equipment • Training for personnel • Consultants on Resource (Land) Use Planning and Management • Funding – US$1.5 million (approx.) • Equipment • Consultants in enviro mental management • Funding – US$650,000 • Perform needs assessments • Establish/strengthen regu lating agencies • Establish links with regional/ international bodies • Develop a data base of available skills and expertise • Establish environmental information system • Establish public sector audit and review mechanism • Identify training needs and send persons for training • Identify required technolo gies write projects proposal to acquire resources • Physical Planning Unit • ECU. • NDC • Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment • Relevant NGO’s • Local Authorities • Lands and Survey Division 9 months to Launch 3 year program 8 months to launch 18 months program • Physical Planning Unit • ECU • SPAT • NDC • Ministry of Education • Ministry of Agriculture • Other relevant NGO’s • Local Authorities • Manufacturing • Tourism business • Pesticides Control Board • Private sector importers • National Youth Council • Youth Development Division 3. Development of Legislative Framework (Strategy No. 2, 7, 9, 19, 21, 24, 29, and 30) • Legal Personnel • Funding – US$400,000 • Compile and undertake a comprehensive review and evaluation of relevant legis lation and Conventions • Identify gaps and inconsis tencies • Amend legislation and devel op new laws as necessary • Incorporate nationally rati fied international conven tions into national laws • Ensure co-ordination • Lobby for passage • Upgrade and improve enforcement capacities Establish multi-disciplinary mechanism to facilitate the negotiation, signing, and imple mentation of international conventions 6 months to launch 24 month program • ECU • Legal Affairs • National Biodiversity Committee • Relevant NGOs • Foreign Affairs • Ministry of Finance 61 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan PROJECT TIMEACTIVITIES AGENCIES RESOURCES 6. Implement a System of Environmental Standards & guidelines (Tourism and manufacturing) (Strategy No. 21). • Technical Expertise in the area of environmental standards in other coun tries • Green Globe • CTO, CAREC • ISO standards • Funding – US$100,000 (Part funded by private sector) • ECU and Regulating Agencies • Ministry of Tourism • Ministry of Agriculture • AIC • NGOs • Bureau of Standards • Private sector • Establish carrying capacity of terrestrial/marine ecosys tems • Consultation with business • Situation assessment of facilities • Adopt best practices system • Draft standards and guide lines • Implement building codes and engineering/building standards that are sensitive to natural ecosystems • Develop monitoring, evalu ating and reporting systems 6 months to launch 24 months program Start in 6 months 24 months program • Establish National Water Board to regulate extrac tion and use • Inventory/mapping of water resources (surface/ underground) • Valuation of water as a national natural resource • Document water use/ dis tribution • Develop water resource management legislation, policy and plan • Establish Water Resource laws • DOWASCO • DOMLEC • Forestry Division • Agriculture Division • Environmental Health • ECU • Communication and Works • Public and private land owners • Equipment/GIS system • Consultants in water resource management • Funding – US$750,000 (Part funded by water utility) 7. Develop Comprehensive Water Resource Management Plan. (Strategy No. 7). • Personnel • Information system • SPAT • NDFD • Funding – US$120,000 Start 3 months 24 month program • Community leaders • YES Corp. • Youth Organisations • Local Authorities • ECU community development • Adult Education • COMPACT • National Youth Council • Youth Development Division. • Develop a data base of tra ditional farming, construc tion, medicinal, subsistence and other practices • Programs to encourage traditional farming prac tices • Provide technical assistance for development of tradi tional practices through community base organisa tions • Incorporate into public awareness programmes. 8. Develop a program that captures and shares tradi tional knowl edge and encourage practice of self reliance (Strategy No. 11 and 22, 25). 62 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan PROJECT TIMEACTIVITIES AGENCIES RESOURCES • Equipment/GIS • Training for personnel • Consultancy on informa tion systems design and management • Funding – US$340,000 * Resources to undertake survey and demarcation * Equipment for GIS. Funding – US$650,000 • Identification of threatened ecosystems/species (terres trial and marine) • Survey and demarcate pro posed protected areas • Negotiate with land own ers • Legally designate • Develop research/manage ment programs (e.g. wildlife farming) for conservation of threatened species • Establish management pro gram Start 3 months 12 month program Start 3 months 18 month program • ECU • Physical Planning • Ministry of Tourism • Forestry Division • Agriculture Division • Academic Institutions • Fisheries Division • Youth Development Division • Identify data and informa tion needs • Design information man agement system • Develop and deploy map ping and information management system • Establish a monitoring and reporting system. 9. Develop a database and information system on terrestrial and marine biodi versity (Strategy No. 11and 22, 25). 10. Identification and Protection of Threatened Ecosystems and Species (Strategy No. 4, 5 and 10). Start 3 months 5 year program • Inventory of biodiversity resources • Establish germplasm/gene bank • Establish Incentive Program for Conservation of the Agricultural Gene Pool (Livestock and Plants) • Promote sound conserva tion practices/technology • Agro-ecological zoning • Department of Agriculture • Agricultural commu nity • Private sector • CARDI • FAO • IICA • Gene bank • Training for personnel • Consultants • Funding – US$450,000 11.Conservation of Agro Biodiversity (Strategy No. 14, 15, and 16). Start 12 months 3 years program • Department of Fisheries • Department of Forestry and National Parks • ECU • Department of Agriculture • National Youth Council • Youth Development Division • Community Groups • Land owners • Identify interest groups • Develop community own ership • Training • Empower communities • Provide incentives • Develop management plans • Generate financial resources to sustain con servation programs 12. Community Participation in Terrestrial and Marine Conservation (Strategy No. 4 and 11). • Training for personnel • Consultants on commu nity conservation initia tives and legislation • Funding – US$150,000 63 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan PROJECT TIMEACTIVITIES AGENCIES RESOURCES • Equipment • Software • Technical support for committee • Web page • Legal expertise • Infrastructure for Clearing house mecha nism • Funding – US$150,000 (national pro gram) US$10 million (Regional Strategy/Centre) EU CARIFORUM Project on Biotechnology 6 months to launch 18 month program for national activities 5 year pro gram for Regional Strategy • ECU • Ministry of Agriculture • Ministry of Health • Customs • CARICOM and OECS (for Regional Strategy and Centre) • Bureau of Standards • Co-ordinating Group of Pesticide Control Boards of the Caribbean • PAHO • Establish technical commit tee • Develop database • Inventory of biomaterials and their traditional uses. • Capacity building • Web page and clearing house mechanism • Train Biosafety Officer • Manage database • Co-ordinate drafting of legislation • Develop Regional Biosafety Strategy (includ ing inspection protocols, standards for labelling, monitoring, etc.) • Establish Regional Centre and clearing-house mecha nism • Regulation of Biodiversity Prospecting 13. Develop institutional capacity for regulating bio technology (Strategy No. 6, 25, 29, 30, 31 and 32). Start in 6 months 5 year program • Consultation • Identification of issues • Development of Policy and Strategy • Implementation of Strategy • Pilot projects • Cultural awareness • Training • Institutional strengthening • Ministry of Community Development • CBOs • Carib Council • Village Councils • Relevant NGOs • Ministry of Education • Ministry of Agriculture • Academic Institutions • Documentation Centre • National Youth Council • Technical Assistance • Equipment and materials • Education and training material • Database • Funding - US$250,000 14. Program for the Conservation of Traditional Knowledge, Culture and Values (Strategy No. 26) 64 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan PROJECT TIMEACTIVITIES AGENCIES RESOURCES • Technical Assistance • Equipment and materials • Education and training material • Database • Funding - IDP project • Technical Assistance • Equipment and materials • Education and training material • Database • Funding - US$400,000 • Technical guidelines • Funding – US$50,000 • Study fiscal incentives in other Countries • Develop valuation system for biological resources/ ecosystems. • Establish economic instru ments • Develop promotional cam paign • Develop policies/regula tions to target specific areas Start in 6 months 5 year program Start in 6 months 5 year program Start 18 months 12 month program • Ministry of Finance and Planning • Carib Council • Carib Affairs in Prime Ministers Office • National Youth Council • Youth Development Division • Relevant NGOs • CBOs • ECU • Forestry Division • Agriculture Division • Fisheries Division • Relevant NGOs • National Youth Council • Youth Development Division • NDC • Financial institutions • Legal Affairs • Ministry of Finance • Ministry of Tourism • Consultation • Identify indigenous issues • Formulate Indigenous Peoples Development Plan/Strategy • Development of mecha nisms to integrate Indigenous Peoples Development Plan into national development plan ning process • Integration into IDP process • Implementation of Strategy • Pilot projects • Institutional strengthening • Adopt/implement relevant elements of Dominica’s Climate Change Adaptation Policy and Action Plan • Monitor/research impacts of climate change on bio diversity • Implement conservation measures • Establish measures to enhance resilience of nat ural systems. 15. Development Plan for Indigenous Carib Peoples (Strategy No. 27) 16. Biodivsreity and Climate Change Adaptation Program (Strategy No. 28) 17. Implement a fiscal incen tive program to encourage commercial ventures to make sustain able use of biodiversity (Strategy No. 24). 65 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan IMPLEMENTATION The successful implementation of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan will require the following: • Public awareness concerning the importance of the Strategy and Action Plan, and the generation of broad public support. • Endorsement of the Strategy and Action Plan by the Cabinet of Ministers. • Public participation and involvement in the implementation of the Strategy and Action Plan. • The formal establishment of the National Biodiversity Committee and National Biodiversity Co-ordinator within three months of the approval of this Strategy and Action Plan by Cabinet. • The provision of adequate resources (financial, technical, human) from Government, International Agencies, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Civil Societies. • The strengthening of lead agencies involved in the implementation of the Strategy and Action Plan, including project development and man agement skills. • The integration of the Strategy and Action Plan into national and sectoral planning activities. • The establishment of out-reach programs and incentives. It will be the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment in collaboration with the National Biodiversity Committee and National Biodiversity Co-ordinator to co-ordinate and direct the implementation of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with support from Government, International Agencies, Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Civil Society.The Environmental Co-ordinating Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment shall provide administrative support to the National Biodiversity Committee and National Biodiversity Co-ordinator in undertaking their mandate. SECTION 14 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 66 MONITORING AND REVIEW A system of periodic and regular monitoring and review shall be established to verify that Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is being imple mented and achieves intended goals and objectives. Every year, on the anniversary of the date of signing of this Strategy and Action Plan by Cabinet, the Environmental Coordinating Unit in collaboration with the National Biodiversity Committee shall sub mit to Cabinet a report that will: (a) Document activities that have been undertaken to implement the Strategy and Action Plan; (b) Identify constraints and limitations that have pre vented the implementation of any aspect of the Strategy and Action Plan; (c) Indicate activities that shall be undertaken to address any constraints or limitations that have prevented the implementation of any aspect of the Strategy and Action Plan; (d) Provide an overview of progress made in achiev ing the goals and objectives of the Strategy and Action Plan. To facilitate the preparation of this Report, every government department and agency shall submit to the Environmental Coordinating Unit through the committee, on an annual basis, a report that docu ments: (i) Activities that have been undertaken by the department or agency to implement the Strategy and Action Plan; (ii) Constraints and limitations experienced by the department or agency that have prevented the implementation of any aspect of the Strategy and Action Plan; (iii) Activities that shall be undertaken in the coming year by the department or agency to address any constraints or limitations that have prevent ed the implementation of any aspect of the Strategy and Action Plan. Additionally, any Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) that is undertaking any initiative in support of the Strategy or Action Plan, shall periodically report to the Environmental Co-ordinating Unit through the committee on such activities. Upon receiving the reports from the government departments, agencies and from Non-Governmental Organisations, the Environmental Coordinating Unit shall, prior to the preparation of Government’s annual budgets, confer with the Ministry of Finance and Planning to deter mine what measures shall be established to ensure that Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is fully integrated into the national planning process. Upon reviewing the Report that has been received from the Environmental Coordinating Unit and the National Biodiversity Committee, Cabinet shall make the Report available to the public. A notice to the effect that the Report is available for public scrutiny shall be published in the local newspapers. No later than five years after the date of signing of this Strategy and Action Plan by Cabinet, the Environmental Coordinating Unit in collaboration with the National Biodiversity Committee shall facili tate and co-ordinate a broad-based public review of the Strategy and Action Plan with a view to deter mining whether intended goals and objectives have been achieved. The Environmental Co-ordinating Unit shall prepare, on a periodic basis, a State of the Environment Report, that will, amongst other matters: (1) Document the state of Dominica’s terrestrial and marine biodiversity; (2) Document the state of Dominica’s agro-biodi versity; (3) Document conservation and management activ ities that are undertaken to protect or conserve fragile/vulnerable/threatened species or ecosys tems; (4) Identify threats to Dominica’s terrestrial and marine biodiversity and agro-biodiversity. SECTION 15 67 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan List of Organisations Consulted 1. AID Bank 2. Barclays Bank 3. Bureau of Standards 4. Canefield Urban Council 5. Carib Affairs 6. Carib Council 7. Colgate Palmolive Co., Ltd. 8. COMPACT Project 9. Curriculum Unit, Ministry of Education 10. Dominica Export Import Agency (DEXIA) 11. Division of Agriculture 12. Dominica Banana Marketing Corporation (DBMC) 13. Dominica Broadcasting Service - Creole Desk 14. Dominica Broadcasting Service – News Desk 15. Dominica Conservation Association (DCA) 16. Dominica Rural Enterprise Project (DREP) 17. Dominica Social Security 18. Dominica Solid Waste Management Corporation 19. Environmental Health department 20. ESPWA 21. Farmer Groups 22. Fisheries Division 23. Fishermen Co-operatives 24. Forestry,Wildlife & Parks Division 25. Government Information Service 26. KFC Corporation 27. Local Area Management Authority (LAMA) 28. Marigot Cooperative Credit Union 29. Marpin Telecom & Broadcasting 30. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and the Environment 31. Ministry of Communication and Works 32. Ministry of Finance and Planning 33. Ministry of Sports and Youth Affairs 34. Ministry of Tourism 35. Ministry of Trade, Industry & Marketing 36. National Association for Local Authorities 37. National Association for Non-Governmental Organisations (NANGO) 38. National Development Corporation 39. National Parks Unit 40. O. D. Brisbane & Sons Limited. 41. Physical Planning Division 42. Youth Environmental Services (YES) Corps ANNEX 1 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 68 ANNEX 2 1. G. Allport 2. Jacqueline André 3. Axel Auguiste 4. Kent Auguiste 5. Reny Auguiste 6. Raymond Austrie 7. Albert Bellot 8. Camella Bellot 9. Alvin Bernard 10. Ashton Bertrand 11. Moses Brumant 12. Myrtle Bruno 13. Elude Burton 14. Porshia Burton 15. Durand Carbon 16. Adolphus Christian 17. Kent Copel 18. Delia Cuffy 19. Petra Cuffy 20. Leafrose Darroux 21. John Davis 22. George de Berdt Romilly 23. Julien Defoe 24. Melvyn Didier 25. Eisenhower Douglas 26. Anthony Drigo 27. Annie Edwards 28. Marie-José Edwards 29. Rebecca Edwards 30. Reginald Eli 31. Doreen Ettiene 32. Jean Ettiene 33. Franklyn Fabien 34. Carla Fontaine 35. Kaywana Fontaine 36. Lujah Fontaine 37. Doreen Francis 38. Paulette Francis 39. Kongit Gabriel 40. Albert Gallion 41. Lyn Giraud 42. Kelly Graneau 43. Oliver Grell 44. Harold Guiste 45. Errol Harris 46. Jones Harry 47. Audrey Henik 48. James Henry 49. Gerard Hill 50. Lennox Honychurch 51. Arlington James 52. Janie Jean Jacques 53. Luke Jno. Baptiste 54. Cyrille John 55. Mark John 56. Anne Marie Joseph 57. Regina Joseph 58. Doreen Joseph 59. Elivian Jules 60. Emile B. Lancelot 61. Elias Lander 62. David Lang 63. G. Langlais 64. Eden Larocque 65. Ivon Larocque 66. Gerard Langlais 67. Lisa Laurent 68. Miguel Lawrence 69. Rawle Leslie 70. Felix Lester 71. Cynthia Lewis 72. Dave Lloyd 73. Ann-Marie Mason 74. Cheryl Mason 75. Phillip Matthew 76. John C. McIntyre 77. John Moise 78. Julie Morancie 79. Clarance Olivance 80. Henie E. F. Parillon 81. Allan E. Paul 82. Cedric Peter 83. Gilbatsen Peter 84. Algernon Philbert 85. Melbour Phillip 86. Charles Pierre 87. Julie Pierre 88. Lilian Polydore 89. Luanna Prevost 90. Chaminda Rajapakse 91. Isaiah Richards 92. Anthony Roccditts 93. Lucia Sandy 94. Peter Sanford 95. Eud Scotland 96. Kerr B. Serrant 97. Esther Shillingford 98. Henry Shillingford 99. McPherson St. Luce 100. Marcus Thomas 101. Derrick Theophille 102. Alleyne Thomas 103. Anaclete Thomas 104. Joseph Thomas 105. Patsy Thomas 106. Kim Thurlow 107. Damien Valmond 108. Alexis Valmond 109. Olice Valmond 110. Rammanuel Victorine 111. Maximea Vigilant 112. Charles Williams 113. David Williams 114. Jean Williams 69 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan ACRONYMS ORGANISATIONS CARDI Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute CREP Caribbean Regional Environmental Program CARICOM Caribbean Community CARIFORUM CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBO Community Based Organizations CITES Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora & Fauna COMPACT Community Management of Protected Area Conservation Project CTO Caribbean Tourism Organisation DEXIA Dominica Export Import Agency DOMLEC Dominica Electricity Company DOWASCO Dominica Water and Sewerage Company DREP Dominica Rural Enterprise Project EC Eastern Caribbean ECU Environmental Coordinating Unit ECCB East Caribbean Central Bank EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ESPWA Environmental Services Project Waitikubuli EUCREP European Union CREP (as above) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDD Fisheries Development Division GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Global Information System GIS Government Information Service IICA Inter-American Institute for Co operation on Agriculture IDP Integrated Development Project IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISO International Standard Organisation IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature LAMA Local Area Management Authority LMO Living Modified Organisms MCA Movement for Cultural Awareness MOA Ministry of Agriculture NANGO National Association of Non Governmental Authority NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy & Action Plan NDC National Development Corporation NDFD National Development Foundation of Dominica NGO Non-Governmental Organization OECS Organization of American States PAHO Pan American Health Organisation SSMR Soufriere / Scotts Head Marine Reserve SPAT Small Projects Assistance Team UNDP United Nation Development Program UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation YESCORPS Youth Environment Service Corps ANNEX 3 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 70 ANNEX 4 REFERENCE 1 Trade and Tourism Sector Plan, December 1990 Percival Marie Environmental Laws of the Commonwealth Caribbean, Caribbean Law Institute, 1991 Dominica Investment Information Checklist, NDC, 1999 Dominica Environmental Profile, CCA, Govt. of Dominica, USAID, 1991 Central Statistical Office Travel Report, 1999 Earth Summit "92-The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development-Rio de Janeiro, 1992 Ecotourism Development Programme- Project Appraisal, CHL Consulting Group, April 1999. Dominica Import Export Agency, DEXIA Dominica Association of Industry & Commerce, DAIC Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance. REFERENCE 2 CCA, 1991. Dominica Country Environmental Profile. U.S. Agency for International Development, Bridgetown, Barbados. Evans, P.G.H., 1986. Dominica Multiple Land Use Project. Ambio Vol. 15 No. 2, pp 82-89. GOCD, 1994. Dominica National Environmental Action Plan. Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica. ICPGR, 1995. International Conference and Program for Plant Genetic Resources. Dominica Country Report. Ed Charles James. James, A. and Gallion, A., 1990. The Utilization of Non-Wood Forest Products in Dominica. Caribbean Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources,Vol. 1, No. 2, pp 4-12. FAO, 1998. Forestry Policies in the Caribbean. Volume 2: Reports of 28 selected countries and territories. FAO Forestry Paper 137/2. Beard, J. S., 1949. The Natural Vegetation of the Windward and Leeward Islands. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. Clarke, P., 1994. Conservation Status of the Flora and Fauna of Dominica. Island Resources Foundation (IRF). James, A., 1990. Freshwater Swamps and Mangrove Species (Revised Edition), Forestry and Wildlife Division, Ministry of Agriculture. Dominica. OAS/OECS, 1998. Institutional Analysis in the area of Natural Resource Management. The Case of Dominica. Pollard, Duke E.E. et al., 1991. Environmental Laws of the Commonwealth Caribbean – Analysis and Needs Assessment. Commercial Law Monograph Series No. 1 Caribbean Law Institute, University of the West Indies, (UWI) Barbados. 71 Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Chace, F. and Hobbs, H., 1969. The Freshwater and terrestrial decapod crustaceans of the West Indies with special reference to Dominica. Smithsonian Inst. Bull. 292,Washington, DC. Hodge,W., 1954. Flora of Dominica. Lloydia 17 (1, 2 and 3). Johnson,T., 1988. Biodiversity and Conservation in the Caribbean: profiles of selected islands International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP), Monograph No. 1, Cambridge, UK. Nicolson, D.H., 1991. Flora of Dominica Part 2: Dicotylyledonae. Smithsonian Institution Press,Washington D.C. U.S.A. Varty, N. et al., 1992. Proposed Morne Diablotin National Park – Draft Management and Development Plan (1993-2003) International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP). Schwartz, A. and Henderson, R.W., 1991. Amphibians and Reptiles of the West Indies: Descriptions, Distributions and Natural History. University of Florida, Press, Gainesville, USA. Maholtra, A. and Thorpe, R. S., 2000. Reptiles and Amphibians of the Eastern Caribbean.MacMillan Education Ltd. London, Oxford, UK. Zamore, M. P., 2000. The Wildlife of Dominica (Revised Edition), Forestry and Wildlife Ministry of Agriculture, Division, Roseau, Dominica. Swank,W. and Julien C., 1975. Distribution and Status of Wildlife on Dominica. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. James, A., 1995. Flora and Fauna of the Cabrits Peninsula. Forestry and Wildlife Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Roseau, Dominica. Evans, P.G.H., 1991. Birds of the Eastern Caribbean MacMillan Caribbean, London and Basingstoke, UK. Evans, P.G.H. and James, A., 1997. Wildlife Checklists: Dominica Nature Island of the Caribbean, Faygate Printing, Sussex, UK. GOCD, 2000. Forestry,Wildlife and Parks Division, Corporate Plan 2001-2002, Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment, Roseau, Dominica. Faaborg, J. and Arendt,W., 1995. Wildlife Assesments in the Caribbean, USDA Forest Service, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Prins, P., 1987. Forestry Policy and Administration 1987-1997 Natural Resources and Rural Development Project. Commonwealth of Dominica. Dept. Reg. Dev., OAS,Washington, DC. DeMilde, R., 1987. Inventory of the Exploitable Forests of Dominica. FAO, Rome. Lausche, B., 1986. Dominica National Legislation related to Natural Resource Management. Country Legal Report No. 1. OECS-NRMU, Castries, St. Lucia. Rainy,W., et al., 1987. Dominica (West Indies) Banana Industry Rehabilitation: A Pesticide Assessment Island Resources Foundation (IRF), St.Thomas,VI. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 72 NOTES