2017 ACT Native Grassland Strategy

8.9 DESCRIPTIONS OF GRASSLAND ASSOCIATIONS 101 9. REFERENCES 108 ii Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans FIGURES Figure 1. Map of native grasslands in the north of the ACT showing Conservation Significance Category 1 grasslands, and ‘Other grasslands’ (which include Conservation Significance Category 2 and 3 grasslands, and exotic grasslands). The Conservation Significance Category is based several criteria, including grassland condition and habitat for threatened species. ............................................................................................................. 22 Figure 2. Map of native grasslands in the south of the ACT. All of these grasslands are Conservation Significance Category 1. ................................................................................ 23 Figure 3. Grass structure and habitat suitability for some threatened grassland fauna. Relationships are based data collected during field surveys by the ACT Government and Howland et al. 2016a, 2016b). Solid lines are preferred habitat, dashed lines are less suitable habitat. ............................................................................................................ 45 Figure 4. Flow diagram to assist with decisions on managing habitat that includes a high proportion of exotic grass. .................................................................................................. 47 TABLES Table 1. Summary of objectives from each of the action plans, grouped by the five core objectives of Protect, Manage, Increase, Knowledge and Awareness. Note that ‘unintended impacts’ are those not already considered through an environmental assessment or other statutory process. .............................................................................. 11 Table 2. List of native grassland sites in the ACT grouped by geographic location, showing land tenure, land use, size class, presence of threatened species and Conservation Significance Category (CSC). BG = Baeuerlan’s Gentian, BW = Button Wrinklewort, GP = Ginninderra Peppercress, GSM = Golden Sun Moth, GED = Grassland Earless Dragon, PG = Perunga Grasshopper, SLL = Striped Legless Lizard, PTWL = Pink-tailed Worm- lizard. ................................................................................................................................... 19 Table 3. Grassland states, typical attributes, and options for enhancement/restoration. Modified from McIntyre and Lavorel 2007. ........................................................................................ 57 Table 4. Monitoring indicators for the CEMP Lowland Native Grassland Ecosystem Condition Monitoring Plan (Brawata et al. 2017) (this monitoring is used for reserves). NTG = Natural Temperate Grassland. ............................................................................................ 63 Table 5. Definitions of major grassland classifications. ...................................................................... 79 Table 6. Common native grasses and forbs of Natural Temperate Grasslands in the ACT (Benson 1994; Eddy et al. 1998; Environment ACT 2005). ................................................................ 79 Table 7. Grassland community types based on most recent mapping of 73,740 hectares of the eastern ACT. These totals will change as mapping of the remainder of the ACT progresses. .......................................................................................................................... 89 Table 8. Conservation Status of ACT and Commonwealth threatened flora and fauna species found in ACT native grasslands............................................................................................ 89 Table 9. Uncommon and rare grassland Fauna species in the ACT. ................................................... 90 Table 10. Uncommon and rare grassland Flora species in the ACT. ................................................... 90 Table 11. Grassland areas added (or in the process of being added) to the ACT’s conservation estate since 2005. ................................................................................................................ 92 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans iii iv Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans CONTENTS PART B ACTION PLANS NATURAL TEMPERATE GRASSLAND ENDANGERED ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITY 122 BAEUERLEN’S GENTIAN 148 BUTTON WRINKLEWORT 156 GINNINDERRA PEPPERCRESS 172 GOLDEN SUN MOTH 184 GRASSLAND EARLESS DRAGON 208 PERUNGA GRASSHOPPER 228 STRIPED LEGLESS LIZARD 240 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans v VISION vi Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans vii “Healthy native grasslands supporting a diverse flora and fauna for now and the future” Native grasslands of the Territory include a rich assemblage of flora and fauna species that combine into a unique ecosystem. These grasslands are a priority for protection and management as they contribute to our natural biodiversity, our history and heritage, and local amenity and community. They also provide opportunities to enhance cultural engagement, education and scientific research. Since European settlement our native grasslands montane and rocky native grasslands. It also and grassy woodlands have come under shifts the focus from strongly protection-based increasing pressure from human settlement, (recognising the previous success in achieving urbanisation and a changing climate. Due to this) to best-practice conservation management these changes, only 2% to 10% of the lower and enhancing the condition of native elevation grasslands in south-eastern Australia grasslands in light of a changing climate. remain in high ecological condition, seven Native grasslands are a unique ecosystem that grassland species, and one species that occurs in warrants care and attention. Grasslands are both grasslands and woodlands, are listed as distinctive in that they require active endangered or vulnerable in the ACT. Other management (Williams and Marshall 2015) to plants and animals that occur in grasslands are conserve them. Without active management are also under threat. Temperate grasslands are these grasslands will continue to degrade. By considered one of the most threatened working together we can conserve these areas Australian ecosystems. for now and the future. The Native Grassland Conservation Strategy aims to build on the successful protection and management of grasslands achieved since the original 2005 Lowland Grassland Conservation Strategy (ACT Government 2005). In the years The ACT Government acknowledges the between the previous strategy and this revised Ngunnawal people as the Traditional Custodians strategy, a number of the native grasslands in of the land and waters in the ACT and respects the ACT have been protected and a large body their continuing culture and unique contribution of grassland research, monitoring and they make to the life of our region. conservation planning has accumulated. The Ngunnawal people actively managed the Building on these significant achievements, this landscape over tens of thousands of years and revised strategy provides a Territory-wide today retain their spiritual and cultural approach within a regional context to the connection to Country. conservation and management of native grasslands. It extends to all grassland ecosystems by expanding the scope to include viii Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans ii Draft Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 1. INTRODUCTION 2 Draft Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Draft Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 3

1.1 — OVERVIEW

1.1 OVERVIEW The ACT Native Grassland Strategy provides guidance on the conservation of native grasslands and component species in the ACT consistent with the ACT Nature Conservation Strategy 2013–23 (ACT Government 2013a), regardless of tenure and land use. Relatively large areas of native grassland in the ACT are now protected within reserves, so the current emphasis of grassland conservation is on management and enhancement of grassland ecosystems. This includes conserving native grassland species and communities by managing threats, maintaining and improving ecological connectivity, ecosystem function and grassland biodiversity, undertaking monitoring and research programs, partnering with the community to support grassland conservation and restoration, and enhancing the resilience of grasslands to disturbance and climate change.

1.2 — CONSERVATION GOALS 1.2.2 Threat management goal

1.2 CONSERVATION GOALS 1.2.2 Threat management goal OF THE STRATEGY (Chapter 3)  Prevent or manage the impacts of This ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy threatening processes to maintain or provides the strategic context for the improve the ecological condition and protection, management and restoration of biodiversity of native grasslands, with native grasslands in the ACT. As outlined in the particular attention to threatened species. previous section, the Vision Statement for strategy is: 1.2.3 Management goal (Chapter 4) “Healthy native grasslands  Manage native grassland in the ACT across supporting a diverse flora and all tenures to maintain or improve ecological fauna for now and the future” condition and biodiversity, with particular To achive this vision, the strategy is organised attention to grassland habitat of threatened around the following conservation goals: species.

1.2.1 — Protection goals (Chapter 2) 1.2.4 Ecosystem function and

1.2.1 Protection goals (Chapter 2) 1.2.4 Ecosystem function and  Conserve all remaining areas of native connectivity goal (Chapter 5) grassland in the ACT that are in moderate to  Native grasslands in good ecological high ecological condition. condition support viable populations of  Retain areas of native grassland in lower grassland species, are well connected in the ecological condition that serve as ecological landscape and are more resilient, including buffers or landscape linkages, or contribute to climate change. significantly to threatened species conservation, or are a priority for 1.2.5 Monitoring and research goal rehabilitation. (Chapter 6)  Conserve viable wild populations of native  Sound research, monitoring and adaptive grassland flora and fauna species in the ACT, management underpin the conservation of and support local, regional and national native grasslands and component species. efforts towards conservation of these species. 4 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans

1.2.6 — Community engagement goals  Describe the remaining areas of native

1.2.6 Community engagement goals  Describe the remaining areas of native (Chapter 7) grassland in the ACT, including a broadening of the scope since the previous strategy to  Community groups, landholders and others include native grasslands across the full are actively involved in native grassland elevation range of the ACT, and grasslands conservation. (native or exotic) that may provide habitat or  An informed community supports the use of connectivity for grassland flora and fauna. native grassland areas for conservation.  Describe the floristic associations found in native grassland areas in the ACT based on current classification methods.

1.3 — OBJECTIVES OF THE  Enourage and support community

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE  Enourage and support community STRATEGY participation in the conservation of native grasslands and component species. Underpinning the conservation goals (previous Achieving the vision, goals and objectives of the section) of the strategy are these more specific strategy will depend on undertaking the actions objectives: in the action plans. This strategy outlines  Identify criteria for protection and principles and guidelines on which to base conservation management of sites. conservation actions.  Provide management principles and This strategy is also intended to be a reference guidelines for the conservation and document on native grassland for ACT and restoration/enhancement of native Australian Government agencies with grasslands aligned with the strategies responsibilities for nature conservation, outlined in the ACT Nature Conservation planning and land management, and for Strategy (ACT Government 2013a). community and other stakeholders with an interest in native grassland conservation.  Provide monitoring and research priorities for the native grassland associations found in the ACT.

1.4 — SCOPE OF THE

1.4 SCOPE OF THE  Provide overaching goals and objectives for conservation of the native grasslands and STRATEGY component species, and provide strategic context for action plans for threatened The strategy considers all native grassland species and the Natural Temperate ecosystems of the ACT across the full elevation Grassland ecological community. range from lowland grasslands in and around Canberra to the grasslands of the montane and Ecological burn at Jerrabomberra West Nature Reserve (J. Seddon) Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 5 subalpine zones, regardless of tenure and land Chapter 2: use. It considers the ecological value and This chapter includes the strategy for protecting management of native grassland, and exotic native grassland and component species, grassland (which is dominated by invasive related protection goals and guidelines, and weeds), some of which provides habitat for describes Conservation Significance Categories threatened grassland fauna. for grassland sites. Derived (or ‘secondary’) grasslands are included Chapter 3: in the ACT Lowland Woodland Conservation Strategy (ACT Government 2004) as they are This chapter includes the strategy for reducing derived from cleared woodland. However, the threats to native grassland biodiversity. It principles for managing derived grasslands will examines the primary threats to biodiversity largely be consistent with the principles in this within local grassland systems including weed strategy. infestation, pest vertebrate animals, overgrazing by kangaroos, urbanization and a changing This document supersedes the previous ACT climate, and provides guidelines for managing Lowland Grassland Conservation Strategy (ACT and minimising the potential impacts of these Government 2005), and presents updated threats. material relevant to ACT grasslands and their conservation. This document also includes the Chapter 4: action plan for Baeuerlen’s Gentian, which was This chapter includes the strategy for managing not included in the previous strategy and native grassland and component species for instead was a separate document. conservation. It considers adaptive Unlike the previous strategy, this revised management principles for managing herbage strategy covers all grasslands in the ACT, mass, disturbance regimes and exotic grass as including rocky grasslands and grasslands that habitat, including species-specific grass occur above 625 metres above sea level (see structure and herbage mass management Chapter 8). guidelines and how these principles should be In contrast to the previous strategy, action plans implemented at the local scale. for the ecological community and associated Chapter 5: species, which are declared as threatened under the Nature Conservation Act 2014 (ACT) (View This chapter includes the strategy for enhancing the Act (PDF, 952Kb)), are included as stand- ecosystem resilience and function, and alone documents to aid identification of specific improving habitat connectivity, in the context of actions and progress. current and future environmental pressures such as climate change. A framework of options and guidelines for enhancement or restoration is provided for grasslands of varying ecological

1.5 — STRUCTURE OF THE condition

1.5 STRUCTURE OF THE condition. STRATEGY Chapter 6: This document is divided into seven main This chapter includes the strategy for strategies (chapters) with key principles and monitoring, research and baseline data management guidelines and is structured as collection for native grasslands and component follows: species, and provides an overview of the recently developed Conservation Effectiveness Chapter 1: Monitoring Program. This introduction chapter outlines the objectives Chapter 7: and scope of the strategy, legislation and policy applying to nature conservation and the links This chapter includes the strategy for engaging between the strategy and associated action the community in local native grassland plans. conservation by increasing awareness, supporting and promoting citizen science and engaging with local indigenous communities on traditional ecological knowledge. 6 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Chapter 8: 1.6.2 ACT legislation This chapter provides background information The Nature Conservation Act 2014 (NC Act) on native grasslands relevant to their provides for the protection and management of conservation, including the history of land- native plants and animals in the ACT and the use, their distribution and component identification and management of threatened species. This chapter also outlines the species and ecological communities. The NC Act conservation measures carried out in the last requires a nature conservation strategy be decade, the evidence base drawn on for the prepared and implemented. The NC Act outlines strategy, and potential climate change effects the processes for developing action plans for on grasslands. listed species and ecological communities and also creates key statutory positions: the Conservator of Flora and Fauna, Conservation Officers and the Parks and Conservation Service.

1.6 — RELEVANT POLICY AND Under the NC Act, updates to action plans for

1.6 RELEVANT POLICY AND Under the NC Act, updates to action plans for LEGISLATION threatened species and ecological communities must explicitly consider the implications of

1.6.1 — International and national context climate change

1.6.1 Management of threatened species and ecological communities is guided by international, national and Territory agreements, policy and laws. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity is an international legal instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. Australia ratified the Convention in 1993 and, in line with the Convention, prepared the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity (1996). This strategy was reviewed and replaced by Australia’s Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2010–2030 and the Strategy for Australia’s National Reserve System 2009–2030, which provide frameworks for protecting biological diversity and maintaining ecological processes and systems. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) establishes criteria for assessing the conservation status of species. of species in the ACT by the Scientific Committee (a statutory committee under the Nature Conservation Act 2014) is generally consistent with the IUCN criteria and conservation categories. The Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) provides for the protection of ‘matters of national environmental significance’ (MNES) and includes criteria for environmental impact assessment. A number of threatened grassland flora and fauna and the Natural Temperate Grassland ecological community are listed as MNES. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans For more information on ACT legislation, view the Human Rights Act 2004 (PDF, 150Kb). International and national context climate change. The Planning and Development Act 2007 has provisions for sustainable development and includes requirements for environmental impact assessment for any proposal that may have a significant adverse impact on a threatened species or ecological community. See Section 1.5.4 on Environmental Offsets. The Heritage Act 2004 establishes a system for the recognition, registration and conservation of natural and cultural heritage places and values in the ACT. The ACT Heritage Register is used to identify heritage sites that might be impacted by proposed activities or development works. The Heritage Act 2004 also provides for the preparation of conservation management plans and heritage guidelines for the protection of sites of heritage significance. While some places and objects in ACT grasslands are included on the ACT Heritage Register, many more (particularly Aboriginal artefacts) are likely to be unidentified. Assessment The Pest Plants and Animals Act 2005 lists pest plants and animals and provides for development of pest animal and pest plant management plans. The Emergencies Act 2004 requires the development of a Strategic Bushfire Management Plan which guides the management of fire risk in the ACT. The Human Rights Act 2004 outlines the obligations on public authorities to act and make decisions compatibly with human rights, including the cultural rights of Aboriginals and Torres Straight Islanders. 7 Offsets Policy (ACT Government 2015a) are to ensure:  Impacts on areas of high conservation value

1.6.3 — ACT policy on nature conservation or irreplaceable assets are avoided or

1.6.3 ACT policy on nature conservation or irreplaceable assets are avoided or and climate adaptation mitigated. Environmental offsets are to be The ACT Nature Conservation Strategy 2013–23 considered only after feasible and establishes a policy framework for conservation appropriate avoidance and mitigation of biodiversity across all tenures in the ACT. The measures have been undertaken. strategy emphasises more resilient landscapes  Should impacts be acceptable though the by restoring priority landscapes and enhancing environmental assessment process, to connectivity to enable species and ecosystems ensure the impacts from the loss of to better adapt to climate change. The ACT ecological communities and habitat are Biosecurity Strategy 2015–25 further addresses balanced by commensurate gains in extent how to manage key threats (weeds, pest or quality elsewhere. animals, disease) across both conservation and production landscapes. The Planning and Development Act 2007 covers the requirements for environmental offsets in The ACT Climate Change Adaptation Strategy the ACT, including the ACT Environmental (ACT Government 2016) aims to guide collective Offsets Policy. The policy outlines how efforts in adapting to climate change. environmental compensation may be made to The Climate Change Adaptation Strategy offset the impact of developments or other identifies ‘natural resources and ecosystems’ as activities that have a significant adverse one of five priority sectors. The strategy environmental impact on protected matters. identifies two priority actions: The policy gives careful consideration to whether an impact is acceptable, and therefore  Support landscape scale conservation by able to be offset. identifying, protecting and strengthening: potential climate wildlife refuges The ACT Environmental Offsets Policy is (biodiversity refugia) and adaptive capacity supported by an environmental offsets of ecosystems in our bioregion. calculator, which determines whether a protected matter will be subject to a significant  Care for land and water through education adverse environmental impact and the about climate change impacts and minimum acceptable environmental offset adaptation actions, control of pest animals required. The calculator also identifies when the and weeds that may become more critical impact on a species or ecological community under climate change, and monitor impacts requires the Conservator of Flora and Fauna to on ecosystems. consider whether offsets are appropriate. For The ACT participates in regional and national more information on the ACT Offsets Policy, visit initiatives such as CSIRO AdaptNRM (Visit the the Environment website for more info. AdaptNRM website) to inform best practice management and enhance collaboration in helping biodiversity adapt to climate change.

1.7 — ACTION PLANS

1.7 ACTION PLANS

1.6.4 — ACT policy on environmental

1.6.4 ACT policy on environmental

1.7.1 — Overview

1.7.1 Overview offsets Action plans for threatened species and Environmental offsets are part of threatened ecological communities are Commonwealth and ACT environmental statutory documents under the NC Act. The approvals processes and aim to conserve Conservator of Flora and Fauna is responsible ‘matters of national environmental significance’ for preparing a draft action plan (or in some (MNES) and ‘ACT protected matters’ through cases, conservation advice) for each species conservation actions to compensate for listed as threatened under the NC Act. Action significant adverse environmental impacts. The plans are prepared with expert input from the primary objectives of the ACT Environmental Scientific Committee, which is a statutory committee established under the NC Act. 8 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Action plans associated with this strategy are principles on which to base these actions. It also included in Part B of this document, and include provides a framework for planning and an action plan for the threatened grassland prioritising actions across the range of grassland ecological community and action plans for each sites in the ACT, including actions for sites of the seven threatened species that are where there are multiple threatened species dependent on native grassland in the ACT. Each present and multiple (sometimes competing) action plan provides a detailed description of conservation objectives. the community or species, its conservation Where relevant, specific goals or actions from status, ecology, key threats, and outlines the the action plans have been reproduced in the major conservation objectives and intended strategy section (Part A) of this document to management actions. Conservation objectives, assist readers to cross-reference between the management actions and performance strategy and the action plans (Part B). The indicators in action plans are arranged into five objectives from each of the action plans are core objectives of Protect, Manage, Increase, shown in Table 1. Knowledge, Awareness. The action plans associated with this strategy 1.7.3 Development and review of include: action plans  Natural Temperate Grassland Action plans have been developed and  Baeuerlen’s Gentian (Gentiana baeuerlenii) implemented for all of the threatened species that are found in the native grasslands of the  Button Wrinklewort (Rutidosis ACT, and for the grassland ecological community leptorhynchoides) itself. Since the previous strategy reviews have  Ginninderra Peppercress (Lepidium been undertaken for all of these action plans ginninderrense) and provided to the ACT Scientific Committee for assessment. The Committee’s assessment is  Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana) based on objectives and performance indicators  Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis in action plans, and progress that can pinguicolla) reasonably be expected within the review timeframe. Review of action plans is also the  Perunga Grasshopper (Perunga orachea) primary means for assessing progress towards the goals of this strategy.  Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar) The ACT Government will continue to develop and implement action plans (or conservation All of these threatened species are grassland advice where appropriate) for threatened specialists. The Pink-tailed Worm-lizard (Aprasia species and threatened ecological communities, parapulchella) (listed as Vulnerable) is and will regularly review progress towards associated with both grasslands and grassy achieving their conservation objectives. woodlands, and therefore the action plan for this species has not been included in this Grassland Strategy document and instead is a separate document. However, many of the 1.8 IMPLEMENTATION objectives and guidelines in this strategy are directly relevant to the protection and This strategy is a thematic document, i.e. it is management of Pink-tailed Worm-lizard habitat. not site-specific, and instead deals with native grassland conservation across all sites and land

1.7.2 — Links between this strategy and tenures in the ACT. The goals of the strategy will

1.7.2 Links between this strategy and tenures in the ACT. The goals of the strategy will be achieved through a variety of means, action plans relevant to the different tenures. Action plans provide guidance for undertaking Achieving the vision and goals of the strategy actions to benefit individual threatened species will depend on allocation of adequate resources and the threatened grassland community. to undertake the actions outlined in the action This ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy plans. Primary responsibility for implementation provides overarching conservation goals and Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 9 and coordination of this strategy on ACT public Community groups in the ACT have been land lies with the ACT Government. instrumental in advocating for native grassland conservation, raising public awareness, and Achievement of the goals of the strategy will undertaking a range of on-ground grassland also require the participation of managers of management and restoration activities. Ongoing Commonwealth land (Department of Defence (and increasing) community support and and other Commonwealth Government participation in native grassland conservation departments) and private land (rural lessees, will be essential to achieving the goals of the Canberra International Airport). Liaison and strategy. cooperation with NSW agencies, particularly the Office of Environment and Heritage, is an important element in implementing this strategy. 10 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Table 1. Summary of objectives from each of the action plans, grouped by the five core objectives of Protect, Manage, Increase, Knowledge and Awareness. Note that ‘unintended impacts’ are those not already considered through an environmental assessment or other statutory process. Objective Action Plan PROTECT Conserve all remaining areas of Natural Temperate Grassland in the ACT that Natural Temperate Grassland are in moderate to high ecological condition. Retain areas of native grassland in lower ecological condition that serve as ecological buffers or landscape connections, or contribute significantly to threatened species conservation, or are a priority for restoration. Conserve all large and medium size populations in the ACT. Protect small Button Wrinklewort populations from unintended impacts. Striped Legless Lizard Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Conserve all ACT populations. Baeuerlan’s Gentian Ginninderra Peppercress Grassland Earless Dragon Conserve large populations in the ACT. Protect other ACT populations from Golden Sun Moth unintended impacts. Protect native grassland sites where the species occurs from unintended Perunga Grasshopper impacts. MANAGE Manage Natural Temperate Grasslands to: Natural Temperate Grassland  maintain and improve grassland structure, function and diversity  reduce the impacts of threats  improve threatened species habitat  conserve grassland biodiversity Manage the species and its habitat to maintain the potential for evolutionary All Species development in the wild. INCREASE Increase the extent, condition and connectivity of Natural Temperate Natural Temperate Grassland Grassland in the ACT by restoring priority grassland sites. Enhance the long-term viability of populations through management of All Species adjacent grassland to facilitate expansion of populations into suitable habitat. Establish new populations. KNOWLEDGE Improved understanding of the ecology, habitat and threats to the All species/community. AWARENESS Promote a greater awareness of, and strengthen stakeholder and community All engagement in, the conservation of the species/community. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 11 2. STRATEGY: PROTECT NATIVE GRASSLAND AND COMPONENT SPECIES 12 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 13

2.1 — OVERVIEW

2.1 OVERVIEW Natural Temperate Grassland is one of Australia’s most threatened ecosystems. The native grasslands of the ACT provide critical habitat for several species of threatened plants and animals. In this context, the conservation of the remaining areas of native grassland (including Natural Temperate Grassland) makes an important contribution to national biodiversity conservation. Protection of threatened species and ecological communities is a requirement under the ACT Nature Conservation Act 2014 with statutory action plans providing the framework for implementation and evaluation of conservation actions. Protection of nationally listed threatened species and ecological communities is also required under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. The ACT contains significant remnants of the fauna by foxes and cats, requirement for fire current extent of Natural Temperate Grassland fuel reduction though burning and slashing). in the region. These grassland remnants occur The size, number, connectivity and ecological on lands that are under a range of tenures and condition of remnant grasslands are major levels of protection, including nature reserve, determinants of the long-term viability of the urban open space (generally public land under native grassland ecological community. the Territory Plan), Territory land under rural Generally, larger remnants: leasehold, unleased Territory land, Commonwealth-owned and managed ‘National  Contain a greater diversity of habitats and Land’, privately-leased Commonwealth land, species. and ‘Designated’ land (land owned by either the  Have larger (more genetically viable) Territory or the Commonwealth that is under populations of plants and animals. the planning control of the Commonwealth National Capital Authority) (Table 2).  Are more likely to maintain their ecological condition in the long term (particularly if Substantial areas of the remaining native buffered from incompatible adjacent land- grasslands are now contained within nature use). reserve or other areas where land management goals focus on conservation. Montane and su-  Are more resilient to environmental alpine grasslands (see Chapter 8), which were disturbance (e.g. drought, fire) and edge not included in the previous (2005) strategy, but effects. are included in this strategy, are protected in In particular, the maintenance of natural patch- Namadgi National Park. The small size and dynamic processes in fragmented landscapes is fragmented nature of the many remaining critically dependent on the presence of areas of grassland areas, and the significant sufficient size to sustain a mosaic of habitats development pressures on land in and around that correspond to different ecological states existing urban areas due to Canberra’s growth, (Bennett 1999). A greater number of patches is pose particular difficulties for protection and more likely to encompass different plant management of grassland sites. A number of associations, habitats and species (all of which high conservation-value grassland sites outside tend to vary across the landscape) or multiple of nature reserves (including on Commonwealth populations of the same species (important for land) are subject to infrastructure development genetic diversity), and provides replication of proposals, and other grassland sites (including conservation areas as a precaution against those within nature reserves), are subject to catastrophe and/or unpredictable local urban edge effects (weed invasion, recreation extinction. Connectivity improves long-term pressures, increased predation of grassland viability by facilitating dispersal of individuals 14 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans between patches, hence avoiding genetic urban infrastructure developments, problems and enabling re-colonisation following agricultural practices or urban edge effects. population decline or local extinction.  Actively managing grasslands sites to For some sites, the combination of small size, enhance condition. isolation and the impacts of adjacent land uses  Enhancing connectivity (linkages) between may preclude or severely limit long-term grassland patches and to other vegetation viability, irrespective of protection and other types. conservation measures. Adequate protection and management of native grassland sites in the ACT, including those that may not meet the criteria for a threatened 2.4 CONSERVATION grassland community but are important fauna SIGNIFICANCE habitat, is critical to attaining the goals of this CATEGORIES strategy. The Conservation Significance Categories 2.4.1 Floristic Value Score outlined in this chapter provide a guide for For the purposes of protecting and managing protection and management priorities of the remaining native grasslands in the ACT, each individual grassland sites. Achieving the known site has been assessed and identified as protection goals in this strategy will depend falling into a Conservation Significance Category upon encouraging protection of grassland sites (CSC) (Table 2, Figure 1 and Figure 2). Since the on land owned by other jurisdictions. previous strategy, the ACT Government has adopted the use of the Floristic Value Score (FVS) to quantify native grassland ecological

2.2 — PROTECTION GOAL condition (or ‘quality’) (Rehwinkel 2015;

2.2 PROTECTION GOAL condition (or ‘quality’) (Rehwinkel 2015; Commonwealth of Australia 2016a). Grasslands Conserve all remaining areas of native grassland in higher condition have higher native plant in the ACT that are in moderate to high diversity and lower levels of disturbance or ecological condition. modification and fewer weeds. This relatively recently developed measure is widely-used for Retain areas of native grassland in lower assessing grassland condition. ecological condition that serve as ecological buffers or landscape linkages, or contribute Definitions of major grassland classifications, significantly to threatened species conservation, including ‘Grassland’, ‘Native Grassland’ and or are a priority for rehabilitation. ‘Natural Temperate Grassland’ are provided in Table 5 (Section 8.1). A grassland is part of the Conserve viable wild populations of native Natural Temperate Grassland of the South grassland flora and fauna species in the ACT, Eastern Highlands Critically Endangered and support local, regional and national efforts Ecological Community under the EPBC Act towards conservation of these species. (Rehwinkel 2015; Commonwealth of Australia 2016a) if it:  is dominated by native vascular plants, and

2.3 — KEY PRINCIPLES

2.3 KEY PRINCIPLES  meets the required non-grass and indicator The long-term viability of native grasslands in species composition, and the ACT will be maximised by:  has a FVS of 5 or more.  Conserving the remaining extent of native The FVS plays a key role in allowing an area of grassland (including the number of sites and native grassland to be assigned to the most their size), which will involve encouraging appropriate CSC. In addition to the ecological other jurisdictions to conserve native condition of grassland, the measures that grasslands on their lands. determine the CSC of the patch are its size  Protecting native grassland patches from (area) and value as habitat for threatened further fragmentation or modification due to species. Note that the minimum patch size considered to contain the threatened Natural Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 15 Temperate Grassland ecological community  Majura Valley East (Majura Training Area, under the EPBC Act is 0.1 ha (Commonwealth of Airport Beacon paddock, Canberra Australia 2016b). A grassland that does not International Airport) meet the EPBC Act criteria for Natural  Majura Valley West (Majura West Temperate Grassland is still classed as native grasslands, Campbell Park) grassland if it is dominated (> 50% cover) by perennial native species (refer to section 8.1).  Jerrabomberra Valley East (‘Cookanalla’, In the ACT, the FVS has been assessed for HMAS Harman, ‘Bonshaw’, Jerrabomberra grasslands known to be in high ecological East grassland conservation area) condition (from previous grassland surveys and  Jerrabomberra Valley West (Jerrabomberra assessments using other methods). Grasslands West Nature Reserve, Callum Brae) in high condition meet the criteria for CSC 1 grasslands. The Floristic Value Score has not  Lawson Grasslands (former Belconnen Naval been undertaken for all grassland sites in the Transmission Station) ACT that are in moderate or low condition.  Gungahlin Grasslands (Mulangarri, These moderate or low condition grasslands Gungaderra and Crace Reserves and Kenny have not yet been assigned to either CSC 2 or 3 and Franklin grasslands) in this strategy (these grasslands are shown as ‘other’ sites in Figure 1). Determining whether a  Molonglo River Corridor grassland site is CSC 2 or 3 will depend on  Namadgi National Park (Orroral Valley, detailed site inspections to assess the Floristic Grassy Creek, Long Flat) Value Score. Some CSC 2 or 3 sites may have development potential and so may be subject to  Dunlop Grasslands Reserve future statutory environmental and planning These sites represent the largest remaining approval processes. areas of Natural Temperate Grassland in high ecological condition and are key habitat for

2.4.2 — Key threatened species habitat threatened grassland species. This core group of

2.4.2 Key threatened species habitat threatened grassland species. This core group of In this strategy, an area of habitat that is likely sites warrants formal protection to ensure to be crucial to the conservation of a threatened conservation in the long term. These sites species in the ACT is considered to be ‘key’ should also be given priority for management habitat. Equally, loss of ‘key’ habitat is likely to actions that maintain or improve ecological severely jeopardise the long-term conservation condition or their value as threatened species of a threatened species in the ACT. Key habitat habitat. will usually be large in area, contain the largest Five smaller sites (totalling 13 ha) are included populations of threatened species in the ACT, be in this category because they are in very good in moderate to good ecological condition and condition (high FVS). These sites occur at most likely contain habitat for multiple Caswell Drive and Glenloch Interchange, St threatened species. Mark’s (Barton), Tennant St (Fyshwick), Tuggeranong Grassland and Isabella Pond (Tuggeranong).

2.5 — CONSERVATION CSC 1 sites that have a FVS ≥ 5 and area ≥ 0.1 ha

2.5 CONSERVATION CSC 1 sites that have a FVS ≥ 5 and area ≥ 0.1 ha SIGNIFICANCE meet the criteria for EPBC listing as Natural Temperate Grassland. Some CSC 1 sites may not CATEGORY 1 SITES meet Natural Temperate Grassland criteria but are considered to be CSC 1 sites because they Sites in this category meet the following criteria: contain key threatened species habitat. Refer to  high ecological condition (Floristic Value the Natural Temperate Grassland action plan (in Score >20), or this document) and the ACTmapi website for locations of grasslands assessed as CSC 1, other  key threatened species habitat native grasslands (CSC 2 and CSC 3) and Sites in the ACT assessed as meeting these distributions of threatened grassland fauna criteria total approximately 4500 hectares (ha) ACTmapi website. and include: 16 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans

2.5.1 — Protection guidelines for CSC 1 For some of these sites, management and

2.5.1 Protection guidelines for CSC 1 For some of these sites, management and grassland sites restoration actions might result in significant improvement in the ecological condition and For Territory-owned land, the appropriate level therefore each site should be assessed for of protection for CSC 1 sites is nature reserve management priority based on expected benefit under the Planning and Development Act 2007 (improvement in ecological condition, or similar formal protection. Some CSC 1 sites improvement in habitat quality etc.) for the are already protected in reserves, and others resources expended. are protected as urban open space and are managed for conservation. For Territory CSC 2 sites that have a FVS ≥ 5 and area ≥ 0.1 ha leasehold land, formal protection may include meet the criteria for EPBC listing as Natural ecological land management agreement or Temperate Grassland. Some CSC 2 sites may not Conservator’s Directions. For land that is not meet Natural Temperate Grassland criteria but owned by the Territory (such as National Land) are considered to be CSC 2 sites because they the ACT Government will encourage other contain habitat for threatened species. Refer to landowners/agencies to conserve CSC 1 sites on the Natural Temperate Grassland action plan (in their lands. Sites on Commonwealth Land this document) and the ACTmapi website for (including Department of Defence land and locations of grasslands assessed as CSC 1, other privately leased Commonwealth land such as native grasslands (CSC 2 and CSC 3) and Canberra International Airport) are, depending distributions of threatened grassland fauna on the specific site, currently given a level of ACTmapi website. protection through the EPBC Act, Commonwealth Heritage listing, management 2.6.1 Protection guidelines for CSC 2 plans, access restriction and (for defence lands) grassland sites formal recognition in site Range Standing Conservation of CSC 2 sites on Territory Land Orders. may be achieved through Public Land categories of the Territory Plan including nature reserve, urban open space and special purpose reserve. Activities permitted in these land use categories

2.6 — CONSERVATION may be compatible with the conservation of

2.6 CONSERVATION may be compatible with the conservation of SIGNIFICANCE native grasslands, provided that appropriate CATEGORY 2 SITES conservation management is in place. In these cases maintenance of the conservation values of Sites in this category meet the following criteria: the site is the responsibility of the relevant ACT Government agency. Other similar land uses  moderate ecological condition (Floristic include road reserves and powerline easements. Value Score between 10 and 20), or For Territory leasehold land, protection may be  threatened species habitat in native though ecological land management agreement grassland (i.e. grassland dominated by native or Conservator’s Directions. For National Land, grasses) Memoranda of Understanding with Australian Government agencies may be an appropriate CSC 2 grassland sites are those with a history of mechanism. greater modification (e.g. exhibiting reduced plant species diversity, loss of disturbance- sensitive species and an increase in disturbance tolerant species, and greater weediness). These sites are generally in moderate condition and are likely to be viable in the medium term but their long-term viability may be limited by virtue of their size, low area to perimeter ratio and/or impacts from surrounding land uses. These sites may provide habitat for threatened species and may complement CSC 1 grassland sites by providing connectivity to adjacent habitat or act as a buffer to adjacent incompatible land uses. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 17 Wallaby Grass, Common Everlasting Daisy, Natural Temperate Grassland Chilean Needlegrass (Nasella neesiana). Many

2.7 — CONSERVATION of these sites occur on small and very small

2.7 CONSERVATION of these sites occur on small and very small SIGNIFICANCE urban sites and on rural leases, and/or are CATEGORY 3 SITES severely fragmented and have reduced viability as a grassland community. CSC 3 sites also Sites in this category meet the following criteria: include grasslands that are important as buffers between higher quality grasslands and adjacent  lower ecological condition native grassland incompatible land uses, or are important (Floristic Value Score ≥5 and <10 and connections between higher conservation value dominated by native grasses), or sites. CSC 3 sites may also include grasslands  threatened species habitat in exotic that are landscape features within the urban grassland, or fabric, or that provide opportunities for education or research. CSC 3 grasslands also  native grassland that forms an important have intrinsic value for potential restoration, buffer or connection to higher quality and for some of these sites, management and grasslands restoration actions might result in significant CSC 3 grassland sites have a lower conservation improvement in the ecological condition value, and may or may not meet the condition CSC 3 sites that have a FVS ≥ 5 and area ≥ 0.1 ha thresholds to be classified as Natural Temperate meet the criteria for EPBC listing as Natural Grassland (see Commonwealth of Australia Temperate Grassland. Some CSC 3 sites may not 2016a). However, these sites may still meet Natural Temperate Grassland criteria but contribute to conservation of grassland are habitat for threatened species or form biodiversity. Typically, these sites include small important ecological bufferes or landscape patches (<10 ha) of native grassland (which may habitat connections. Refer to the Natural include Natural Temperate Grassland) in poor to Temperate Grassland action plan (in this moderate condition, or include threatened document) and the ACTmapi website for species habitat that is dominated by exotic locations of grasslands assessed as CSC 1, other grasses, such as Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) and native grasslands (CSC 2 and CSC 3) and 18 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans distributions of threatened grassland fauna 2.8 LOCAL, REGIONAL AND ACTmapi website. NATIONAL

2.7.1 — Protection guidelines for CSC 3 COOPERATION

2.7.1 Protection guidelines for CSC 3 COOPERATION grassland sites Conservation of grassland sites across all CSC 3 sites should be retained for their value as tenures will involve cooperation between threatened species habitat or for their government agencies and other landholders buffer/connectivity function. CSC 3 sites that are within the ACT and region. The ACT Government Natural Temperate Grassland should be will work with Commonwealth agencies retained for their potential to be restored to (particularly the Department of Defence and the higher ecological condition, particularly where National Capital Authority), NSW Government they serve as ecological buffers or habitat and other landholders (such as Canberra connections. Each site should be assessed as International Airport) to encourage: part of the outline planning, environmental  Formal protection of CSC 1 grassland sites. assessment and development approval process. Planning and management arrangements may  Actions and land uses compatible with the include agreements with non-government conservation of CSC 2 and 3 sites. landholders, property management agreements  Maintaining or improving ecological with rural lessees and protection of sites within connectivity of Natural Temperate the urban fabric. These arrangements provide a Grassland. means to continue the primary land use while accommodating the conservation values of The ACT Government will also maintain links these sites. Sites identified as having potential with, and participate in, regional and national for restoration should be managed to maintain recovery efforts for native grasslands and their current ecological condition until their threatened grassland species. condition can be improved. Table 2. List of native grassland sites in the ACT grouped by geographic location, showing land tenure, land use, size class, presence of threatened species and Conservation Significance Category (CSC). NR = Nature Reserve, BG = Baeuerlan’s Gentian, BW = Button Wrinklewort, GP = Ginninderra Peppercress, GSM = Golden Sun Moth, GED = Grassland Earless Dragon, PG = Perunga Grasshopper, SLL = Striped Legless Lizard, PTWL = Pink-tailed Worm-lizard, (?) = uncertain occurance. Name of each site by Land tenure Land use Size class Threatened CSC geographic area species GUNGAHLIN Mulanggari Grasslands NR Territory Reserve 50-100 ha GSM, PG, SLL 1 Gungaderra Grasslands NR Territory Reserve >100 ha GSM, PG, SLL 1 Crace Grasslands NR Territory Reserve >100 ha BW, GSM, PG, 1 SLL Franklin Grassland Territory Vacant 10-50 ha GP, GSM, SLL 1 Mitchell Grassland Territory Rural (agisted) <1 ha SLL 2/3 Kenny Territory Rural (agisted), >100 ha SLL 1 proposed NR Percival Hill NR Territory Reserve <1 ha SLL 2/3 MAJURA VALLEY Majura Training Area Commonwealth Defence >100 ha BW, GSM, 1 GED, PG, SLL Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 19 Name of each site by Land tenure Land use Size class Threatened CSC geographic area species Airport Services (Beacon) Leased Airport Services 1-10 ha GSM, GED, 1 Commonwealth PG, SLL Canberra International Leased Airport >100 ha GSM, GED, PG 1 Airport Commonwealth ‘Malcolm Vale’ Leased Rural >100 ha GSM, GED(?) 2/3 Commonwealth ‘Campbell Park’ Commonwealth Defence 10-50 ha BW, GSM, 1 GED, PG, SLL Majura West Territory Rural >100 ha GSM, GED, 1 PG, SLL JERRABOMBERRA VALLEY ‘Mugga Mugga’ Territory Reserve 10-50 ha 2/3 ‘Callum Brae’ Rural Leasehold Rural >100 ha GED 1 Jerrabomberra West Territory Reserve >100 ha GSM, GED , 1 Grassland NR PG Woods Lane Territory Roadside 10-50 ha BW 2/3 Jerrabomberra East Territory Reserve 50-100 ha GSM, GED, 1 Grasslands PG, SLL Bonshaw Grasslands Territory Rural, proposed NR >100 ha BW GSM, 1 GED, PG, SLL ‘Cookanalla’ Rural Leasehold Rural 50-100 ha GED 1 Amtech East Territory Vacant 10-50 ha GSM, PG, SLL 2/3 Tennant St, Fyshwick Territory Rural (agisted) <1 ha BW 1 BELCONNEN Ginninderra Experimental Commonwealth Rural (research) 10-50 ha 2/3 Station (CSIRO) Dunlop Nature Reserve Territory Reserve 50-100 ha GSM 1 Jarramlee Nature Reserve Territory Reserve 50-100 ha GSM 2/3 Umbagong Park, Florey Territory Urban Open Space 10-50 ha 2/3 Evatt Powerlines, Evatt Territory Urban Open Space 1-10 ha 2/3 Lake Ginninderra Territory Urban Open Space 1-10 ha GSM 2/3 Lawson Hill Territory Urban Open Space 1-10 ha GSM 2/3 Lawson Grasslands Commonwealth Defence >100 ha BW, GP, GSM, 1 PG, SLL Kaleen East paddocks Territory Hills, ridges and 10-50 ha PG, SLL 2/3 buffers (agisted) Caswell Drive Territory Reserve 1-10 ha 2/3 Glenloch Interchange Territory Road Reserve 1-10 ha 1 Kama Nature Reserve Territory Reserve 10-50 ha PTWL 1 Molonglo and Territory Reserve, Rural >100 ha PTWL 1 Murrumbidgee River Corridors 20 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Name of each site by Land tenure Land use Size class Threatened CSC geographic area species University of Canberra Territory Private Lease 1-10 ha GSM 2/3 CANBERRA CENTRAL and TUGGERANONG CSIRO Headquarters, Commonwealth Urban Open Space 1-10 ha GSM 2/3 Campbell St Johns Church, Reid Territory Urban Lease <1 ha GSM 2/3 St Marks, Barton Territory Urban Lease 1-10 ha BW, GSM 1 York Park, Barton Commonwealth Urban Open Space <1 ha GSM 2/3 Yarramundi Grasslands, Commonwealth Urban Open Space 10-50 ha PG, SLL(?) 2/3 Canberra Central Lady Denman Drive, Commonwealth Road Reserve <1 ha 2/3 Yarralumla Dudley St, Yarralumla Territory Urban Open Space 1-10 ha GSM 2/3 Kintore St, Yarralumla Commonwealth Vacant <1 ha BW 2/3 Novar St, Yarralumla Territory Urban Open Space <1 ha 2/3 Black St, Yarralumla Territory Urban Open Space 1-10 ha GSM 2/3 Isabella Pond, Monash Territory Urban Open Space 1-10 ha 1 Stirling Ridge Commonwealth Urban Open Space 1-10 ha 2/3 Tuggeranong Grassland, Territory Urban Open Space 1-10 ha 1 Tuggeranong SOUTHERN ACT Namadgi National Park Territory Reserve >100 ha BG 1 Table 2 includes grassland sites that have been identified since the previous (2005) grassland strategy. These sites include rocky grasslands in Molonglo and Murrumbidgee River Corridors and in Kama Nature Reserve, montane and subalpine grasslands in Namadgi National Park (above 625 m elevation), and small patches of native grassland at the University of Canberra, Stirling Ridge and in Tuggeranong. Grassland areas added to the ACT reserve system since 2005 are shown in Table 11 in Chapter 8. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 21 Figure 1. Map of native grasslands in the north of the ACT showing Conservation Significance Category 1 grasslands, and ‘Other grasslands’ (which include Conservation Significance Category 2 and 3 grasslands, and exotic grasslands). The Conservation Significance Category is based several criteria, including grassland condition and habitat for threatened species. 22 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Figure 2. Map of native grasslands in the south of the ACT. All of these grasslands are Conservation Significance Category 1. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 23 3. STRATEGY: REDUCE THREATS TO NATIVE GRASSLAND BIODIVERSITY 24 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 25

3.1 — OVERVIEW

3.1 OVERVIEW Native grasslands in south-eastern Australia are recognised as one of the continent’s most threatened ecological communities (Gilfedder et al. 2008). Many of the key drivers of grassland loss in south-eastern Australia are historic in nature. By far the greatest cause of grassland loss has been agriculture, particularly the sowing of improved pasture, cropping and superphosphate application (Williams and Morgan 2015). Whilst these threats continue, grasslands are also being lost to new threats that are likely to intensify over the coming decades. Grasslands now face five major threats: (1) the long-lasting effects of historic habitat loss, (2) ongoing destruction of grasslands, (3) exotic species invasions, (4) inappropriate disturbance regimes, and (5) climate change (Williams and Morgan 2015). The consequences of climate change are likely to result in exacerbation of current threats and new threats. Managing threats is a key strategy in conserving and restoring grasslands in the ACT. Grazing and fire regimes are key ecological 3.3 KEY PRINCIPLES processes in native grassland ecosystems and can profoundly affect (both positively and  Land management activities can affect the negatively) the condition, vegetation structure level of a threat (such as inappropriate fire and species composition of native grasslands, regime and potential for weed incursion) and both in the short and longer term. so a ‘whole of system approach’ is required Consequently, the changes that have occurred to mitigate threats. to grazing and fire regimes since European settlement are one of the primary causes of  Most biological systems are complex and our modification of native grasslands (Eddy 2002). In knowledge of them is imperfect. The nature particular, the ecological consequences of either of threats, and the outcomes of actions to overgrazing or undergrazing by native mitigate them, may be uncertain. Priorities herbivores are a key management issue for and allocation of resources to mitigate native grasslands. Whilst inappropriate grazing threats therefore require an assessment of and fire regimes are threats to native risk. grasslands, these threats can be mitigated by  Management programs should strategically implementing appropriate regimes. Guidelines target actual, rather than perceived, threats for appropriate grazing and fire regimes for (i.e. use an evidence-based approach). conservation of native grasslands are outlined in Chapter 4 of this strategy.  Prevention, and early detection and intervention, are the most cost-effective techniques.

3.2 — THREAT MANAGEMENT  Management of weeds and pest animals

3.2 THREAT MANAGEMENT  Management of weeds and pest animals should be based on minimising the level of GOAL damage, or potential for damage, rather than simply aiming to reduce abundance of Prevent or manage the impacts of threatening weeds and pest animals. processes to maintain or improve the ecological condition and biodiversity of native grasslands,  Monitoring and evaluation are required to with particular attention to threatened species. ensure the benefits obtained exceed the risks and cost of management activities. 26 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans  An adaptive management approach is al. 2004). Many invasive plants in native required to achieve continuous grasslands have long-lived seed banks that can improvement. persist for years (Snell et al. 2007; Briese et al. 2000), making control and eradication a long  Impact of the urban edge on grasslands (and term process. ongoing conservation management costs) can be reduced at the planning stage (e.g. by Weed species of particular concern in ACT’s allowing adequate buffers and not native grasslands are those listed as Weeds of permitting housing on the outer edge of National Significance (Visit the Federal perimeter roads). Government Environment website), and those listed as pest plants under the Pest Plants and Animals Act 2005, as these species require particular actions. Woody weeds are particularly

3.4 — MANAGE WEEDS problematic in grasslands as they can

3.4 MANAGE WEEDS problematic in grasslands as they can disproportionally alter grassland structure and Weeds are widespread in native grasslands, function because of their size and life form, and including high quality grasslands. The ecological should be a focus of control and eradication in impact of weed species varies considerably, native grasslands (Robinson 2015). from those that have little impact on grasslands, such as small ephemerals, to those that can 3.4.1 Guidelines to manage weeds significantly alter grassland structure and composition, such as large woody weeds and  Follow current best practice strategies for stipoid tussock grasses (Robinson 2015). Once weed management as provided in the ACT established, invasive plants can become Weeds Strategy (ACT Government 2009). dominant, resulting in large and dense  The four most serious weeds that should monocultures that outcompete and eventually receive priority for control are the perennial exclude other native grassland plants (Faithfull grass species African Lovegrass (Eragrostis et al. 2010; Robinson 2015). Invasive grassland curvula), Chilean Needlegrass (Nassella plants can also alter soil characteristics, such as neesiana), Serrated Tussock (Nassella reducing soil moisture availability (Faithfull et al. trichotoma), and the perennial forb St John’s 2010). Wort (Hypericum perforatum). Many weeds are so widespread in native  Species that have been highlighted as grassland communities of the ACT that it is now potentially becoming major weeds in high largely impossible to control them. These elevation grasslands are Mouse-ear include species such as Catsear (Hypochaeris Hawkweed (Hieracium pilosella), Orange radicata), Sorrel (Acetosella vulgaris) and Hawkweed (Leucanthemum vulgare) and Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and many Oxeye Daisy (Hieracium aurantiacum) annual grasses such as Brome Grass (Bromus (Rowland 2012; Doherty, Wright and spp.), Quaking Grass (Briza spp.), Hairgrass (Aira McDougall 2015). It is particularly important spp.) and Fescue (Vulpia spp.). Significant weeds to report any sightings of these species to of montaine and subalpine grasslands include enable immediate action. Mouse-ear Hawkweed (Hieracium pilosella), Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum),  Other weeds that require attention for and Ox-eye Daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare). control and eradication include Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), the annual Weeds in native grasslands have invaded and grass Wild Oats (Avena spp.) (depending on spread through a variety of mechanisms, rainfall), the forbs Saffron Thistle (Carthamus including deliberate introductions for pasture lanatus) and Paterson’s Curse (Echium improvement, as contaminants in animal feed, plantagineum), and woody weeds such as changes to soil nutrient levels and drainage, African Boxthorn (Lycium ferocissimum), disturbances and the opening up of inter- Sweet Briar (Rosa rubiginosa), Hawthorn tussock space. In grasslands of higher elevation (Crataegus monogyna) and Firethorns areas, weeds are often more prevalent in the (Pyracantha sp.). areas around the homesteads, alongside roads, and in areas that were historically used for  Mowing/slashing is a major cause of weed grazing (Helman and Gilmour 1985; Godfree et spread. It is essential that best practice Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 27 slashing/mowing hygiene is followed (such  Appropriate action should be taken for as detailed in the Parks and Conservation weeds that are declared as pest plants under Service Weeds Operation Plan). This will the Pest Plants and Animals Act 2005 (View usually involve slashing weedy sites last, the Act (PDF, 167Kb). For example, if a pest cleaning mowing equipment with high plant has been declared as notifiable, the pressure spray between sites to avoid chief executive of the relevant government spreading weed seeds, and may involve spot agency should be notified of any sightings. spraying for invasive weeds prior to mowing. Many of these pest plants are found in ACT native grasslands.  To minimise weed spread during mowing/slashing, a protocol such as the  Any sightings of weeds on the list of New ‘Stop, Inspect, Protect’ (NSW DPI) should be Weeds, Alert Weeds and Sleeper Weeds made standard for all slashing, both within should be reported to the Parks and and outside reserves: Conservation Service Senior Weed Management Officer.  Stop: do not slash invasive grass in seed and do not mow infested areas before  If stock are used to manage grass biomass, clean areas. where practical stock should be quarantined  Inspect and thoroughly wash down before being moved between sites to allow slashers between sites. time for viable seed to be passed, in order to reduce weed incursion risk.  Protect native vegetation by reporting new invasive grass infestations as they are found.

3.5 — MANAGE INTRODUCED

3.5 MANAGE INTRODUCED  When applying control methods for a particular weed, care should be taken to PEST ANIMALS prevent a ‘weed-shaped hole’ that allows the Introduced pest animals have a range of invasion of a second weed (Firn, House and deleterious impacts on native grasslands in the Buckley 2010). ACT. The main pest animal species include  Drifting of herbicides from spraying weeds introduced grazers such as the European Rabbit onto surrounding native vegetation should and Brown Hare, predators such as the feral cat be avoided. and European Red Fox, and the European Wasp. In higher elevation grasslands, several additional pest animal species can be found, including the feral pig, feral horse and several species of deer (Fallow, Red, and Sambar). Introduced grazers impact native grasslands in a range of ways, including altering natural grazing regimes and grassland herbage mass and structure, as well as causing soil disturbance, soil fertility changes, altered drainage, trampling, and direct consumption of vulnerable species such as native forbs such as lilies and orchids. Grazing by rabbits may have played an even greater role in altering native grasslands than livestock grazing (Eddy 2002). Rabbits are widespread in grasslands across the altitudinal gradient. For example, research by Leigh et al. (1987) found that rabbit grazing in subalpine grasslands had significant impacts on native forb cover and diversity. Introduced rodents such as the House Mice occur in native grasslands, where they fill the 28 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans niche of many small marsupials and native considered to be a particular risk for subalpine rodents that are now rare or extinct. wetland areas (ACT Government 2012b). In the higher elevation grasslands, one of the Predation by introduced predators, including more significant threats is the feral pig. Pigs foxes and both feral and domestic cats, can have caused significant damage to the potentially have a large impact on native fauna grasslands, as well as bogs and wetlands, in populations in grasslands, such as birds, small Namadgi National Park by wallowing and mammals and reptiles. Foxes in south-eastern digging for food such as tubers of Hypoxis Australia are known to predate on small hygrometrica, Bulbine sp., Gastrodia sp., mammals, lizards and insects (Saunders et al. Chiloglottis sp. and Arthropodium milleflorum 2004). Diets of domestic cats in Canberra have (Helman and Gilmour 1985; Hone 2002). Pig been found to include a range of native and rooting can result in areas of bare (turned over) introduced fauna, including grassland species soil, facilitating weed establishment. such as the Olive Legless Lizard (Delma inornata) (Barrat 1997; Eyles and Mulvaney 2014). Feral horses are widespread in many Australian ecosystems, including subalpine environments. European Wasps are found throughout the ACT Feral horses are abundant in areas near the ACT, and have expanded to the remote areas of including Kosciusko National Park and on Namadgi National Park (ACT Government occasion have crossed the border into Namadgi 2012b). In rural areas away from urbanisation, National Park, where they are controlled. There European Wasps usually nest in underground are many documented impacts of feral horses, holes dug in the soil (Ward, Honan and Lefoe including soil compaction, erosion, trampling, 2002). Their impacts include reducing track formation, loss of vegetation cover, weed populations of native insects (by competing for dispersal, and species composition change in food and direct predation on other insects), as grassy areas due to grazing (ACT Government well as potentially attacking and stinging people 2007; Nimmo and Miller 2007). and animals, particularly when defending nests (ACT Government 2012b). Feral deer are browsers, and can potentially impact native grasslands in the ACT by Wild dogs (mostly dingoes that have hybridised wallowing and track formation, and are with domestic dogs) are present in remote areas of the ACT including Namadgi National Park Serrated Tussock Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 29 where montane grasslands occur. Although wild 3.6 ECOLOGICALLY dogs are considered to be pests by graziers due to their impacts on sheep, they have been INAPPROPRIATE performing the beneficial role of higher order DISTURBANCE REGIMES predator in Australian ecosystems for around 4000 years (Corbett 2008). Wild dogs prey on Natural disturbance regimes, such as fire and species such as kangaroos, wallabies and grazing, are critical processes in Natural rabbits, and may help suppress other predators Temperate Grassland. Appropriate levels of such as the introduced Red Fox and cat, thus disturbance in grasslands will regulate playing a role in maintaining biodiversity (Letnic herbage mass and inter-tussock space (Lunt et et al. 2013). Wild dogs are currently controlled al. 2012; Tremont and McIntyre 1994), in areas adjoining rural properties to protect ensuring habitat for flora and fauna, and thus livestock. However, in core areas of Namadgi biodiversity, is maintained. Disturbance National Park such as the Gudgenby Valley regimes that are either too frequent or too (including montane grasslands), they are few will result in simplification of grassland protected. For further information, visit the ACT structure and loss of flora and fauna diversity. Environment PCS website. Generally, lowland Themeda triandra- dominated Natural Temperate Grassland has suffered declines in condition because of a

3.5.1 — Guidelines to manage introduced reduction in disturbance frequency, particularly

3.5.1 Guidelines to manage introduced reduction in disturbance frequency, particularly pest animals fire, resulting in the accumulation of herbage mass and declines in inter-tussock space  For native grasslands in the ACT, the priority (Morgan 2015). This situation is further pest animals for management are the exacerbated in many of the ACT’s smaller urban European Rabbit, European Red Fox, feral remnants that have very few, if any, native cat, Brown Hare, and the European Wasp. In grazers (i.e. kangaroos) to control grass the higher elevation grasslands several biomass. Under-grazing of native grasslands additional pest species also require results in the accumulation of very high herbage management: feral pigs, feral horses, and mass which is undesirable due to the reduction deer (Fallow, Red and Sambar). in grassland ecological condition and  Follow current best practice strategies for biodiversity (many forbs cannot survive or pest animal management in the ACT, which reproduce when grass is very long and dense), are provided in the ACT Pest Animal and the decline in habitat quality for threatened Management Strategy 2012–2022 (ACT grassland species. Government 2012b) and Best Practice In other Natural Temperate Grassland Management Guide for Rabbits in the ACT communities, overgrazing has occurred as a (ACT Government 2015c). result of inappropriate stocking densities (sheep  Feral horse management should be guided and cattle), high numbers introduced grazers by the Namadgi National Park Feral Horse such as rabbits, and in some instances by Management Plan 2007 (ACT Government relatively high densities of kangaroos (see 2007). section 3.7). A review of grassland condition in the ACT (Hodgkinsn 2014) for the Commissioner  Wild dog management in montane for the Environment and Sustainability grasslands should be guided by ACT concluded that overgrazing by kangaroos, Government Wild Dog management policies, animal pests and domestic herbivores was a and the Namadgi National Park Plan of threat to some grassland sites, particularly Management 2010. during drought. Over-grazing can result in the simplification of grassland structural complexity, and changes in plant species composition through grazing selectivity (Morgan 2015). Unlike fire, which may be less discriminate (depending on herbage moisture and density) in herbage mass removal, grazers have preferences for grazing some species over 30 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans others. For example, Themeda triandra is for other species (ACT Government, 2010; palatable to stock, and in south-eastern Howland et al. 2014; ACT Government 2017a). Australia, T. triandra dominated grasslands can Kangaroo densities can fluctuate depending on be converted to dominance by other species influences such as food availability (grass under persistent livestock grazing (Lunt et al. growth determined by weather), creation of 2007). artificial watering points (in arid areas), predator removal, fencing and habitat fragmentation. Native forbs can also be reduced or lost from the plant community if they are more palatable In the ACT, high kangaroo densities in urban and are grazed preferentially, or if they are grassland and woodlands have resulted in generally intolerant to disturbance (Tremont overgrazing in some areas, increasing the and McIntyre 1994; McIntyre and Lavorel 1994). proportion of short (<10 cm) vegetation, Stock and other introduced grazers can cause particularly during drought years (ACT physical degradation by trampling, increased Government 2010; Vivian and Godfree 2014). nutrient inputs from animal droppings, The resulting lack of variation in grass tussock increased weed invasion through the creation of structure and consequent loss of plant cover bare ground and weed seed dispersal, soil reduces the diversity of fauna species that erosion, and compaction. These impacts can be depend on tussocks for habitat (; Antos and exacerbated during times of drought, leading to Williams, 2015; Howland et al. 2014; ACT increased risk of drought-induced mortality for Government 2017a). plants and soil erosion (Hodgkinson 1995). Livestock grazing or fire are alternative methods See section 4.7 for guidelines to implement for managing herbage mass, particularly in ecologically appropriate disturbance regimes. circumstances where grazing by kangaroos is unable to achieve herbage mass management goals. Further information on managing herbage mass though grazing is given in Chapter 4.

3.7 — MANAGE GRAZING BY

3.7 MANAGE GRAZING BY KANGAROOS 3.7.1 Guidelines to avoid overgrazing by kangaroos Grazing by native herbivores is an integral ecological process in native grasslands. Eastern  Kangaroos are the preferred grazers for Grey Kangaroos are the most abundant native managing grass biomass and structure in mammalian herbivore in grasslands and are native grasslands in the ACT (Chapter 4). considered to be an ‘ecosystem engineer’ in the  Populations of kangaroos in the ACT should ACT and region due to their dominant influence be maintained as a significant part of the on grassland structure and resource availability Eastern Grey Kangaroos Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 31 fauna of the ‘bush capital’ and a component not adjacent protected areas. For example, of the grassy ecosystems of the Territory. To planning to have a sealed road between a avoid overgrazing by kangaroos, Eastern suburb and the adjacent nature reserve Grey Kangaroo populations should be provides a desirable hard edge and also managed according to the Controlled Native serves as part of the Inner Asset Protection Species Management Plan for Eastern Grey Zone (which may also include a mown area Kangaroos (ACT Government 2017a). between the road and the nature reserve fence which can be used for cycle paths and recreational activities such as walking dogs).

3.8 — MANAGE IMPACTS OF  Sites adjacent to grassland remnants in

3.8 MANAGE IMPACTS OF  Sites adjacent to grassland remnants in URBANISATION urban areas should be managed to avoid adverse effects on grasslands, such as Urban grasslands face a different suite of reducing run-off, weed invasion, trampling pressures compared to those in montane, rural and pest animals. or semi-rural areas. For example, in urban areas,  In small urban grassland remnants, avoid pressures on grasslands commonly include shading from nearby planted trees or dumping (of rubbish, building rubble and garden buildings (Marshall 2015). waste), high nutrient inputs, microclimate modification, trampling, trail bike riding, rock  Plants (including trees) that are not native to removal, frequent mowing/slashing, and grasslands should not be planted in native roaming domestic cats, while natural grasslands set aside for conservation. disturbance regimes such as the occurrence of Consideration should be given to removing wildfire, are often severely modified. Weeds in any existing inappropriate plantings in urban grasslands are often garden escapees and grassland conservation areas, unless the species from waste areas (Cilliers, Williams and planting is of heritage value. Barnard 2008).  Avoid impacts from infrastructure Grasslands in urban areas tend to lose developments in high conservation urban populations of native plant species more than grassland remnants, such as laying of those in other areas. The risk of a plant species pipelines and hard-surface paths. Where being lost from a grassland patch increases with services (e.g. cables, pipelines) are necessary factors such as fragmentation (e.g. due to higher they should be installed by tunnelling under road density and urbanisation) and reduction in the surface, not trenching, wherever natural disturbances (e.g. longer intervals possible. between fires) (Williams et al. 2005a, 2005b).  Measures should be implemented that aim A thorough discussion of design and planning to prevent activities that cause disturbance principles for native grasslands in urban areas to grassland remnants, such as rock removal, can be read in Marshall (2015). topsoil removal, stockpiling or dumping of materials such as gravel and soil, fertiliser

3.8.1 — Guidelines to minimise impacts of use, vehicle parking and driving though

3.8.1 Guidelines to minimise impacts of use, vehicle parking and driving though grassland sites for access, and activities that urbanisation result in soil compaction and soil erosion. If  During the planning stages of new disturbance is necessary, follow-up developments, urban edges should be rehabilitation should be undertaken designed to minimise impacts of urban areas including levelling, weed removal and on adjacent native grasslands (including encouraging the establishment of native provision of adequate buffer areas and plant species from the adjacent vegetation creation of hard urban edges such as roads (Eddy 2002). to minimise incursions of garden weeds and  Any new residential areas developed in the domestic animals). vicinity of a Natural Temperate Grassland  Fire fuel reduction zones that are intensively Reserve, or threatened grassland fauna managed to protect urban assets from fire habitat, should be declared cat containment (i.e. Inner Asset Protection Zones) should be areas. incorporated into the development area and 32 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans  Ongoing protection and management of  Minimising human induced non-climate grassland reserves in urban areas can be stressors, and encouraging landuse change enhanced by including the local community that benefits biodiversity. in grassland conservation and educational  Protecting large areas of habitat and activities, such as through urban Landcare maintaining large populations, promoting and ParkCare groups. species-level genetic diversity, and enhancing connectivity to support migration and range shifts (see Chapters 2 and 5).

3.9 — MANAGE THE  Monitoring and accepting that ecosystems

3.9 MANAGE THE  Monitoring and accepting that ecosystems CONSEQUENCES OF will adapt and change (see Chapters 5 and CLIMATE CHANGE 6). More intensive management options to help Maintaining biodiversity under climate change safeguard native grasslands and component involves the acceptance that ecological change species under potentially extreme changes in is inevitable and implementing actions to climate include landscape engineering, captive influence the trajectories of ecological change breeding, seed banking and translocations, as toward desirable long-term conservation goals. well as identification of potential climate refugia To help species adapt to climate change, the and the creation of reserves with hard ACT Government recommends adopting boundaries such as roads. national best practices developed by CSIRO’s AdaptNRM (Visit the AdaptNRM website). More detailed information on the effects of Recommendations from AdaptNRM are largely climate change and guidelines to assist consistent with existing best practices in the ecosystems to adapt can be found in Chapter 5. management of grasslands in the ACT region; for example, enhancing ecosystem resilience to 3.9.1 Guidelines to manage the change, improving landscape habitat consequences of climate change connectivity, and building adaptive capacity within agencies and the community.  Apply the ‘precautionary principle’, which means take action now, despite future Climate change is expected to exacerbate many uncertainty. existing threats to grasslands. Management guidelines under climate change have therefore  Explore plausible future scenarios for the been incorporated into relevant sections ACT region, as well as appropriate throughout this strategy. A key adaptation responses, by building the recommendation from AdaptNRM is to capacity of land managers, policy makers, implement ‘climate-ready best practices’ that researchers and community volunteers in make sense to pursue regardless how the future both scenario planning and development of unfolds (i.e. ‘no-regrets’ actions) and more ‘adaptation pathways’. ‘intensive options’ under potentially extreme  Participate in national and regional initiatives changes in climate. such as AdaptNRM to implement and Best practices for managing grasslands to be promote best practice. ‘climate-ready’ include: Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 33 4. STRATEGY: MANAGE NATIVE GRASSLAND AND COMPONENT SPECIES FOR CONSERVATION 34 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 35

4.1 — OVERVIEW

4.1 OVERVIEW Native grasslands require active management to maintain their ecological condition, to provide habitat for component species, to promote recovery of threatened species and to reduce threats to the ecological community (such as weed infestation). Grass (or more correctly, herbage) biomass and grassland structure are key drivers of vegetation and fauna dynamics in native grasslands (Morgan 2015) and hence grassland biodiversity. Most native grasslands in the ACT are not Many grassland sites encompass areas of managed primarily for livestock (such as those Natural Temperate Grassland, native grassland in reserves) and in these areas Eastern Grey in lower condition and exotic grassland. Some or Kangaroos may be responsible for most of the all of these grassland types at a site may be used herbivory. The interaction between seasonal as habitat by threatened species. The conditions (grass growth) and kangaroo sometimes conflicting conservation goals (such abundance (grazing) can strongly influence as controlling exotic grasses versus their value seasonal herbage mass and structure. as threatened species habitat) arising in these Manipulating (or managing) kangaroo situations can lead to difficult management abundance can therefore potentially have decisions. profound effects on grassland herbage mass and Managing grasslands for a range of species will structure. Other methods used to manage also rely on retaining habitat features such as herbage mass and structure in grasslands burrows made by invertebrates (spiders, include grazing by introduced herbivores, crickets) and where appropriate, moist areas, burning, and mowing or slashing. There is rocks, and scattered trees. limited knowledge of the long-term effects of some of these management practices on A key aim of this strategy is to provide a strong grassland structure, composition, and focus on conservation management of the biodiversity. remaining grassland sites in the ACT. This chapter provides goals, principles and guidelines There is some evidence to suggest optimal for the management of native grasslands and habitat for one threatened grassland species threatened species habitat. The specific nature may not be optimal for another. Managing and detail of some management guidelines in grasslands to conserve a range of species is this chapter (such as management of herbage likely to be dependent on maintaining a patchy, mass and grassland structure) are more typical heterogeneous sward structure (i.e. patches of of guidelines in a management plan, and have longer, dense grass mixed with patches of been included in this strategy because of their shorter, more open sward) to provide a range of crucial role in maintaining the condition of habitat niches. In some grasslands, differing grasslands and biodiversity. Their inclusion in topography and soils may provide the this strategy aims to: opportunity to manage these areas to maintain different sward structure. For example, hills  provide land managers with a convenient with shallower soils are likely to have a naturally reference for grassland management shorter and more open sward than lower areas guidelines (where relevant, management on deeper, moister soils. For some smaller guidelines have been compiled from the grassland fragments and at a small scale it may individual action plans), and not be possible to maintain habitat  assist the development of detailed site- heterogeneity to meet the requirements for all specific management and/or operational threatened species or for multiple ecological plans values. 36 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans

4.2 — MANAGEMENT GOAL 4.4 APPLY BEST PRACTICE

4.2 MANAGEMENT GOAL 4.4 APPLY BEST PRACTICE WITHIN AN ADAPTIVE Manage native grassland in the ACT across all tenures to maintain or improve ecological MANAGEMENT condition and biodiversity, with particular FRAMEWORK attention to grassland habitat of threatened species. There have been substantial advances in knowledge of native grassland in south-eastern Australia over the last three decades (for example, see Williams et al. 2015), though many

4.3 — KEY PRINCIPLES aspects remain uncertain. Within an overall

4.3 KEY PRINCIPLES aspects remain uncertain. Within an overall objective of maintaining and improving  Best practice management involves applying grassland biodiversity, an appropriate response an ‘adaptive management’ approach linking to this uncertainty is to apply ‘adaptive research and monitoring to management. management’ (Nichols and Williams 2006).  Conservation of an intact grassland Adaptive management allows for the testing of ecological community and healthy management practices in-situ to determine if ecosystem function is preferable to they are achieving the desired outcomes, and conserving an area for a single species, adapting them as required. Adaptive though priority may be given to managing management requires clearly defined objectives habitat for a particular threatened species be developed based on current knowledge of that can act as a ‘flagship’ or ‘umbrella’ the vegetation community, associated species species. and their responses to management. The results of the management regime must be monitored  Structurally complex grasslands (i.e. so its effectiveness can be assessed and grasslands that have a mix of short, medium management practices modified as required. and long grasses with inter-tussock spaces) increase the probability of a range of plant Monitoring assists in distinguishing between and animal species persisting and seasonal effects and long-term changes to reproducing in a grassland remnant by species and site characteristics. providing a variety of habitat and resources An important part of this adaptive management (Wong and Morgan 2007; Stevens et al. approach is the recognition that flexibility is 2010; Howland et al. 2014; Morgan 2015). required in the management techniques applied  A heterogeneous, patchy sward structure to particular grasslands. Grassland structure and comprising herbage mass of mostly composition differ dramatically between sites in intermediate levels with inter-tussock spaces different locations, and between sites with is an appropriate management goal given different soils and management histories in the imperfect knowledge of the habitat same area. Consequently, no single requirements for many component species management regime will be suitable for all and of the long-term effects of management species and all sites. There is now widespread activities. acceptance by grassland ecologists of the need to adopt site-specific management approaches  Disturbance regimes, particularly fire and within the more general theoretical and grazing, are a key ecological process in native empirical framework of native grassland grassland ecosystems because of their role in management. altering herbage mass and inter-tussock space and promoting plant reproduction and Management that is regarded by experts in a biodiversity. particular field to be of the highest standards at the time is termed ‘best practice management’.  Where grazing is used to manage grass In the context of biodiversity conservation, best biomass and structure in native grasslands practice management is that which promotes the preferred approach is the use of native biodiversity and healthy ecosystem function. herbivores. The ACT Conservator of Flora and Fauna will encourage best practice conservation management actions for native grasslands to be Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 37 Dry tussock grassland at Cotter Flats undertaken in an adaptive framework and where these plans do not exist. Management facilitate the incorporation of monitoring and plans should state the management research results into management of grasslands (conservation) goals for the grassland area and and component species. the management actions to be undertaken to achieve the goals. The ACT Conservator of Flora and Fauna will continue to encourage rural lessees to manage native grassland on their

4.5 — MANAGEMENT PLANS lands to maintain and improve their condition,

4.5 MANAGEMENT PLANS lands to maintain and improve their condition, by providing advice, educational materials, and Each area of native grassland managed for though Land Management Agreements that conservation will have a set of specific may include preparation and implementation of management requirements, and so each area a management plan for native grasslands. will require a management plan. Management plans are already in place for many grasslands managed for uses that include conservation, such as Nature Reserves, land managed by the 4.6 MANAGE HERBAGE Commonwealth Government (Department of MASS AND STRUCTURE Defence and the National Capital Authority), and land on the Canberra International Airport. One of the fundamental principles of grassland Existing plans should be periodically reviewed conservation and maintenance of grassland and updated to take account of new biodiversity is the management of herbage mass information (such as the guidelines in this and the space among the grass tussocks—the strategy and the action plans), and other ‘inter-tussock space’ (Wong and Morgan 2007; relevant information. Morgan 2015). This principle is based on the Management plans should be developed for essential role of native grasses and native forbs grassland areas managed for conservation, in maintaining the structure and function of 38 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans healthy native grassland ecosystems, to moderately high (Biosis 2012) herbage mass particularly through the provision of habitat and and cover. resources for grassland animals. Herbage mass In contrast, the Golden Sun Moth prefers in turn is influenced by factors such as sparser vegetation with low herbage mass and a disturbance regimes (e.g. fire and native animal relatively large proportion of open inter-tussock grazing), site productivity, plant species space to allow males to locate females after composition (including weeds) and seasonal emergence. conditions such as rainfall and temperature. In modified grassland communities, particularly Other species such as the Grassland Earless where herbivores and/or their predators have Dragon have been found to prefer a sward of been removed, the natural processes that generally low to intermediate herbage influence herbage mass levels are usually mass/cover with well-developed inter-tussock disrupted and, as a result, herbage mass levels spaces, often with some bare ground. Grassland can become too high, too low, or too Earless Dragon habitat often contains patches of homogeneous to support a diverse grassland short, medium and longer grass sward in a community. A change in plant species mosaic, which is likely to provide a greater composition through invasion by weeds (for range of shelter, invertebrate food, and example, Phalaris, Wild Oats, African Lovegrass) thermoregulatory opportunities (Stevens et al. can also substantially change the herbage mass 2010). of grasslands. Grassland structure and herbage Pink-tailed Worm-lizards occur in rocky mass are related; both ‘overgrazed’ and grasslands, with shallowly embedded surface ‘undergrazed’ areas tend to be too structurally rocks comprising a key structural component of homogeneous to support a diverse range of their habitat. Further details of the habitat organisms. requirements of Pink-tailed Worm-lizards can be For native grassland forbs, inter-tussock spaces found in the Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Action Plan are a critical microhabitat for germination, (ACT Government 2017b). establishment and growth (Morgan 1998; Grasslands that contain a mosaic of sward Morgan 1997; Tremont and McIntyre 1994). If structures (i.e. patches of mostly medium height herbage mass levels become too high, the inter- sward mixed with patches of shorter more open tussock spaces decrease in size and number and sward and patches of longer dense grass) are become shaded by the tussock grasses, which likely to support a diversity of species that have can monopolise resources. This reduces forb somewhat different habitat requirements, or seed germination, emergence from below- provide a range of habitats for a species to use ground organs, growth, flowering rates, seed on a seasonal basis (e.g. Striped Legless Lizards production and seedling establishment (Lunt may use dense grass as a refuge during hot, dry and Morgan 2002), as well as persistence of the periods, or when adjacent areas are heavily biological crust (O’Bryan et al. 2009). grazed, and use shorter or less dense grass at Maintenance of a healthy biological crust (a other times). layer of algae and cryptogams that form a The following management guidelines are based protective covering on top of the soil) as part of on current knowledge and some are likely to be the grassland ‘structure’ is important in modified within the life of this strategy in light reducing erosion and loss of nutrients (Sharp et of new knowledge. More detail on management al. 2015). The biological crust can be damaged actions for threatened species are included in by disturbance, including vehicles and trampling the respective action plans. by people and animals with hard hooves (stock). Native grassland fauna can also be affected by changes to herbage mass, with many species having specific habitat requirements (Figure 3). For example, the Eastern Three-toed Earless Skink is associated with habitats containing relatively tall grass with large amounts of herbage mass and grass cover, whereas the Striped Legless Lizard is associated with habitats containing intermediate (Howland et al. 2014) Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 39

4.6.1 — Definition of grass height grass mostly <5 cm high and usually a high

4.6.1 Definition of grass height grass mostly <5 cm high and usually a high proportion of bare ground but may also have Grass height (or length) is defined in this dead thatch or short forbs. Also avoid document as the height of the grass leaves, not maintaining grasslands that have high the longer culms that bear seedheads, which are herbage mass. High herbage mass grasslands often taller than the grass leaves. The grass leaf tend to have mostly tall (>20 cm) dense grass height is defined as the height of the denser with very little or no inter-tussock spaces part of the tussock or grass sward, and does not and potentially a large build-up of thatch. include the few longer grass leaves that often See Section 4.6.1 for definition of grass extend higher than the ‘bulk’ of the grass leaves height. in the tussock or sward. Therefore, the height of a tussock is measured from the ground up to  In addition to maintaining mostly where the denser (or leafier) part of the tussock intermediate levels of herbage mass, aim to thins out to become relatively few grass leaves maintain a heterogeneous, patchy grassland (these relatively few grass leaves and seedhead sward. A patchy grassland of mostly culms may extend much higher). intermediate levels of herbage mass has a grass sward of mostly intermediate height

4.6.2 — Guidelines for managing herbage and density that is interspersed with patches

4.6.2 Guidelines for managing herbage and density that is interspersed with patches mass and structure of shorter, sparser grass and patches of longer, denser grass. Such a patchy grassland General guidelines for herbage mass and structure is often naturally created under structure grazing (by native or introduced herbivores) where mostly intermediate levels of herbage  As a general rule, aim to maintain a mass are maintained, but could possibly be grassland that has intermediate levels of created using burning. The uniform height herbage mass, which will promote a grass created by slashing or mowing is unlikely to structure suitable for many grassland promote patchy grassland structure. species, including threatened species. Such However, slashing/mowing may still be grassland will usually have well-defined useful for managing herbage mass and tussocks mostly ranging in height between 5 maintaining inter-tussock spaces. cm and 20 cm, and inter-tussock spaces composed of shorter grasses and forbs with  Aim to maintain herbage mass at perhaps some bare ground. Avoid removing intermediate levels even during productive most of the herbage mass as this creates a (high grass growth) years, as this will help very short grassland. Short grassland has maintain inter-tussock gaps to allow for the Striped Legless Lizard in Kangaroo Grass (M. Evans) 40 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans regeneration of native forb species (Wong triandra) dominated grasslands, grass and Morgan 2007). growth is relatively fast and will require more frequent biomass removal (e.g.  The three main tools for managing herbage grassland associations r3 – if dominated mass are the manipulation of grazing by Themeda, and r7 (see section 8.9)). regimes (including both native and introduced grazers), the manipulation of fire  In lower productivity sites, grass growth regimes, and mowing/slashing. Each of these is more likely to be limited by lower techniques has a different effect on plant resource availability and poorer biomass, as well as on native and introduced growing conditions, requiring less grass plant species (Morgan 2015). removed, or less frequent removal. This is likely to be the case in grasslands  Where grazing is used to manage grass dominated by Wallaby Grasses biomass, the preferred method is to use (Rytidosperma spp.) and Speargrasses native herbivores (kangaroos), with grazing (Austrostipa spp.) (e.g. grassland by stock used in circumstances where associations r3 – if dominated by kangaroo grazing is unable to maintain the Rytidosperma, r5, r6), and grasslands at desired grass herbage mass and structure at higher elevations (e.g. grassland a site. associations a14, a30, r1 and r2) and on  If fire is used as a management tool in rocky sites (e.g. grassland association grasslands with threatened fauna, aim to r8) (see section 8.9). create a patchy mosaic of burnt and unburnt  The history of past management practices at areas at a fine-scale (burnt and unburnt a site can influence the outcome of different patches that are tens of metres across rather herbage mass management techniques. For than hundreds of metres across). In low example, implementation of fire in long- quality habitat (where abundance of unburned grassland may have different threatened lizards is expected to be low), outcomes to fire used in regularly-burned burns may be required on a broader scale to grassland due to changes in the dominant improve overall habitat quality. Seasonal grass species over time (Sinclair, Duncan and conditions, expected rainfall and topography Bruce 2014). The past management practices need to be taken into account when at a site should be adopted as an initial guide planning burns to minimise impacts on to the herbage mass management method threatened species, promote establishment (Morgan 2015). of native perennial grasses and minimise the risk of weed establishment and erosion (see  Herbage mass and inter-tussock space can section 3.4). Slashing/mowing may be vary seasonally according to moisture required in circumstances where it is not availability. The prevailing or expected practical to use grazing and/or burning to climatic conditions (e.g. drought or La Niña) manage herbage mass. Slashed material may should be considered when planning grass need to be removed to avoid accumulating structure and herbage mass management dead thatch. strategies.  Different grassland community types require Species priority different frequencies of herbage mass removal because rates of herbage mass  If there is conflict between management of accumulation depend on grass and forb habitat for threatened grassland species and growth rates, which in turn will vary management for overall grassland floristic according to plant species, soil fertility, and diversity, priority should be given to climate, as well as seasonal moisture management of habitat for the threatened availability (Morgan 2015; Lunt and Morgan grassland species. 2002; Schultz, Morgan and Lunt 2011). The  If there is conflict between habitat grassland associations mentioned below are management for two or more threatened described in section 8.9. grassland species, the priority for  At sites with high moisture and nutrient management should be determined on the availability, such as some high basis of the threatened species listing productivity Kangaroo Grass (Themeda category (vulnerable, endangered, critically Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 41 endangered), how abundant and/or with inter-tussock spaces composed of restricted in distribution the remaining shorter grasses, forbs and bare ground. This populations are, how important the site is to structure can be promoted by maintaining the conservation of the species and the intermediate levels of herbage mass. Avoid nature of any ongoing threats. creating a grass sward that is uniformly very short (<5 cm) or uniformly very tall and  The management of threatened grassland dense (>15 cm high with very few inter- plants should be given equal importance to tussock spaces). the management of threatened grassland animals.  Suitable habitat for Grassland Earless Dragons typically has a fine-scale mosaic of Guidelines for threatened flora habitat patches of shorter, medium and longer grass, with patches often being several metres  Aim to maintain grassland that has a well- across. Maintaining intermediate herbage defined heterogeneous tussock structure mass though grazing and/or small-scale (i.e. tussocks with inter-tussock spaces). This patchy burns will promote a patchy structure can be promoted by maintaining grassland structure. intermediate levels of herbage mass through grazing and/or burns. Avoid creating a grass Refer to the Grassland Earless Dragon Action sward that is uniformly very short (<5 cm) or Plan for more information. uniformly very tall and dense (>20 cm high with very few inter-tussock spaces). Guidelines for Perunga Grasshopper Habitat  Aim to control or prohibit weed species from  Sighting records of this species suggest crowding out threatened flora populations. Perunga Grasshoppers may prefer a grass sward that is intermediate to moderately Refer to the action plans for Baeuerlen’s short , with inter-tussock spaces for forbs Gentian, Button Wrinklewort or Ginninderra (which the species feeds on), though their Peppercress for more information. detailed habitat requirements are not well understood. In the absence of such detailed Guidelines for Golden Sun Moth habitat knowledge, it is appropriate to follow the  Aim to maintain grassland that has an general guidelines for managing herbage intermediate to moderately low herbage mass and structure, which are to maintain a mass, with a grass sward that is generally grassland that has intermediate levels of moderately short to medium height (5 cm to herbage mass and a ‘patchy’ grassland 15 cm), has an intermediate density (cover) sward. of tussocks, low weed cover and tussocks are  Where Perunga Grasshoppers occur with interspersed with areas of bare ground. other threatened grassland animals, the  It is important to avoid long, dense grass in grassland should be managed as habitat for Golden Sun Moth habitat during the these other threatened species, with the spring/summer breeding season (October to assumption that these other animals will act December), when flying males are actively as ‘umbrella’ species for Perunga searching for non-flying females on the Grasshoppers (i.e. management actions to ground. However, Golden Sun Moths are benefit an umbrella species will also benefit probably relatively tolerant of longer grass other species with similar conservation outside the breeding season (when the requirements). species is present as subterranean larvae Refer to the Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan amongst the roots of grasses). for more information. Refer to the Golden Sun Moth Action Plan for more information. Guidelines for Striped Legless Lizard habitat  Aim to maintain grassland that has an Guidelines for Grassland Earless Dragon habitat intermediate herbage mass. Grass leaf height  Aim to maintain grassland that has a well- should mostly be between 10 cm and 20 cm. defined tussock structure (i.e. tussocks with Striped Legless Lizards often occur in tall, inter-tussock spaces). Tussock leaf heights dense grass (i.e. high grass biomass), which should mostly be between 5 cm and 15 cm, 42 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans might be important refugia during times 4.7 IMPLEMENT when other parts of the habitat are heavily grazed. However, it is possible that tall, ECOLOGICALLY dense grass is not their preferred habitat or APPROPRIATE that it does not meet their requirements for DISTURBANCE REGIMES breeding, thus management actions should aim to avoid maintaining a large proportion Disturbance regimes are an important of high herbage mass in Striped Legless component of managing grassland herbage Lizard habitat over the longer term (i.e. mass, structure, ecological function, and for several years). Where it is impractical to maintaining biodiversity. A disturbance regime reduce the herbage mass of patches of tall consists of the patterns of a disturbance (such dense grass (such as exotic Phalaris (Phalaris as grazing, burning and mowing/slashing) over aquatica) in moist drainage lines), aim to time and space, and includes characteristics provide more suitable habitat patches such as: (intermediate herbage mass) adjacent to the  frequency (the number of disturbance patches of long, dense grass. events in a given period) Refer to the Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan  time since the last disturbance for more information.  intensity and duration Guidelines for Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Habitat  seasonality  Aim to maintain grassland that is composed of native grasses (particularly Kangaroo  extent/size/patchiness Grass (Themeda triandra)) with no or little Variations in these characteristics can all have a weed cover (weeds are a key threat to Pink- strong influence on grassland ecosystems. An tailed Worm-lizard habitat). example is fire, which (depending on the regime) can have positive or negative effects on  Maintain surface rock by implementing grasslands and component species. Frequent management actions that prevent or fire can cause the loss of fire sensitive species, discourage surface rock removal (shallowly infrequent fire can result in excessive herbage embedded surface rock is a key habitat mass, and many plants and animals have times requirement for the species). in their life cycles when they are more sensitive  Avoid disturbance in the species habitat, to the effects of fire. such as intense grazing, application of fertilizer, trampling, soil 4.7.1 Guidelines for implementing earthworks/movement/erosion. appropriate grazing regimes  Moderately frequent fire (every 3–8 years) Where grazing is used to manage grass biomass, and light grazing (kangaroos or stock) may preference should be given to using native assist in maintaining a cover of native herbivores instead of introduced herbivores. grasses such as Themeda triandra. The However, grazing by introduced herbivores is influence of fire regime on the abundance of still a useful tool in circumstances where grazing the Pink-tailed Worm-lizard has not been by native herbivores is unable to achieve the studied. desired grass structure or herbage mass at a Refer to the Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Action Plan site. (ACT Government 2016c) for more information Grazing is most useful as a grassland (not included in this Grassland Strategy management tool when the dominant plant document). species that require herbage mass management are highly palatable and when the aim is not necessarily to increase native plant biodiversity but to maintain fauna habitat through grass structure and herbage mass management (Morgan 2015). Stock grazing as a management tool should be avoided in grasslands with little or no history of Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 43 stock grazing, due to the likelihood of selective quality, the risk of immediate impact to eating of grazing-sensitive forbs, particularly in target species from fire needs to be weighed Themeda triandra dominated grasslands (Wong against longer-term habitat benefit. and Morgan 2007; Morgan 2015).  Grasslands should not be burnt uniformly, Where stock are used as a management tool, but in a heterogeneous (or mosaic) pattern any potential physical impacts should be of burnt and unburnt patches to allow a monitored and minimised, including weed range of refugia and grass structures for invasion, breaking of soil crusts and damage to species to persist (Wong and Morgan 2007). the soil surface by hoofs (Wong and Morgan If threatened grassland animals are present 2007). at a site, aim to create burnt and unburnt patches that are tens of metres across rather In urban lowland grasslands of the ACT, than hundreds of metres across, and avoid kangaroo densities and their impacts on native burning more than a total of 50% of the vegetation and fauna should be managed in habitat for these species at the site in any accordance with ACT Government policies as year. outlined in the Controlled Native Species Management Plan for Eastern Grey Kangaroos  Steps should be taken to reduce the risk of (ACT Government 2017a), the Kangaroo weed invasion after a planned fire. This may Management Plan (ACT Government 2010), and involve close monitoring of burnt areas in other subsidiary documents. grasslands at high risk (i.e. close to weed sources, history of weed invasion and a soil

4.7.2 — Guidelines for implementing seed bank of exotic species) and weed

4.7.2 Guidelines for implementing seed bank of exotic species) and weed appropriate burning, and burning control. regimes  In higher productivity Themeda triandra  To promote native plant diversity, fires in dominated grasslands, frequent burning native grasslands should be implemented in (every 1 to 5 years) is considered to be an mid to late summer or autumn as this period important ecological process for maintaining is outside the major growing season, but floristic diversity and fauna habitat (Morgan before the first autumn rains that can cause 2015). Fire can improve tussock grass health resprouting and seed germination (Morgan and habitat heterogeneity for fauna and 2015). Burning of sprouting or germinating benefit native plant biodiversity by plants can impede regeneration of these maintaining inter-tussock space (Morgan plants. However, some grassland plants 2015; Lunt, Prober and Morgan 2012). If fires species can be sensitive to summer or occur less frequently, the grass canopy has autumn burns (Lunt 1994), in which case a more time to re-establish, and significant late winter or spring burn might be reductions in gap size and number can occur appropriate. after just three years without fire (Morgan 1998). As well as the competitive exclusion  The frequency and timing of fire at a site of other species, including other vascular should consider the life cycles of grassland plants and the biological soil crust (Morgan species present, particularly if the aim is to 1999; O’Bryan et al. 2009), longer fire-free minimise the immediate impact of periods (even after six years) can lead to prescribed burns on these species. For declines in the health and vigour of Themeda example, for species such as the Striped triandra tussocks (Morgan and Lunt 1999). Legless Lizard, burning when the animals are However, these fire frequencies may not be most active (i.e. afternoons in September– optimal for maintaining plant diversity October or March–April) allows them to during periods of drought or La Niña (higher move away from fire, whereas burning in rainfall) or for conserving a priority plant or Golden Sun Moth habitat in the breeding animal that has a different requirement for season or in the month following (October– fire frequency. January) is likely to kill all the eggs laid at the bases of grass tussocks and it is possible the  There is currently insufficient evidence to burnt tussocks may not be suitable support the frequent use of fire in low oviposition sites for females. Where burning productivity grasslands; that is, those is used to maintain or improve habitat grasslands dominated by species other than 44 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Themeda triandra, and T. triandra grasslands due to slower plant growth, potentially in low productivity sites or at higher increasing the risk of soil erosion (Wahren, elevations where the growing season is Papst and Williams 2001). shorter. There is some evidence to suggest  Implementing an appropriate fire regime can that fire in drier or colder native grasslands be logistically challenging due to the often does not promote plant diversity (Wong and narrow window of opportunity (prevailing Morgan 2007) and can even cause grass weather and moisture conditions) and the mortality (Sinclair, Duncan and Bruce 2014). requirement for fire-fighting resources to Fire should therefore not be reintroduced undertake burns safely. Ecological burns are into grassland community types that occur often undertaken at the same time of year as on lower productivity sites nor those at hazard reduction burns, when demand for higher elevations (montane or sub-alpine fire-fighting resources is high. For an grasslands) unless in a carefully designed ecological burn program to be successful, experimental/research approach to test its land managers need to be adequately impact. resourced, including during periods of high  For sites that are lower in productivity or in resource demand. steep topography the benefit of ecological burning should be considered in light of the 4.7.3 Guidelines for implementing erosion potential of the proposed burn area. appropriate mowing/slashing Software tools are available that estimate regimes erosion potential by taking into account fire fuel loads, topography and weather. Fire  Mowing/slashing can be a useful grassland frequency is naturally lower in higher management tool in small grassland elevation (montane and sub-alpine) fragments where burning or grazing is grasslands, with landscape-level fires being a impractical. Mowing/slashing is also useful relatively rare event, and the introduction of for managing herbage mass in specific planned fire is unlikely to be required. After locations for non-conservation purposes, fire, the in-filling of inter-tussock space and such as along fence-lines and management production of a litter layer in montane and tracks. sub-alpine grasslands can take years to occur Figure 3. Grass structure and habitat suitability for some threatened grassland fauna. Relationships are based data collected during field surveys by the ACT Government and Howland et al. (2016a, 2016b). Solid lines are preferred habitat, dashed lines are less suitable habitat. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 45  Winter is generally the best time for planning of the interface between reserves and mowing/slashing to avoid negative impacts urban development areas is also important in to grassland plants, as at other times of the minimising fire risk, such as using hard surfaces year it can potentially reduce grass (sealed road) between nature reserves and reproduction due to its effect on active grass adjacent urban areas (refer to section 3.8). growth and tiller production, flowering and Reducing fire risk also involves maintaining seed production (Morgan 2015). adquate infrastructure to support fire  The height at which grass is slashed is likely suppression, both for wildfires and to contain to affect fauna habitat, and so the minimum ecological burns. Fire suppression infrastructure slash height should be regularly reviewed in includes access for emergency vehicles to the light of new information. strategic locations within reserves and along reserve boundaries, and maintenance of fire  Where possible, slashed material should be trails within reserves. removed due to the potential for smothering grass tussocks, and creating moist conditions that favour exotic grass growth (Eddy 2002; Morgan 2015). 4.9 MANAGE HABITATS  It is essential that best practice THAT INCLUDE A HIGH slashing/mowing hygiene is followed (such COMPONENT OF EXOTIC as detailed in the Parks and Conservation GRASSES Service Weeds Operation Plan). See Section 3.4.1 for more information on Native grasslands, including high quality Natural mowing/slashing. Temperate Grassland, typically contain a component of exotic grass and other weeds. Some exotic grasses, such as Serrated Tussock

4.8 — MANAGE FIRE RISK (Nassella trichotoma), tend to occur as

4.8 MANAGE FIRE RISK (Nassella trichotoma), tend to occur as individuals or small clumps of plants dispersed Managing native grasslands, particularly those amongst native grasses whereas other species, within the urban fabric of Canberra, involves such as Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica), can form recognising the dual goals of conservation and large patches within or adjacent to native of minimising fire risk. grasslands. The abundance of exotic grasses is a key contributor to habitat degradation for most Many of the native grasslands that occur in plant and animal species dependent on the urban and peri-urban areas of Canberra are part native grassland community. of Canberra Nature Park, such as the nature reserves of Gungaderra, Mulangarri, Crace and Certain perennial exotic grasses can provide Dunlop, whereas other native grasslands occur habitat for some fauna species including on Commonwealth Land such as Lawson threatened species. Striped Legless Lizards can Grasslands (former Belconnen Naval be found in patches of Phalaris, Yorkshire Fog Transmission Station). In addition to their role of (Holcus lanatus), Tall Fescue (Festuca protecting native species (many of which are arundinacea) or Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), threatened), native grasslands in urban areas particularly where adjacent native grassland has provide open space, opportunities for been heavily grazed and does not provide recreation and for enjoying nature, and visual adequate cover for these lizards. Phalaris amenity. usually occurs in moister parts of the landscape and when long and hayed-off such vegetation is Grasslands in the urban area, however, can pose generally unpalatable to stock and kangaroos, a fire risk to residences and urban and so patches of this grass can provide refuge infrastructure. To reduce fire risk, management for Striped Legless Lizards (and probably other of urban grasslands involves maintaining low to small animals) during drought. Conversion of moderate levels of grass herbage mass (fuel Phalaris to native grassland is currently difficult load) within ‘Asset Protection Zones’ that are and usually not practical, particularly where it located adjacent to urban development. Low occurs in moister areas (which usually have herbage mass is maintained through regular higher nutrients). In situations where Phalaris is burning, grazing or slashing/mowing. ‘Fire-wise’ unlikely to spread from moist areas, managing 46 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Phalaris as habitat for Striped Legless Lizards Moth in an extensive area of Chilean might be the best option. Needlegrass in the Macgregor West conservation area, and Chilean Needlegrass Golden Sun Moth larvae feed on the roots of used by Golden Sun Moths in large native grasses including Wallaby Grasses roundabouts, playing fields and median strips. (Rytidosperma spp.) and Speargrasses (Austrostipa spp.) but are also known to feed on With the increase in exotic grasses in native the roots of Chilean Needlegrass (Nassella grasslands and the lack of techniques and/or neesiana), and there is some evidence to resources to reduce the abundance or spread of suggest they can also feed on the roots of these grasses, decisions about how to best Serrated Tussock (Nassella trichotoma). Golden conserve threatened grassland species must Sun Moths can apparently survive in grassland now weigh up the value of exotic grasses as patches composed almost solely of Chilean habitat against the risk these grasses pose to Needlegrass and there is some evidence the further degradation of the remaining native larvae attain greater weights when feeding on grassland patches. this species (Sea and Downey 2014). Where Figure 4 provides a flow diagram to assist with Chilean Needlegrass is used by Golden Sun decisions on managing habitat that includes Moths and the spread of the grass can be exotic grass. contained or poses a relatively low risk to native grasslands, managing the Chilean Needlegrass as Golden Sun Moth habitat might be the best

4.9.1 — Guidelines for managing habitats

4.9.1 Guidelines for managing habitats use of the area. Examples of this situation that include exotic grasses include the large population of Golden Sun  Where exotic grasses do not comprise significant habitat for threatened grassland species, management should be according to the ACT Weeds Strategy 2009 - 2019 (ACT Figure 4. Flow diagram to assist with decisions Government 2009). on managing habitat that includes a high proportion of exotic grass.  Where a patch of exotic grass (whether or not it is habitat for threatened species) poses SIGNIFICANT HABITAT * a high risk of spread into high quality native grassland because it cannot be practically contained, management should be according YES NO to the ACT Weeds Strategy.  Where exotic grasses comprise significant Practically feasible to habitat for threatened grassland species and convert to native YES it is also practically feasible to convert the habitat exotic habitat back to native grassland habitat, the exotic grasses should be NO managed according to the ACT Weeds Strategy with the aim of restoring native grassland habitat (which is likely to require High risk of spread to additional actions to those in the Weeds native grassland YES Strategy, such as restoring native grasses).  Where exotic grasses comprise significant NO habitat for threatened grassland species and it is not practical to convert the exotic habitat to native habitat, but it is practically May manage as ACT weeds strategy feasible to contain the spread or there is a threatened species and/or grassland low or acceptable risk of spread into native habitat restoration grassland, management options may include *Significant habitat means the removal of the habitat controlling the spread and managing the (exotic grass) is likely to significantly negatively affect exotic grass as part of the broader habitat the short or long term viability of the species at the for the threatened species. site. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 47

4.10 — IMPLEMENT MEASURES 4.10.1 Guidelines to safeguard

4.10 IMPLEMENT MEASURES 4.10.1 Guidelines to safeguard TO SAFEGUARD populations POPULATIONS  Establishment of captive threatened animal populations or translocations of threatened For some threatened species, preventing animals should only be done in exceptional extinction in the wild requires significant ex-situ circumstances, such as when the species’ actions such as establishing programs for survival is likely to depend on these actions, captive breeding, propagation, seed banks and research critical to the survival of the species translocation of individuals. Captive populations cannot be done on individuals in the wild, or have also been used for undertaking essential where important ecological information can conservation research that is impractical on wild be gained by experimental translocation of populations. ‘doomed’ individuals (individuals that would There are usually significant risks (both to wild otherwise die due to urban infrastructure and captive populations) and costs associated development). with establishing ex-situ populations or  Proposals for establishing captive undertaking translocations. In general, such ex- populations or translocations of threatened situ actions should be used only in exceptional species are to be approved by the circumstances, such as when in-situ actions Conservator of Flora and Fauna. have failed and the species’ survival is likely to depend on ex-situ actions (which may include  Development of proposals and essential research). implementation of programs to establish captive populations, seedbanks or to Experimental captive breeding and release to translocate threatened species should be the wild have been undertaken for the done in consultation with the ACT Grassland Earless Dragon as part of a joint Government research unit. project between the ACT Government and the University of Canberra. This project aimed to  Translocations should follow current best better understand the captive breeding and practice, such as the ‘IUCN Guidelines for reintroduction requirements and methods for Reintroductions and other Conservation this species. Experimental translocations of Translocations’ (IUCN/SSC 2013). Golden Sun Moths and Striped Legless Lizards have been undertaken to investigate methods to establish new populations of these species. 4.11 LOCAL AND REGIONAL Propagation and translocation has been undertaken for the Ginninderra Peppercress and COOPERATION for the Button Wrinklewort for similar reasons. Effective conservation management of Seeds of both the Ginninderra Peppercress and grassland sites across all tenures in the ACT and Button Wrinklewort are currently banked in the region will involve commitment and National Seed Bank. These ex-situ actions are cooperation between government agencies, discussed further in the respective action plans other landholders and the community. The ACT for these species. Conservator of Flora and Fauna will encourage Genetic rescue (the recovery in the average the ACT Government to work with other fitness of individuals through increased gene government agencies (particularly the flow into small populations) may be one key Department of Defence and the NSW method through which conservation of Government), landholders (including rural threatened grassland species can be achieved. lessees) and the community (particularly Before genetic rescue is undertaken the genetic Parkcare groups, and the Conservation Council structure of populations should be considered. and its member groups) to encourage and Only in exceptional circumstances should facilitate best practice management of native genetic rescue be attempted without this grassland and its component species. Methods knowledge. include:  Liaising with Commonwealth agencies responsible for managing National Land containing native grassland and habitat for 48 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans threatened species, and seeking cooperative  Sharing information and knowledge on agreements (such as MOUs) with those management of native grasslands and agencies. constituent species.  Having in place management plans (Public Land) or similar arrangements (for other tenures) that reflect commitment to active and effective conservation of Natural Temperate Grassland remnants.  Encouraging other government agencies to have management plans or similar arrangements that reflect commitment to active and effective conservation of Natural Temperate Grassland on their land.  Identifying and prioritising management actions for individual native grassland sites, irrespective of tenure.  Providing up-to-date best practice management guidelines for managers of all land tenures and community groups to apply when undertaking Natural Temperate Grassland management activities. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 49 5. STRATEGY: ENHANCE RESILIENCE, ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION AND HABITAT CONNECTIVITY 50 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 51

5.1 — OVERVIEW

5.1 OVERVIEW Native grasslands in the ACT and surrounding region were extensive at the time of European settlement (Groves and Williams 1981; Costin 1954). Almost all of the region’s lowland grasslands are now lost due to development in valleys and low-lying areas, with the remainder being highly fragmented. Many native grasslands now have a significant exotic plant species component because of their small size, the surrounding land use and their land use history (Williams and Morgan 2015). Whilst protection and active management can arrest the decline of grasslands, restoration is required to reverse the decline. Restoration of degraded grasslands provides opportunities to enhance the extent, connectivity and condition of grasslands. Knowledge of how to restore grasslands is currently limited, though there is an increasing number of small-scale experimental projects, often undertaken by community groups, that aim to trial new ideas and methods to restore the structure, composition and function of native grasslands. Grasslands that are fragmented and/or 5.2 ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION degraded tend to have reduced or disrupted ecosystem function. Ecosystem function is the AND CONNECTIVITY way in which an ecosystem works, and includes GOAL processes such as energy flows, nutrient cycling, food webs, and plant-animal interactions Native grasslands in good ecological condition (Prober and Thiele 2005). Enhancing ecosystem support viable populations of grassland species, function involves enhancing the overall are well connected in the landscape and are condition of grasslands by repairing more resilient, including to climate change. degradation, implementing appropriate disturbance regimes (grazing and fire), managing threats and improving ecological 5.3 KEY PRINCIPLES connectivity. Enhancing grasslands will rely on improving existing methods for grassland  Rather than aim to restore fragmented restoration and also developing new and native grasslands to a pre-European state, a innovative methods. Some of the actions to more realistic goal is to enhance ecosystem enhance grasslands are outlined elsewhere in function and connectivity by improving the this strategy and in the action plans for ecological condition of grassland remnants threatened species. and their value as habitat though appropriate management, threat mitigation, Evidence over the last decade has shown that rehabilitation, and maintaining and creating ecological change in response to climate change habitat connections between remnants. is unavoidable, widespread and substantial (Williams et al. 2014). An important strategy for  Under a changing climate, characteristics of grassland conservation is to improve ecosystem ecological communities (including native function and connectivity between fragmented grasslands) will change as the communities grassland habitats (ACT Government 2013a), seek a new equilibrium with the changing with the aim of improving the long-term viability environmental conditions. of the grassland ecological community and its  Ecosystems should be viewed and managed resilience to climate change and other as changing entities, with management pressures. Whilst enhancing connectivity can aiming to facilitate the natural response increase some risks (e.g. conduit for fire and under a changing climate though enhanced pests), the benefits are generally considered to ecosystem resilience and adaptability. outweigh the risks. 52 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans  Areas that are larger, in better ecological some native grassland patches may become condition and more connected in the grassy woodlands or grassy shrublands. landscape are generally more resilient and Responses of individual flora and fauna species viable in the longer term, and better able to are more difficult to predict, though species provide conditions for species and able to exist in grassy woodlands (as well as ecosystems to adapt to climate change. native grasslands) would be expected to be less  Degraded grasslands, and grasslands that are affected than species dependent solely on overgrazed, are more likely to experience native grassland as habitat. Pest animal species reduction or disruption of healthy ecosystem (which are often habitat and dietary generalists) functions. may be advantaged by climate change, adding further pressure on native fauna.  Small, fragmented grasslands are more susceptible to disturbance, such as from

5.4.1 — Guidelines to improve resilience

5.4.1 Guidelines to improve resilience edge effects. However, such grasslands may be suitable for small-scale restoration and adaptability to climate actions. change  Small isolated populations are more Some of these guidelines are recommendations susceptible to local extinction and to genetic of CSIRO AdaptNRM (Visit the AdaptNRM problems. website):  Increase the resilience of native grasslands (and other ecological communities) to

5.4 — IMPROVE RESILIENCE climate change by maximising the following

5.4 IMPROVE RESILIENCE climate change by maximising the following: size and number of grassland patches, AND ADAPTABILITY ‘round’ patch shapes instead of ‘linear’ patch UNDER A CHANGING shapes, quality (or ecological condition) of CLIMATE native grasslands.  Help species adapt to a changing climate by The distribution of many species and conserving large populations, promoting ecosystems is related to, among other factors, species-level genetic diversity, maintaining rainfall and temperature regimes. Climate and improving ecological connectivity both change is predicted to make the ACT region between grassland patches and to other drier and warmer (ACT Government 2012a; vegetation communities, and in particular Timbal et al. 2015). Future rainfall is predicted altitudinal connectivity, to facilitate species to be lower than the current average, less dispersal along temperature and moisture evenly distributed and less predictable. Native gradients. grasslands (and their distribution) are expected to respond to these changing conditions as they  Increase resilience by controlling or seek a new equilibrium with the changing managing ‘non-climate change’ ecological environmental conditions. stressors such as weeds, native and introduced herbivores, introduced predators, Potential implications of climate change (e.g. urban edge effects. shifts in seasonal moisture availability, increased temperatures, increasing fire frequency and  Extreme climate change may warrant more intensity) for grasslands include: invasion by intensive (or higher risk) actions that include: woody species, reduced productivity, reduced  assisted dispersal cover of native grasses and annual forbs and  more intensively managing fire regimes at increased soil erosion, as well as increases in site and landscape scales invasive weeds (e.g. Chilean Needlegrass  considering landscape engineering (Nassella neesiana), Serrated Tussock (Nassella solutions trichotoma), African Lovegrass (Eragrostis  intensively managing natural pressures to curvula)) (NSW Government, 2011). Invasion by help conserve highly valued species or trees and shrubs is likely to reduce the size of ecological communities individual grassland patches, reducing the  maintaining ex-situ populations and overall distribution or extent of the community breeding programs for iconic species, and in the ACT. Under this scenario it is possible that Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 53 Natural Temperate Grassland monitoring site at Cookanalla property  creating reserves with hard boundaries 5.5 ENHANCE ECOSYSTEM (e.g. roads) then intensively managing within them FUNCTION (RESTORATION)  Promote community re-assembly with native species by: Restoration is the practice of renewing and  managing exotic species repairing degraded, damaged or altered  continuing to manage for ‘local species’ ecosystems and habitats (Gibson-Roy and and Delpratt 2015). The aim of restoration is to  considering introduction of non-local improve native biodiversity and ecosystem regional species that are adapted to new function. local conditions The native grasslands of south-eastern Australia,  Identify, manage and protect refugia. particularly lowland temperate grasslands, have  Manage ecosystems for ecological diversity typically experienced severe disruption to their to promote resilience and monitor what natural processes and loss of species diversity. works to inform adaptive management. As such, rather than complete restoration of ecological condition and ecosystem function to  Encourage land use changes that favour approximate the pre-European state, more native grassland biodiversity. realistic and achievable restoration goals  Maintain adequate herbage mass/cover to commonly include improving the vegetation help buffer grassland fauna from predicted structure and plant composition of grasslands, climatic temperature and rainfall extremes. improving habitat for fauna, controlling exotic Grass cover provides shade, reduces species, and enhancing native biodiversity evaporation, reduces erosion and moderates (Prober and Thiele 2005). hot/cold extremes in soil temperature. There is a growing body of knowledge related to grassland restoration, though methods are currently more suited to small-scale projects. There is an urgent need to develop practical methods for larger-scale restoration of 54 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans grasslands. Detailed techniques to likely to result in larger quantities of native seed enhance/restore the ecological condition and becoming available. ecosystem function of native grasslands are In highly degraded sites, particularly those with outside the scope of this document (see Gibson- a history of soil disturbance, sowing, and Roy and Delpratt 2015 for more details), though application of fertiliser, the soil profile is likely some key considerations and guidelines are to contain a high soil nutrient content and weed given below. load. Techniques for restoration include scalping A key step in native grassland restoration is the (removal of the soil to a defined depth), nutrient establishment of a healthy and moderately stripping (planting of species, including dense native grassy sward (Prober and Thiele Themeda triandra, that use large amounts of 2005). Restoration of a native grassy sward on nutrient for growth), and reverse fertilisation degraded grassland sites that lack native grasses (addition of carbon to the soil, such as sugar) will require sufficient seed to be available and (Gibson-Roy and Delpratt 2015). adequate soil nutrient content (Gibson-Roy and In certain circumstances, careful use of natural Delpratt 2015). Currently, techniques for the or artificial structures (rocks or roof tiles) can restoration of Themeda triandra swards are assist in providing extra habitat for fauna where better understood compared to other dominant the natural equivalents have been lost, or to native grass species (Prober and Thiele 2005; improve habitat connectivity (such as for the Cole and Lunt 2005). In many cases, it may be Pink-tailed Worm-lizard), although it is preferable to re-introduce native forbs at the important to monitor their use to ensure that same time, even prior to, the native grassy they are not being used by introduced species sward (Gibson-Roy and Delpratt 2015). (Antos and Williams 2015). For example, Brown Native perennial species of south-eastern Snakes are known to prey on Grassland Earless Australian grasslands tend to lack a persistent Dragons and so refuges for this predator should seed bank, and so recovery of plant biodiversity, be destroyed (e.g. rabbit warrens) or not even after short-term disturbance, might not be created (e.g. wood piles). achievable from the in-situ seed bank. In such Scattered trees and shrubs, where naturally cases restoration will depend on reintroducing present as part of the grassland community, can propagules by planting or direct seeding provide important habitat for animals such as (Morgan 1989; Lunt 1990; Morgan 2015). In birds and mammals, and should be retained and grassland where the native grassy sward is managed. However, exotic and non-local trees already present, creation of inter-tussock space should not be planted, and any exotic trees will be required (see Chapter 4 on herbage mass present should be removed or replaced by a management) prior to planting or seeding with locally occurring tree (Eddy 2002), unless the forbs, with ongoing maintenance required to tree is of heritage value. ensure that the native grasses or weeds do not close the inter-tussock gaps (Gibson-Roy and Table 3 summarises the typical attributes for Delpratt 2015). grasslands in various states of condition, and options for enhancement/restoration to Large-scale restoration of the native sward promote shifts from one condition state to and/or forb component requires another. correspondingly large amounts of native seed. Current best practice principles related to seed

5.5.1 — Guidelines to enhance ecosystem

5.5.1 Guidelines to enhance ecosystem sourcing for grassland restoration include considerations of genetics and provenance, function though restoration seed viability, methods for collection and/or  Give priority for restoration to sites that are large-scale seed production, harvesting, already in moderate condition, as these sites processing and storage (further details are given will require fewer resources to improve in Delpratt and Gibson-Roy 2015). them to a higher quality state, and to sites in Sourcing adequate quantities of native seed has locations where enhancing ecosystem been an impediment to large-scale native function would add the most ecological grassland restoration. However, developments value to the surrounding landscape. For in commercial production of native seed are example, priorities might include sites that are critical habitat for threatened species, areas that connect high quality remnants (to Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 55 improve habitat and facilitate movement of 5.6 ENHANCE HABITAT fauna), areas that would increase the size of habitat for threatened species, degraded CONNECTIVITY patches within high quality grassland, buffer Maintaining and enhancing habitat connectivity areas or sites adjacent to high quality is central to maintaining landscapes that are grassland that increase the size of the patch. ecologically functional and for conserving  Use the goal and scale of grassland populations of many species, and is integral to enhancement/restoration to determine the planning for a changing climate. approaches and techniques used. Smaller- Loss of connectivity (fragmentation) results in a scale enhancement/restoration techniques range of negative impacts, including increased that move a grassland from one state to edge effects, degradation, and the disruption of another (e.g. Table 3) could involve steps ecological processes. For example, there are such as weed control, improving fauna many small urban remnants of Natural habitat elements and managing herbage Temperate Grassland in Canberra that now lack mass and grazing levels. Larger-scale native native grazers such as kangaroos, including grassland restoration is more resource- Yarramundi Grassland and York Park, and intensive, particularly for highly degraded regular burning is absent from almost all urban sites, and requires adequate long-term remnants. project resourcing. Consider undertaking actions to promote natural regeneration Edge effects occur at ecosystem boundaries, before planting to restore native grasslands. particularly where there are strong structural contrasts, and involve changes in abiotic and  Maintain the physical structure of biotic conditions such as wind speed, soil grasslands, and enhance where needed, to characteristics, nutrient cycling, species provide a diversity of habitat for the fauna dispersal and composition, and increases in community. These include soil cracks and weed and pest animal invasions (Fischer and holes, rocks where they naturally occur, wet Lindenmayer 2007). These effects are areas and watercourses (e.g. for grassland exacerbated in small fragments due to their frogs), specific micro-habitats for particular higher perimeter to area ratio, increasing their species (e.g. basking sites for reptiles) and risk of becoming degraded (Williams, McDonnell plant litter. and Seager 2005). Fragmentation of Natural Temperate Grassland can also increase the risk of extinction of populations of grassland flora and fauna, Perunga Grasshopper, Gungaderra Nature Reserve 56 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans particularly in urban areas (Williams et al. 2005, 5.6.1 Guidelines to maintain and 2006; Hoehn et al. 2013). Fragmentation results enhance habitat connectivity in the restriction of the movement of animals and plant propagules due to the reduced  Explore options to enhance ecological connectivity between habitats. For fauna, connectivity between native grassland movement between fragments depends on patches. Examples include improving links mobility and movement patterns. For example, between the Gungahlin Grassland Reserves; the female Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana) between Jerrabomberra East grasslands has poor flying ability and populations that are (including ‘Bonshaw’) and NSW grasslands. separated by more than 200 m are considered  Explore options to enhance ecological to be isolated (Mulvaney 2012). Movement of connectivity between grasslands and other fauna between patches can be further impeded vegetation communities (woodlands, forests, by unsuitable habitat between patches, such as riparian corridors), such as Black Mountain– urban development, or by barriers such as Aranda Bushland–Glenloch. major roads (Antos and Williams 2015). In the absence of dispersal, small populations of plants  Avoid further fragmentation of grasslands by and animals in grassland remnants are more infrastructure such as roads and cycle paths. vulnerable to extinction after unpredictable Grassland fauna, particularly lizards, tend to events, such as fire and drought, as there are avoid crossing non-grassed areas (especially few opportunities for re-colonisation from other hard-surfaced areas), which can act as populations (Keller 2002; Dimond et al. 2012). dispersal barriers and contribute to Small and isolated remnant populations can also fragmentation/degradation of habitat. be at greater risk of inbreeding, reducing  Maintain existing grassland/woodland genetic diversity and population fitness and interfaces. Important grassland/woodland viability, and ultimately increasing extinction interfaces occur at Caswell Drive and risk (Dudash and Fenster 2000; Keller 2002). Glenloch interchange, Majura west grassland (with woodland on Mt Majura), Majura Training Area, Jerrabomberra West, and Kama Nature Reserve.  Improve habitat connectivity at small scales, such as using rocks to connect habitat patches for Pink-tailed Worm-lizards. Table 3. Grassland states, typical attributes, and options for enhancement/restoration. Modified from McIntyre and Lavorel 2007. Grassland states, typical characteristics and transition steps from highest quality to lowest quality Highest Lowest quality quality Attributes Reference High quality Low quality Degraded Fertilised Sown pasture (historical) native native grassland pasture grassland grassland grassland Native Present at Present at Present but Absent or at Absent or at Absent marsupial moderate moderate potentially at levels that are levels that grazing levels levels levels that too high or are too high are too high too low or too low or too low Native grassy Present and Present and Present but Absent Absent Absent sward maintained maintained either too at at moderate high (not levels managed) or Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 57 Grassland states, typical characteristics and transition steps from highest quality to lowest quality Highest Lowest quality quality Attributes Reference High quality Low quality Degraded Fertilised Sown pasture (historical) native native grassland pasture grassland grassland grassland moderate too low levels (overgrazed) Weed invasion Low Moderate Moderate - High High High High Weed seed Low Low Medium - High High High bank high Fauna habitat Present Present Present Low to absent Low to Absent elements (e.g. absent rocks) Threatened Present Potentially Potentially Potentially Absent Absent fauna present present present Threatened Present Potentially Potentially Absent Absent Absent flora present present Native flora High High Moderate Low Very low / Very low / diversity absent absent Native fauna High Moderate - Moderate Low Low Low diversity high Soil Low Low Low Low Low - Moderate - disturbance moderate high Soil nutrients Low Low Low Low - High High moderate Introduced Low Low - Moderate Moderate High High grazers Moderate Restoration / Maintain Threatened Native grass Native grassy Soil nutrient Soil nutrient management site in species biomass sward and weed and weed seed steps current translocation management restoration seed bank bank removal (cumulative) - state. (Chapters 4 (Chapter 4) (Chapter 5) removal (Chapters 4 with reference and 5) Native flora Addition of (Chapters 4 and 5) to relevant Weed restoration fauna habitat and 5) section in control (seeding, elements Cessation of Strategy. (Chapter 4) planting, (Chapter 5) fertilisation Chapter 5) 58 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Lemon Beauty Heads (J. Lidner) Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 59 6. STRATEGY: MONITORING AND RESEARCH 60 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 61

6.1 — OVERVIEW

6.1 OVERVIEW Since the previous strategy, monitoring and research undertaken by the ACT Government, often in partnership with research organisations such as local universities and CSIRO, has significantly contributed to the body of knowledge about the ecology and management of native grasslands and grassland species, particularly threatened lizards, Golden Sun Moth and Eastern Grey Kangaroos. Monitoring changes in the condition of 6.2 MONITORING AND ecological communities and their biodiversity is a key part of effective protection and long-term RESEARCH GOAL management of species and ecological Sound research, monitoring and adaptive communities. Monitoring is the repeated management underpin the conservation of measure of an entity to detect change over native grasslands and component species. time. Observation of ecosystem changes can result in a better understanding of underlying processes, and change can be quantified into limits at which action is required for the 6.3 MONITOR GRASSLAND management of the species/community. The COMMUNITY CONDITION ACT Government undertakes regular monitoring of many of its listed flora and fauna species, and Regular monitoring of native grassland these programs are outlined in the respective communities over time provides important action plans. More recently the government has information on trends in grassland community embarked on a systematic and comprehensive condition, potentially triggering management approach to monitoring through the actions when grassland condition declines. The Conservation Effectiveness Monitoring Program ACT Conservator of Flora and Fauna will (CEMP). continue to develop the Conservation Effectiveness Monitoring Program (CEMP) which Knowledge gaps still remain related to uses current best-practice monitoring actions management of grasslands (such as long-term outlined in the Lowland Native Grassland effects of grazing, burning and slashing/mowing Ecosystem Monitoring Plan (Brawata et al. regimes), restoration of grasslands, the ecology 2017). These monitoring actions were of grassland species, and methods to promote developed for key ACT ecological communities, threatened species recovery. Research for including native grasslands. threatened species is outlined in the respective action plans. Building on the strong research The CEMP gathers information from monitoring and monitoring foundation related to the projects and qualitative sources across conservation of native grasslands and government and non-government groups to component species remains a priority in this make structured assessments of reserve strategy. This will involve facilitating condition and effectiveness of management partnerships between the ACT Government, programs. The program uses indicators of research institutions, and the community. reserve condition and ecological stress levels imposed by threatening processes in ACT reserves. The indicators used for grassland monitoring by the CEMP are listed in Table 4. Since the previous strategy, the ACT Government has adopted the Floristic Value Score (FVS) to quantify native grassland 62 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans condition. This relatively recently developed private ecological consultants (often contracted method of measuring the quality of a grassland by the ACT Government), researchers, and site, based on Rehwinkel (2015), is widely-used community groups. Liaison and collaboration for assessing grassland condition, with sites between the ACT Government and these measuring 5 or more being considered to have a stakeholders in the development of survey and floristic value sufficient to be considered part of monitoring guidelines will help ensure these the Natural Temperate Grassland Critically activities are undertaken using consistent Endangered Ecological Community under the methods and according to best practice, and Commonwealth EPBC Act (Rehwinkel 2015; data collected is suitable for informing planning Commonwealth of Australia 2016a). and management decisions. In addition to ACT Government programs, survey and monitoring of native grasslands and component species is also undertaken by Table 4. Monitoring indicators for the CEMP Lowland Native Grassland Ecosystem Condition Monitoring Plan (Brawata et al. 2017) (this monitoring is used for reserves). NTG = Natural Temperate Grassland. Element Indicators Metrics Natural Temperate C1. Natural Temperate C1.1 Extent of native vs. exotic grasslands within Grassland ecological Grassland reserves community C1.2 Extent of NTG within reserves Grassland Flora C2. Native Flora general C2.1 Native plant species richness C2.2 Ground cover C2.3 Indicator 2 species richness C3. Threatened Flora C3.1 Button Wrinklewort C3.2 Ginninderra Peppercress Grassland Fauna C4. Native Fauna general C4.1 Reptiles, general C4.2 Invertebrates, general C5. Threatened Fauna C5.1 Grassland Earless Dragon C5.2 Striped Legless Lizard C5.3 Golden Sun Moth C5.3 Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Inappropriate S1: Herbivore pressure S1.1 Eastern Grey Kangaroo grazing regime S1.2 Rabbit S1.3 Domestic stock Inappropriate fire S2. Fire regimes S2.1 Fire frequency within ecological thresholds regime S2.2 Fire season as recommended in ecological guidelines Invasive weeds S3. Invasive weeds S3.1 Changes in distribution and abundance of priority weeds S3.2 Invasive weeds - New incursions Introduced S4. Introduced predators S4.1 European Fox predators S4.2 Feral Cat Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 63

6.3.1 — Priorities for current and future committed to the on-going collection of data

6.3.1 Priorities for current and future committed to the on-going collection of data monitoring and information to inform management and planning. There are a number of projects  Use the Conservation Effectiveness currently underway that will contribute high Monitoring Program as a framework for quality data for conservation management. monitoring the condition and long-term These include: changes in grassland ecosystems, and other targeted, adaptive management (see  Mapping of the ACT’s vegetation Chapter 4) monitoring programs to communities at the 1:25,000 scale. investigate the effectiveness of different  Classification of mapped grassland units to grassland management strategies. the vegetation association level defined by  Increase replication of monitoring sites to Armstrong et al. (2013). adequately represent all grassland  Soil mapping for the ACT. associations in the ACT, including higher elevation grasslands, which may be  Hydro-geological profiles for the ACT. particularly important for detecting woody  Mapping of the ACT’s most serious weeds. species encroachment under climate change (i.e. community associations r1, r2, a14 and  Connectivity mapping of grassland patches at a30, see section 8.1.6). scales appropriate to plant and animal dispersal.  Finalise mapping of native grassland community boundaries and canopy cover of  Grassland Enhancement Program (section trees and shrubs, to provide a baseline to 8.5.4). detect woody species encroachment under  Participation in cross border planning and climate change. sharing of data for the ACT and region’s  Use action plans to guide monitoring for grasslands. individual threatened species.

6.4.1 — Map the extent and condition of

6.4.1 Map the extent and condition of  Use information from citizen science projects grasslands (e.g. Canberra Nature Map, Vegwatch), where relevant to grassland monitoring. Significant advances are being made towards a high resolution vegetation map for the ACT that  Collate data collected by stakeholders is suitable for use at scales ranging from broad (community, consultants and researchers) regional planning to local planning and property for floristic diversity at native grassland sites planning. to undertake FVS analysis and other condition measures. The method used to produce existing maps (based on a combination of aerial photography interpretation and fieldwork) is unable to

6.4 — COLLECT BASELINE separate native grassland units into the various

6.4 COLLECT BASELINE separate native grassland units into the various temperate grasslands of Armstrong et al. (2013), INFORMATION and existing maps instead show grassland as either native grassland, exotic grassland, or The effective management of grassland Natural Temperate Grassland (if the site meets connectivity and ecosystem function requires the definition of Natural Temperate Grasslands baseline information on the distribution and of the South Eastern Highlands Endangered characteristics of the ecosystem. Such Ecological Community) (Baines et al. 2014). information is essential for assessing future Work has begun to map the higher elevation changes, for example the effect of climate grasslands according to the classification of change on the distribution and abundance of Armstrong et al. (2013) and allocated to the r1, species. r2, a14 or a30 association types (see section The distribution of Lowland Natural Temperate 8.1.6). Grassland in Canberra’s urban areas has been Mapping methods used so far have not been relatively well-mapped at a broad scale, able to determine if a grassland site is naturally although there remain important baseline treeless or if the site had been cleared by knowledge gaps. The ACT Government is 64 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans humans (Baines et al. 2014). Existing maps are highlighted the need for a better understanding therefore unable to distinguish between natural of the effects of drought and/or overgrazing on grasslands and derived/secondary grasslands. this species. Two long-term priorities for future mapping in Taxonomic research is still lacking for many lowland grassland communities are: grassland species, including plants. In particular, taxonomic refinement is still needed for some of  Fine-scale field-based mapping of individual the ACT’s rare plants that can occur in grassland associations in lowland grasslands grasslands, including the orchids and some based on Armstrong et al. (2013). forbs. Comprehensive ecological and genetic  Development of methods to distinguish and studies are also lacking for most plant species, map secondary grasslands as distinct from with most of the focus so far being on the natural grasslands. threatened plant species. A major knowledge gap is ecology and management techniques for grassland

6.5 — ADDRESS KNOWLEDGE associations that are not dominated by

6.5 ADDRESS KNOWLEDGE associations that are not dominated by Themeda triandra, such as those dominated by GAPS IN GRASSLAND Rytidosperma, Poa and Austrostipa (Lunt, CONSERVATION AND Prober and Morgan 2012; Morgan 2015; RESEARCH Williams and Morgan 2015). These knowledge gaps include management of herbage mass and Knowledge through research and monitoring appropriate fire and grazing regimes. Morgan (and consequently management techniques) is (2015) also highlights a lack of knowledge of the improving steadily, though substantial impact of slashing as a herbage mass knowledge gaps remain. Knowledge gaps management technique in native grasslands. include: The ACT Government is currently investigating biomass management techniques as part of the  Restoration techniques and approaches Grasslands Enhancement Program, to determine aimed at improving grassland condition. the impacts of managed disturbances on  Effects of a changing climate. biodiversity across ACT lowland grasslands and address these knowledge gaps. See section 8.5.4  Aspects of the ecology of grassland species for further detail. important to their conservation. Native grassland conservation and management  Effects and control of biological invasions. can be enhanced through the building of links A recent international literature review by and knowledge sharing among ACT Government Richter and Osborne (2014) identified these and and Commonwealth departments, grassland other knowledge gaps. Halting the ongoing researchers (e.g. from local universities), decline of grassland condition will require active community groups (e.g. ParkCare, Friends of grassland management, whereas reversing the Grasslands, Ginninderra Catchment Group) and decline will rely on restoring degraded and the private sector (e.g. Greening Australia). damaged grasslands. A priority for research is Substantial research on native grassland the development of innovative and practical restoration and conservation of threatened methods to restore grasslands, particularly for species is being undertaken in NSW and sites that are medium to large in area. Victoria. Building links can be achieved through on-site discussions, workshops, conferences, The limited taxonomic and ecological and collaborative initiatives and projects. understanding of grassland invertebrates is reflected in the ACT, although there have been several recent projects investigating beetle 6.5.1 Research priorities dynamics in the ACT’s lowland woodlands Research priorities for threatened species are (Barton et al. 2011, 2013a, 2013b, 2014), as well outlined in threatened species action plans. as species-specific research on the Golden Sun Other research is required for a better Moth (Richter et al. 2013; Richter et al. 2009). understanding of: The decline of populations of Grassland Earless Dragons during the 2002–2009 drought has  Short and long-term effects of grazing levels, fire and mowing/slashing as tools to manage Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 65 grasslands and appropriate regimes for these  Taxonomy and ecology of grassland tools. invertebrates (including burrow-making species) and grassland plant species.  Ecology and management of non-Themeda triandra dominated grassland associations,  Monitoring and assessing the effect of and native grasslands that occur at higher climate change on the abundance and elevations, particularly for biomass distribution of species. management and disturbance regimes, and A priority is also information exchange, which is the development of management guidelines enhanced by building links between reserchers, in these ecosystems. conservation agencies and community groups in  Techniques to improve the condition of the ACT and other jurisdictions. native grasslands, and restoration of degraded grasslands.  Interaction between kangaroo density, climatic factors and grassland biomass management, and techniques to improve management of kangaroo densities (including the use of fertility control). 66 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Eastern Grey Kangaroos Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 67 7. STRATEGY: ENGAGE THE COMMUNITY 68 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 69

7.1 — OVERVIEW

7.1 OVERVIEW Community engagement in nature conservation has a long and active history in the ACT (ACT Government 2013a). However, compared to other vegetation types (forests, woodlands, riparian zones) community appreciation of native grasslands can be difficult to achieve, particularly because grassland values are not necessarily obvious (Lunt 1994). To secure a future for Australia’s endangered temperate native grasslands in the face of urban expansion, agicultural intensification and the uncertain impacts of climate change, a broader cross-section of society needs to gain a greater appreciation and understanding of native grasslands and their ecology (Williams and Marshall 2015). Current threats (Chapter 3) to native grasslands 7.3 KEY PRINCIPLES all present enormous challenges to the management of grassland biota, and  Conservation of native grasslands is commitment from all stakeholders will be dependent upon community support for necessary to address them (Williams and management of grasslands for biodiversity Morgan 2015). The lack of awareness and and habitat values (Reid 2015). appreciation of native grasslands by the general public is still considered to be a major issue in  Community engagement in native grassland grassland conservation (Williams 2015). conservation can foster an appreciation and Activities that engage the public in native awareness of the value of grasslands and grassland conservation can promote an build support for grassland conservation in appreciation of grassland values by fostering an the community. emotional connection between people and  The contribution of community volunteers to native grasslands (Reid 2015). native grassland management and Community groups in the ACT have been restoration programs can be essential to instrumental in advocating for native grassland their outcomes (Gibson-Roy and Delpratt conservation, raising public awareness, and 2015). Understanding the motivations and undertaking citizen science projects and on- goals of volunteers is important in recruiting ground restoration activities. Section 8.5.8 and retaining volunteers. Volunteers are provides an overview of community more likely to stay motivated and engaged engagement activities undertaken since the when they know their work is valued and previous strategy, including those that respected, and are having a broader impact specifically focus on native grasslands, as well as (Reid 2015). activities that include other ecosystems.  Citizen science programs can make a valuable contribution to environmental science.

7.2 — COMMUNITY  Embracing recent and emerging technologies

7.2 COMMUNITY  Embracing recent and emerging technologies ENGAGEMENT GOAL is an effective approach to harnessing the enthusiasm and skills of citizen scientists, Community groups, landholders and others are and has the potential to gather and process actively involved in native grassland large amounts of data that can contribute conservation. significantly to research and management of grasslands. An informed community supports the use of native grassland areas for conservation.  The benefits of increasing the level of recreation and tourism in native grasslands 70 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans needs to be balanced against potential degrdadion of grasslands. ‘Parkcare’ groups impacts on native grasslands. work closely with parks staff to undertake on- ground management and restoration projects in Canberra’s nature reserves. A number of

7.4 — ENGENDER COMMUNITY special-interest groups with substantial

7.4 ENGENDER COMMUNITY special-interest groups with substantial knowledge about specific biota of grasslands INVOLVEMENT also undertake conservation projects in THROUGH AWARENESS grasslands. Some of these groups come under RAISING AND the umbrella of larger conservation VOLUNTEERING organisations such as the Conservation Council ACT and Canberra Ornithologists Group. The ACT Government aims to increase the Community education campaigns can assist in number of volunteer groups and areas actively building community awareness about native managed by volunteers by introducing new grasslands and their management, particularly engagement strategies and targeting new at the urban interface, as well as encouraging interest groups. A focus will be on encouraging community activities to reduce threats to the involvement of youth in nature conservation grassland ecosystems. Effective community (ACT Government 2013a). Recent market education can also lead to changes in behaviour, research found that around one in thirty ACT such as improved compliance with conditions of residents were currently involved as a volunteer entry to reserves, participation in on-gound in the ACT’s reserve system, and 13% of conservation projects and community adoption residents expressed interest in becoming a of sites. volunteer (Market Attitude Research Services Pty Ltd 2017). 7.4.1 Guidelines to engender Environmental volunteering has a range of community involvement and benefits for participants as well as the support environment, such as social wellbeing, meeting like-minded people, gaining work experience  Continue to support ParkCare groups with and learning new skills. training (safety, monitoring and on-ground activities), protective clothing, access to There are a number of active community groups equipment, and provide Parks and that advocate for native grassland conservation, Conservation Service resources such as staff and undertake on-ground restoration actions support and coordination (ACT Government and public awareness raising activities: 2013a). Promote formation of ParkCare or Friends of Grasslands (FoG), established in 1994, similar groups for key grassland sites. is a community, not for profit association  Lead by example (best practice conservation dedicated to conservation of natural temperate management of native grasslands) to inform grassy ecosystems in south-eastern Australia. and influence other groups. FoG advocates, educates and advises on matters to do with the conservation of grassy  Support community groups (grants, ecosystems, and undertakes survey, monitoring incentives, advice, leadership) to enable and other on-ground work. Over its 20 year substantial projects and activites to be history FoG has held singnificant conferences undertaken, including citizen science (such as the recent ‘Grass half empty or grass projects, on-ground grassland restoration half full?’), workshops and field-days, and activites, and projects to increase public produces a regular newletter. FoG is based in awareness. Canberra and has over 200 members that  Facilitate information and skills exchange include professional scientists, landowners, land between stakeholders aimed at achieving managers, and interested members of the best practice management of native public. grasslands. Effective approaches include: ‘Landcare’, and its various catchment goups and workshops, seminars/forums and hands-on landcare groups, work closely with local events to demonstrate best practice communities to implement on-ground projects methods and facilitate information exchange aimed at addressing land degradation, including Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 71 between stakeholders, production of high  Promote use of native grasses and forbs in quality education materials. home-gardens, commercial premises, roadside landscapes, roundabouts, and  Build community awareness and support of public spaces. Horticulture, and familiarity native grasslands through community liaison with native plants from seeing them in public and public education activities that create places, fosters an understanding and emotional connections between people and appreciation of native plants. grasslands. Effective approaches include: hands-on events such as weeding or planting, raising awareness about activities that impact on grasslands (e.g. off-leash dog 7.5 ENHANCE AND walking, weed spread from urban gardens), PROMOTE USE OF promoting understanding of grassland ecology and values (e.g. high quality CITIZEN SCIENCE education and interpretive material, on-site signage, walks and talks, and art- and Citizen science is an increasingly popular and photography-based projects), and informing widely-used method in environmental science the community about the importance and and land management, with applications in data role of particular management strategies collection, data processing, monitoring and (e.g. controlled burning, weed spraying). research. Citizen science projects are emerging as an excellent engagement tool for promoting  Encourage best-practice urban design awareness of the natural environment and around urban grasslands to protect delivering usable data to researchers and biodiversity whilst enhancing aesthetics and managers (Williams et al. 2015). Enhancing and educational opportunities. promoting the use of citizen science is an  Develop and improve information sharing important strategy in the ACT, particularly tools (such as ACTMapi, Canberra Nature because of the wealth of skills and knowledge in Map and other apps) that enable up-to-date the ACT community (ACT Government 2013a). information on grasslands and their Examples of citizen science projects include management to be accessible to the public. Waterwatch, Frogwatch, Golden Sun Moth surveys (University of Canberra and FoG), and  Identify potential sites where restoration will the Canberra Ornithologists Group, which have enhance the conservation values of the site. Grassland condition monitoring, Gungaderra Nature Reserve 72 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans all contributed large amounts of monitoring  Ensure the potentially large amount of data data. collected by citizen scientists is subject to quality control. This can be achieved through Some of the most popular and fast-growing effective training, robust data collection citizen science activities involve use of the latest protocols, and expert screening of data. internet-based and smart-phone technology. Well-designed tools such as these have the  Support community groups involved in capacity to collect large amounts of data and grassland citizen science through the increase community interest in conservation provision of necessary equipment and and research, including projects that are training (when resources are available), and conducted entirely online, such as data- though access to competitive grants processing projects (Bonney et al. 2014). An schemes. example of a recent citizen science project in the ACT that embraces the latest technology  Provide biodiversity monitoring data to the and harnesses the community’s passion for Atlas of Living Australia where appropriate. photography is the Canberra Nature Map (Visit the Canberra Nature Map website). This project commenced in 2014 as an internet-based 7.6 BUILD INDIGENOUS repository for geo-referenced community photographs of rare native plants. Within a year ENGAGEMENT IN THE its popularity had increased the scope to all MANAGEMENT OF plants (including weeds) and other taxonomic NATURAL RESOURCES groups (e.g. reptiles, mammals, butterflies and birds) in the ACT and surrounding region. The ACT Government has been working in partnership with Indigenous communities in

7.5.1 — Guidelines to enhance and natural resource management. The ACT Nature

7.5.1 Guidelines to enhance and natural resource management. The ACT Nature promote citizen science Conservation Strategy (2013) lists several key actions to build Indigenous engagement,  Embrace the use of recent and emerging dependent on resources: technologies to harness the enthusiasm and skills of citizen scientists. Ecological spring burn Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 73  Employment of Indigenous rangers and In the ACT there are existing plans of development of the Yurung Dhaura management that already define appropriate Aboriginal team to work on Country. use for reserves, though monitoring of impacts and additional strategic guidance will help  Programs to promote traditional ecological ensure appropriate recreation and tourism is knowledge, such as the Ngunnawal Plant Use encouraged that will support conservation guide published in 2014 and Indigenous Fire management across multiple tenures (ACT Management Framework. Government 2013a). The ACT Government  Employment of an Indigenous Natural intends to encourage appropriate recreational Resource Management Facilitator. use of natural areas though development of a recreation strategy (ACT Government 2013a). Opportunities to further engage the Aboriginal community and draw on traditional knowledge in land management will be explored, including supporting Indigenous people to rediscover and 7.8 ENHANCE KEY share cultural knowledge and facilitating their PARTNERSHIPS participation in on-ground management of grasslands. ACROSS GOVERNMENT, COMMUNITY AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR

7.7 — SUPPORT APPROPRIATE Native grasslands in the ACT occur across a

7.7 SUPPORT APPROPRIATE Native grasslands in the ACT occur across a RECREATIONAL AND range of tenures and are managed by TOURISM USE OF landholders that include government NATURAL AREAS departments and the community. Native grassland conservation is strengthened where Facilitating recreation and tourism in natural partnerships exist between relevant areas is an important approach to engaging the government agencies, community groups community with the natural landscape and (ParkCare and FoG), the private sector (rural broadening understanding and support for landholders and Greening Australia) and these areas. This is particularly relevant to ACT research networks (such as local universities). At urban grassland reserves given that research the regional level, native grassland conservation suggests the community generally does not can be enhanced by working with regional and appreciate the values of grasslands (Williams cross-border partners such as the NSW Office of 2015). Recent surveys of ACT residents’ use of Environment and Heritage, the Kosciuszko to Canberra Nature Parks found the grassland Coast (K2C) partnership, South East Local Land reserves had among the lowest visitation rates Services, and the Yass and Queanbeyan- of the urban nature reserves (Market Attitude Palerang Regional Councils. Research Services Pty Ltd 2017). The ACT Government will work with other Although recreation and tourism in natural landholders to facilitate conservation areas is an important part of developing management of grasslands across tenure appreciation of these areas, visitation can also boundaries. These include rural landholders, the result in negative impacts on flora and fauna. Australian Government, and Canberra Programs promoting visitation of grasslands, International Airport. particularly sensitive areas (such as those containing threatened species) need to take into account risks of negative impacts and manage the risks accordingly. Negative impacts can arise from trampling of vegetation, illegal collection of plants (such as threatened orchids), unofficial track creation, mountain bike riding, rubbish dumping, dog excrement and other impacts related to domestic animals, and weed invasion (Rankin 2015; Williams 2015). 74 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Pale Sundew (M. Beddingfield) Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 75 8. BACKGROUND 76 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 77

8.1 — WHAT ARE NATIVE GRASSLANDS?

8.1 WHAT ARE NATIVE GRASSLANDS? from tubers or buds located at or close to the

8.1.1 — Native grassland composition ground (Morgan 2014; Morgan and Williams

8.1.1 Native grassland composition ground (Morgan 2014; Morgan and Williams 2015). Native grasslands are vegetation communities that are dominated (> 50% cover) by native Another important biological component of grass and forb species where the cover of native grasslands is the non-vascular species, shrubs and trees is less than 10% (Eddy 2002; including mosses and liverworts (the Commonwealth of Australia 2016a). See Table 5 bryophytes), lichens, cyanobacteria, fungi and for definitions of major grassland classifications. algae. These species are found in the inter- tussock spaces where they form a biological soil Over 110 species of native grasses are currently crust, and play an important ecological role in recognised in the ACT, with the most species- native grasslands (Morgan 2004). rich genera being Rytidosperma, Poa, and Deyeuxia (Lepschi, Mallinson and Cargill 2012). Exotic plants are also now common in native Common species of grasses in the ACT and grasslands of south-eastern Australia, due to the region are presented in Table 6. widespread modification and degradation of native grasslands. In south-eastern Australia, native grasslands can be species-rich (high number of species) at small

8.1.2 — Native grassland structure

8.1.2 Native grassland structure spatial scales, and relatively undisturbed native grasslands often contain a diversity of The presence of perennial native grasses herbaceous species (forbs), including orchids, imparts a characteristic structure to native lilies, and broad-leaved forbs such as daisies. grasslands. Many of the dominant grass species Species that often co-dominate with grasses are tussock grasses, which can be defined as a include Chrysocephalum apiculatum (Common dense, erect clump of tillers, usually tufty in Everlasting Daisy) and a range of Lomandra appearance (Groves and Williams 1981). This (Mat-Rush), Juncus (rushes), and Carex (sedges) upper canopy stratum of the ground layer plants species (Table 6). generally varies in height from mid high (0.25– 0.5 m) to tall (0.5–1.0 m), and in cover from Most plant species in native grasslands of south- open to dense (greater than 70% ground cover) eastern Australia can be classified as either (Walker and Hopkins 2009). ‘hemicryptophytes’, which produce annual growth of leaves and stems from buds located A second, lower stratum growing in the inter- near or at the soil surface, or ‘geophytes’, which tussock space comprises shorter perennial and die back each year to a tuberous root or bulb annual grasses with forbs. At ground level there (Morgan and Williams 2015). These life forms may also be a third stratum of low-growing allow grassland species to persist through time forbs and grasses, a biological soil crust, and in the above-ground vegetation, and enable rocks. rapid vegetative recovery from unfavourable An important characteristic of grasslands is that conditions such as drought and fire. woody plants (trees and shrubs) are naturally Native grassland species tend to have short- infrequent, and have less than 10% projective lived transient seeds, with few species foliage cover (Benson 1996; Eddy 2002), developing a persistent soil-stored seed bank although woody plants are still important (Lunt 1990; Morgan 1989; Morgan and Williams contributors to local diversity and grassland 2015). However, many species are long lived habitat (Morgan and Williams 2015). below ground and rely on seasonal regeneration 78 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Table 5. Definitions of major grassland classifications. Term Definition Grassland Areas with at least 10% foliage cover where that cover is dominated by grasses and forbs and there is <10% tree and shrub cover. Native Grassland Grassland with more than 50% of the perennial foliage cover composed of indigenous species. Natural Grassland Grasslands occurring in areas considered to have <10% tree and/or shrub cover due to natural processes (e.g. cold air drainage). Derived (or Secondary) Grasslands remaining on sites where humans have reduced the natural tree grassland and/or shrub cover to less than 10%. Derived grasslands can be native or exotic. This community is not included in this strategy, and instead is included in the woodland strategy. Exotic Grassland Grasslands where more than 50% of the perennial foliage cover is comprised of non-indigenous species. Natural Temperate Grassland with indigenous species comprising more than 50% of the total foliage Grassland cover (excluding non-indigenous annuals). Under the EPBC Act the minimum patch size to meet the Natural Temperate Grassland Critically Endangered Ecological Community is 0.1 ha (Commonwealth 2016a). The dominant grasses are typically Themeda triandra, Rytidosperma spp., Austrostipa spp., Bothrochloa macra, Poa sieberiana or Poa labillardierei. There is a diversity of indigenous forbs which may comprise up to 70% of the species present, or if disturbed, having components of the indigenous species sufficient to re-establish the native groundcover. Occurrence is limited to the temperate zone (elevation up to approximately 1200m asl) where tree growth is inhibited by natural processes. Montane Grassland Grassland with indigenous species comprising more than 50% of the total foliage cover (excluding non-indigenous annuals). The dominant grasses are typically Poa labillardierei and Themeda triandra, often occurring with Juncus spp. Occurrence is on higher elevation mountain slopes and valleys in the South Eastern Highlands bioregion, generally between 900 and 1200 m asl, below the sub-alpine zone. Sub-alpine Grassland Grassland with indigenous species comprising more than 50% of the total foiage cover (excluding non-indigenous annuals). The dominant grasses are typically Poa costiniana, Poa clivicola and Poa hookeri. Occurrence is generally above 1200m asl where tree growth is inhibited by natural processes. Table 6. Common native grasses and forbs of Natural Temperate Grasslands in the ACT (Benson 1994; Eddy et al. 1998; Environment ACT 2005) Scientific name Common Name Notes Grasses Themeda triandra Kangaroo Grass Important and widespread dominant or co-dominant structural component of many native grasslands in the ACT, particularly in productive and less disturbed sites. Poa sieberiana Poa Tussock Important and widespread dominant or co-dominant structural component of many native grasslands in the ACT. Austrostipa Tall Speargrass Very common and widespread. Tends to occur on deeper soils and bigeniculata drainage lines. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 79 Scientific name Common Name Notes Austrostipa scabra Corkscrew Grass Very common and widespread. Tends to occur in drier grassland sites and on shallow soils such as hill crests, upper slopes and ridges. Rytidosperma spp. Wallaby Grass Very common and widespread. Can become dominant with (various species) increased grazing. Over 20 species occur in the ACT. Formerly known as Austrodanthonia spp. Poa labillardierei River Tussock A large tussock grass mainly found in wet grassland sites such as drainage lines, river and creek flats, and seepage areas. Bothriochloa macra Redleg Grass Moderately common and widespread, usually occurs as a minor component of native grasslands. Aristida ramosa Purple Moderately common and widespread. Usually occurs as scattered Wiregrass plants or in small clumps. Anthosachne Common Wheat Common and widespread. Usually occurs as a minor component of scabra Grass native grasslands in the inter-tussock spaces. Formerly known as Elymus scaber. Panicum effusum Hairy Panic Common and widespread, particularly in well-drained soils where summer soil moisture is more reliable. Usually occurs as a minor component of native grasslands in the inter-tussock spaces. Forbs Chrysocephalum Common Common and widespread. Can co-dominate with grasses at some apiculatum Everlasting sites. Leptorhynchos Scaly Buttons Common and widespread. squamatus Acaena ovina Sheep’s Burr Common and widespread. Lomandra spp. Mat-Rush Common and widespread, with the four main species being L. (various species) multiflora (Many-Flowered Mat-Rush), L. longifolia (Spiny-Headed Mat-Rush), L. filiformis (Wattle Mat- Rush) and L. bracteata (Short-Flowered Mat-Rush). Carex spp. Sedges (various Usually found in damp to wet sites, with the main species being C. species) inversa (Knob-Sedge), C. appressa (Tall Sedge) and C. breviculmis (Short-Stem Sedge). Juncus filicaulis Pinrush Found in seasonally moist grasslands, where it often co-dominates with T. triandra. The establishment and growth of trees and 8.1.3 Floristic composition shrubs in native grasslands is hindered due to Native plant species richness in native grassland environmental conditions such as poor (particularly native grasslands in higher drainage, seasonal water logging, cold air ecological condition such as Natural Temperate drainage, severe frost, and competition from Grassland) can be very high, particularly at small grass (Moore and Williams 1976; Fensham and scales (i.e. alpha diversity) (Tremont and Kirkpatrick 1992; Morgan and Williams 2015). McIntyre 1994; Morgan and Williams 2015). This Communities in which tree cover exceeds 10% diversity is due to the wide variety of native forb are referred to as grassy woodlands, and native species present, which can comprise up to 70% grasslands often intergrade (or form a of the species at a site. Native forbs include continuum) on slopes at higher elevations with sedges, rushes, orchids, lilies, and broad-leaved grassy woodlands. herbs such as daisies. Over 700 forb species 80 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans have been identified in grasslands across south- spiders, ants, flies, moths, beetles, and eastern Australia (Eddy 2002), including grasshoppers (Eddy 2002; Antos and Williams Chrysocephalum apiculatum (Common 2015). A range of fauna can be found below Everlasting Daisy) and a range of Lomandra spp. ground, including organisms such as worms and (Mat-Rush), Juncus spp. (rushes), and Carex micro-organisms. Grazing herbivores, such as species (sedges). kangaroos, wallabies, wombats and termites, are particularly important in native grasslands A diversity of native grasses also occur in native due to both their role in transferring energy and grassland, with dominant and widespread nutrients from the producers to other parts of species including Themeda triandra (Kangaroo the ecosystem and also their effect on habitat Grass), Poa sieberiana (Poa Tussock), structure for a wide range of organisms. Austrostipa bigeniculata (Tall Speargrass), Austrostipa scaber (Corkscrew Grass) and Native grassland in the ACT is also home to two Rytidosperma spp. (Wallaby Grasses). Less threatened species of invertebrates: the dominant grasses that commonly occur in the Perunga Grasshopper (Perunga ochracea), and inter-tussock spaces include Bothrichloa macra the Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana), as well (Redleg Grass), Anthosachne scabra (Common as several species that are considered to be Wheat Grass) and Panicum effusum (Hairy rare, such as the Canberra Raspy Cricket Panic). In addition to vascular plants, native (Cooraboorama canberrae), Lewis’s Laxabilla grasslands also contain non-vascular plants and Grasshopper (Laxabilla smaragdina) and Key’s other organisms that constitute the biological Matchstick Grasshopper (Keyacris scurra). soil crust, such as mosses, liverworts, lichens, Over 20 species of native reptiles and cyanobacteria, algae and fungi (Morgan 2004). amphibians inhabit native grasslands in the ACT. Three plant species found in native grassland in The more common grassland species include the the ACT are listed as threatened. Button Delicate Skink (Lampropholis delicata), Spotted Wrinklewort (Rutidosis leptorhynchoides) is the Marsh Frog (Limnodynastes tasmaniensis) and most widespread of these species, occurring in Spotted Burrowing Frog (Neobatrachus sudelli). eight Natural Temperate Grassland sites in the Three threatened grassland reptiles are found in ACT (ACT Government 2016a). Ginninderra native grassland: Grassland Earless Dragon Peppercress (Lepidium ginninderrense) is (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla), Striped Legless endemic to the ACT and known from just two Lizard (Delma impar) and Pink-tailed Worm- sites: Lawson Grassland and North Mitchell Lizard (Aprasia parapulchella). The Pink-tailed (Franklin). The third threatened species, Worm-lizard is associated with both grasslands Baeuerlen’s Gentian (Gentiana baeuerlenii), is and grassy woodlands, where Kangaroo Grass is only known from one location in moist, higher a component. The Striped Legless Lizard persists elevation grassland in the Orroral Valley, in grasslands in a wide variety of condition Namadgi National Park, although the species states whereas the presence of the Grassland has not been recorded there since 1998 Earless Dragon is often indicative of a site in (Department of the Environment 2015). A higher condition. further 70 plant species found in native Many birds inhabit and forage in native grassland (particularly Natural Temperate grassland. In the ACT, five birds are considered Grassland) are considered to be uncommon or to be grassland specialists: the Stubble Quail rare. (Coturnix pectoralis), Brown Quail (Coturnix australis), Singing Bushlark (Mirafra javanica),

8.1.4 — Native grassland fauna Brown Songlark (Cinclorhamphus cruralis) and

8.1.4 Native grassland fauna Brown Songlark (Cinclorhamphus cruralis) and Fauna are an intrinsic part of grassland the Australasian Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae). ecosystems, and are essential for a range of Latham’s Snipe (Gallinago hardwickii), a species functions such as pollination, seed dispersal, protected under migratory bird agreements nutrient recycling and maintenance of soil with Japan and China, utilises wetlands in native condition. Grasslands provide habitat for grassland sites and flooded grasslands. A large animals and are a source of food for both number of other bird species forage in native herbivores and predators. grassland of the ACT, including the Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen) and Magpie-lark Common grassland fauna include mammals, (Grallina cyanoleuca). Birds of prey commonly birds, reptiles, frogs, and invertebrates such as Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 81 hover or soar over native grasslands in search of native animal grazing and periodic drought food. reduce herbage mass, resulting in an open canopy structure and a mosaic of grass tussocks A diversity of native and exotic mammals exists and inter-tussock space (Tremont and McIntyre within native grassland, although none are 1994). This opens up habitat for ground- considered grassland specialists. Eastern Grey dwelling animals, provides space for the Kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) are the most germination, growth and reproduction of a abundant native mammalian herbivore in diversity of native forbs, and maintains the grasslands in the ACT. vigour of tussock grasses (Morgan and Lunt Significant faunal elements are missing from 1999; Morgan 1998a, 2015). In the absence of ACT region grasslands, including bettongs, disturbances, the canopy closes over and inter- bandicoots and native rodents. Where tussock space declines, shading out habitat for bandicoot and bettong species have been other flora and fauna. Over time, dead litter reintroduced to temperate grasslands, e.g. at accumulates and the health and vigour of the Mt Rothwell Biodiversity Centre located on tussock grasses declines (Morgan and Lunt the basalt plains grasslands near Melbourne, 1999). these fauna species have had a major effect In high quality native grassland (such as Natural through both their fine scale digging activity, the Temperate Grasslands), the presence of a recovery of abundant raptor populations and by heterogeneous grassy sward provides habitat attracting terrestrial native predators (predators for a range of fauna and flora species. This is missing from ACT grasslands include particularly important at sites where more than Rosenberg’s Monitor, the Eastern Quoll and the one threatened species is present, as the Spot-tailed Quoll). It is unknown what effects optimal habitat structure for one threatened the relatively recent losses from ACT grasslands species may be suboptimal for another. In (<100 years) of bettongs, bandicoots, rodents general, a native grassland site with a and associated species may be having. It is heterogeneous and patchy sward structure (i.e. possible that the grasslands are still responding patches of longer, dense grass mixed with to the change. patches of shorter, more open sward), as well as supporting a range of habitat features such as

8.1.5 — Habitat and ecology

8.1.5 Habitat and ecology woody debris and rocks, is likely to provide a In the ACT and surrounding region, native broader range of habitat niches for a variety of grassland occurs where the establishment and fauna. growth of trees and shrubs is restricted by The life history and growth form of plant species factors such as poor drainage, seasonal water in native grassland enables their persistence in logging (particularly on heavy clays in low-lying unfavourable conditions, such as drought and areas), summer drought, cool air drainage, cold fire, and under intense competition for light. winter temperatures, severe frost and winter Most species are perennial, and persist through snow (particularly at higher elevations), erosion, time in the above-ground vegetation. Data on herbivory, shading and competition from grass the longevity of perennial grassland plants is (Moore and Williams 1976; Fensham and generally lacking (Lauenroth and Adler 2008); Kirkpatrick 1992; Tremont and McIntyre 1994; however, the suggestion of a 20 year lifespan Lunt et al. 2012; Morgan and Williams 2015;). for a temperate grassland forb in the Monaro However, where they do occur naturally, Tablelands (Dorrough and Ash 2003) indicates scattered woody plants in native grassland can that some species can persist for many years. provide important habitat for fauna and Recovery after fire, grazing or drought occurs via contribute to grassland diversity (Morgan and vegetative re-sprouting from buds located Williams 2015). either at or below the soil surface, where they One of the most important ecological processes are protected by litter and soil from damage in native grassland is the disturbance regime, (Tremont and McIntyre 1994; Morgan and particularly because of its role in limiting the Williams 2015). Many species of orchids and growth of the dominant native tussock grasses lilies are ‘geophytes’, which die back each year (Schultz et al. 2011; Morgan 2015; Morgan and to a tuberous root or bulb, allowing them to Williams 2015). In healthy functioning remain dormant during the dry summer. Native temperate grasslands, disturbances such as fire, short-lived annuals, which tend to require 82 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans disturbed sites for colonisation, are rare in similarities, of which 99 were described for native grasslands, probably due to the high NSW and the ACT. Two classes contain competition for light (Morgan and Williams grassland communities found in the ACT: the 2015). Instead, most native grassland species Alpine Herbfield Class and the Temperate exhibit a competitive strategy (tall and fast Montane Grassland Class. growing; e.g. Themeda triandra) and/or a stress-  Plant Communities: detailed and relatively tolerant strategy (relatively long life spans and homogeneous assemblages of plant species persistence under moisture and nutrient stress that live together in space and time. (e.g. Rytidosperma and Austrostipa) (Morgan and Williams 2015). Using this hierarchy, Armstrong et al. (2013) classified and described the native plant Most native grassland plants have short-lived communities of the upper Murrumbidgee transient seeds, with few species developing a catchment in NSW and the ACT (1.741 million persistent soil-stored seed bank; seed dispersal ha) based on numerical analysis of full-floristic tends to occur over short distances (Lunt 1990; plot data, using 4106 survey plots compiled Morgan 1998b; Williams and Morgan 2015). An from a range of different datasets. Nine important consequence of these life history and grassland communities are found in the ACT. reproductive traits is that if native plants are Although these communities are well-described, lost from the standing vegetation of native their distributions have not yet been fully grassland there is little capacity for them to mapped across the ACT. These nine grassland recover from a dormant soil seed bank, or community classifications are detailed in section disperse and recolonise from nearby remnants. 8.9, and supersede the floristic associations An important, but often overlooked, ecological described in the previous native grassland component of native grassland is the biological strategy (ACT Government 2005). soil crust. This crust, composed of a diversity of organisms such as lichens, bryophytes, fungi and 8.1.7 Environmental determinants of algae, is an important part of high quality ACT grassland associations grasslands where it helps to retain soil water, resists weed germination and invasion, and A range of environmental factors influence the provides resources for invertebrates (Morgan occurrence and distribution of the nine 2006; Sharp et al. 2015; Morgan and Williams grassland associations found in the ACT. These 2015). include climate (particularly moisture availability), landscape position, elevation,

8.1.6 — Native grasslands in the ACT and geology, drainage patterns and soil nutrients

8.1.6 Native grasslands in the ACT and geology, drainage patterns and soil nutrients. Changes in these environmental factors are region: descriptions and associated with differences in the dominant definitions grass species and the associated grassland forbs. This strategy follows the vegetation For example, in creek and river flats, the classifications and descriptions of Armstrong et dominant grass is more likely to be Poa al. (2013) and the vegetation classification labillardierei, whereas Themeda triandra hierarchy of Keith (2004), who described and dominates on drier well-drained slopes mapped the native vegetation communities of (Armstrong et al. 2013; Williams and Morgan New South Wales and the ACT at the 1:1 million 2015). map scale with a resolution of 10-kilometre grid cells. The classification hierarchy consists of 8.1.8 Natural Temperate Grassland: three levels: Commonwealth and ACT listing as  Vegetation formations: broad groups defined a threatened ecological by structural and physiognomic community characteristics. Two vegetation formations Natural Temperate Grassland is broadly contain grasslands: the Grasslands decribed as a native ecological community Formation and the Alpine Complex occurring in the temperate climatic zone that is Formation. largely treeless and is dominated by native grass  Vegetation classes: groups of vegetation and forb species. This ecological community is defined primarily by overall floristic Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 83 more fully described in the Natural Temperate 8.1.9 Native grasslands, degraded Grassland action plan (Part B of this document). grasslands, and exotic grasslands Natural Temperate Grassland is listed as The condition of native grassland ranges from threatened under Commonwealth (EPBC Act high quality grassland (Natural Temperate 1999) and ACT legislation (NC Act 2014). The Grassland) that retains its ecological integrity, Commonwealth EPBC listing is ‘Natural though to degraded grasslands that include Temperate Grassland of the South Eastern native grasslands in poor ecological condition Highlands Critically Endangered Ecological and exotic grasslands. Degraded native Community’ (Commonwealth of Australia grasslands have lost much of their native species 2016a). The ACT listing is ‘Natural Temperate diversity and contain a high proportion of non- Grassland Endangered Ecological Community’. native species (weeds). Grasslands that are At the time of writing there are differences dominated by non-native species (weeds) do between the Commonwealth and ACT not meet the definition of native grassland legislation in the definition of what is Natural (Table 5) and these degraded grasslands (from Temperate Grassland. However, the ACT the perspective of the original native grassland) legislation is expected to be revised soon to are classed as exotic grasslands. align with the definition of Natural Temperate Around 5% of the pre-European extent of Grassland under the EPBC Act, to avoid two Natural Temperate Grassland in the Southern definitions. Tablelands now exists as native grassland (some In anticipation of the ACT definiton aligning with of which still meets the definition of Natural the Commonwealth EPBC Act definition, this Temperate Grassland). Native grasslands still strategy uses the Commonwealth EPBC Act retain a high cover of native grasses and a low definition of Natural Temperate Grassland. cover of exotic species, but may have very low to no forb diversity. The key current differences between the Commonwealth and ACT definitions relate to Degraded grasslands are at the other end of the the altitudinal range they occur in, and the continuum from high quality Natural Temperate ecological condition (low condition grasslands Grassland. Degraded grasslands include native do not meet the crieteria for the Natural grasslands in low ecological condition, and Temperate Grassland ecological community). former native grasslands that have become exotic grasslands. Degraded native grasslands Under the current NC Act definition Natural are still dominated by one or more native grass Temperate Grassland does not include species, which may not have been the original grasslands higher than 625 metres above sea dominants, but have very few or no native forbs level whereas the EPBC Act listing of the Natural and a high proportion of introduced perennial Temperate Grasslands of the South Eastern species such as Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica), Highlands includes grasslands that occur at African Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula), Cocks- altitudes between 250 and 1200 metres on in foot (Dactylis glomerata) and Chilean and around the South Eastern Highlands (SEH). Needlegrass (Nasella neesiana). Exotic Currently, any grassland over 1200 metres, grasslands may still have some of the original including those in the Alpine Complex, are not native grasses present, but are dominated by part of any threatened or endangered introduced perennial species. community listing. Degraded grasslands (both native and exotic) Under the EPBC Act, the ecological condition of can still have a range of economic, social, grassland is determined using the Floristic Value functional, and biodiversity values. For example, Score (FVS) (Rehwinkel 2015; Commonwealth of they may provide important habitat for Australia 2016a), a metric based upon the threatened animal species, provide connectivity presence of certain indicator plant species. The in the landscape, or play a role in landscape ACT also uses a floristic metric (which includes function such as erosion and groundwater the presence of indicator plant species species), management. Degraded grasslands have the although the results of this metric are not potential to be restored to higher condition readily comparable to those of the more native grassland under favourable management. recently developed FVS. Natural Temperate Grassland, degraded native grassland and exotic grassland may occur at a 84 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Gibraltar burn site in a mosaic. In such circumstances the and herbaceous species more characteristic of exotic grassland may be part of a continuum of the former woodland or forest community. habitat used by native grassland fauna, and may Derived grasslands often have important offer refuge during certain times, for example ecological values, such as habitat for threatened creek-flat exotic grassland may offer refuge species, and may warrant consideration for during drought. Thus conservation of native protection, management and rehabilitation. Due grassland (including Natural Temperate to their derivation from woodlands or forests, Grassland) and the native fauna it contains derived grasslands are not covered in this needs to take into account the broader strategy. grassland patch in which it sits.

8.1.11 — Rocky grasslands

8.1.11 Rocky grasslands

8.1.10 — Derived grasslands

8.1.10 Derived grasslands This grassland association was not included in Derived (or ‘secondary’) grasslands are the the prevous (2005) strategy but is included in grasslands that remain after the previous woody this strategy due to a change in the description vegetation has been cleared (Benson 1996). of Natural Temperate Grassland under the Derived grasslands are often located on Commonwealth EPBC Act. This grassland hillslopes beyond the extent of the natural association is described in detail in section 8.9 grassland. Species composition in derived as association r8. grassland can be similar to natural grasslands, As the name implies, rocky grasslands occur in but derived grasslands may also contain shrubs areas where rocks comprise a relatively high Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 85 proportion of the ground cover. This grassland particularly summer drought and frosts association comprises open to dense, mid to tall (Williams and Morgan 2015). tussock grassland with the upper stratum Temperatures were particularly important in dominated by Themeda triandra, Aristida controlling the boundaries of grasslands at ramosa, Lomandra filiformis and Austrostipa higher elevations, with alpine grasslands densiflora. occurring above the climatic limit for tree In the ACT, rocky grasslands are most commonly growth, and subalpine grasslands occurring found on midslopes in the Molonglo and below this limit, where tree growth is instead Murrumbidgee river corridors, but also occur on limited by cold air drainage and frosts (Lunt, some hills in Canberra. Rocky grasslands Prober and Morgan 2012). comprise important habitat for the threatened In the ACT and region, historically native Pink-tailed Worm-lizard (more details are given grasslands primarily occurred in areas of lower in the Pink-tailed Worm-lizard action plan 2017). elevation to around 1000 m, extending across large parts of the plains and river valleys.

8.1.12 — Montane and sub-alpine Surveys, maps, and observations from the first

8.1.12 Montane and sub-alpine Surveys, maps, and observations from the first grasslands European explorers in the region indicated that These grassland associations were not included clear open grassy plains were common west and in the prevous (2005) strategy but are included south-east from Lake George, and in the in this strategy due to a change in the location of the present-day Canberra area, description of Natural Temperate Grassland including the Molonglo valley and the Limestone under the Commonwealth EPBC Act. Montane Plains (Gammage 2011). grasslands are described in detail in section 8.9 Surveys by Robert Hoddle of the Canberra and as grassland associations r1, r2 and r7, and sub- Queanbeyan districts in 1832–5 showed that alpine grasslands are described as associations ‘open plains’ and ‘fine open grassy forest a14 and a30. Almost all (99%) of these without undergrowth’ were the most common associations occur in Namadgi National Park. vegetation type, dominated by Kangaroo Grass, Montane grasslands most commonly occur on as depicted in a 1832 painting of the the broad flats and lower slopes associated with ‘Ginninderry Plains’ at the present-day creeks and rivers, usually in areas with severe Ginninderra Creek in Belconnen (Gammage frosts. Sub-alpine grasslands commonly occur 2011). between the edge of woodlands and the edge of The pre-European extent of temperate and poor drainage areas. In Namadgi National park montane grasslands up to 1500 m in the these grasslands typically occur between Canberra and Monaro region is estimated to be sphagnum moss bogs and the surrounding around 250,000 ha based on mapping by Costin woodland. (1954) and notes by early European explorers, with additional smaller areas of subalpine and montane grasslands within Namadgi National

8.2 — A BRIEF HISTORY OF Park (Benson 1994)

8.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF Park (Benson 1994). NATIVE GRASSLANDS IN 8.2.2 Aboriginal use and influence THE ACT AND The lowland temperate grasslands of south- SURROUNDING REGION eastern Australia were the home of Aboriginal people, and their activities over millennia

8.2.1 — Historical distribution helped shape the plant and animal communities

8.2.1 Historical distribution helped shape the plant and animal communities Prior to European settlement, native grasslands found by the first Europeans. Land in the ACT in south-eastern Australia were irregularly region was occupied by the Ngunnawal people, distributed from north of Adelaide through and the ACT Government recognises the south-eastern Australia to northern New South Ngunnawal people as the Traditional Custodians Wales, and included the Tasmanian midlands of land in the ACT. (Groves and Williams 1981). The historical Because of the colder temperatures it is likely boundaries of native grasslands were principally that Aboriginal people did not make year-round controlled by environmental factors such as use of the higher elevation montane, subalpine soils, topography, rainfall, and temperatures, 86 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans and alpine grasslands, but visited in the summer and woodlands, and the area was soon settled to collect and cook Bogong Moths (Flood 1980; from the mid-1820s onwards, with settlers Gott, Williams and Antos 2015). In the Southern eager to secure land for stock grazing. Mapping Tablelands region, the earliest known site of of land grants in the Colony of New South Wales Aboriginal occupation is from Birrigai in the ACT, up to June 1836 shows that in the region of dated at 21 000 years BP, and archaeological what is now present-day Canberra, landholdings evidence points to the more sheltered river were clustered along the rivers and creeks valleys as being the main occupation sites (Flood (Dixon 1837), closely matching the distribution 1980). of the original lowland Natural Temperate Grassland thought to be present at the time of The lowland grasslands provided a range of food European settlement. sources, including kangaroos and other animals, and a range of native grassland forbs. Native Drought in the summer of 1827–28 encouraged seeds and fruit were not a major part of the the search for more grasslands for stock feed, Aboriginal diet in these areas. Instead, below- leading to the expansion of settlement and ground plant organs of species such as the Yam grazing to the lower reaches of the Cotter River Daisy (Microseris lanceolata) and many orchids (Moore 1999). By 1829, the grasslands in the and lilies, were available and harvested all year mountains of the Monaro region had been round, and were an important food source that discovered by Currie and Ovens, and summer could comprise half the diet of Aboriginal grazing started soon after (Costin 1954). people (Gott, Williams and Antos 2015). The impacts of this early settlement soon Aboriginal people used fire to manage the became evident. By 1840 P.E. de Strzelecki, in a lowland native grasslands to encourage a supply report to Governor Gipps, expressed concern of food, particularly plants. Many of the first about the effects that drought, cropping and European explorers noted the deliberate use of over-grazing were having on soil erosion. By the fire (Gott, Williams and Antos 2015). For late 1800s in the higher mountain grasslands, example, in the Canberra region, the first fifty years of summer stock grazing and the European explorers in the 1820s observed fires practice of burning off had already resulted in and burnt grasslands, with fires having been lit the reduction in plant cover, soil erosion and in the summer and early autumn months loss of some plant species (Costin 1954). (Gammage 2011). Acquisition of ACT rural freehold land by the Federal authorities commenced in 1911, with a

8.2.3 — Early exploration and settlement surge of acquisitions in the 1950s. Further

8.2.3 Early exploration and settlement surge of acquisitions in the 1950s. Further The Canberra district was first visited by acquisitions occurred in the 1960 and 70s. European explorers in the late 1810s and the Owners were paid out and the land was often early 1820s. Charles Throsby, Joseph Wild and leased back to the existing landholders for James Vaughan were the first to visit the continuing rural production until required for Limestone Plains (the location of present-day the expansion of Canberra or for other public Canberra) in December of 1820, and during a purposes. All leases contained a withdrawal later expedition in March 1821 Throsby clause allowing the land to be withdrawn from discovered the Murrumbidgee River in the lease with three months’ notice in writing. This vicinity of what is now the suburb of Kambah lack of tenure due to the withdrawal clause (Moore 1999). prevented many lessees from investing in pasture improvement to convert native pasture Other explorers during this period included to predominantly exotic pasture. Hamilton Hume and James Meehan (who explored the Goulburn Plains in 1817), Major John Ovens and Captain Mark Currie (who found the Tuggeranong Plains and sighted the Monaro Plains in 1823), and the botanist Allan Cunningham (who explored as far as the Gudgenby River in 1824) (Costin 1954; Moore 1999). These early explorers reported fine grazing country and vast expanses of grassy open plains Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 87

8.3 — CURRENT NATIVE and protection, while about one third occur on

8.3 CURRENT NATIVE and protection, while about one third occur on Commonwealth lands that are not specifically or GRASSLAND exclusively managed for conservation. The most DISTRIBUTION IN THE extensive areas of upland (montane) grasslands ACT are at Long Flat, Grassy Creek, Orroral Valley, Sam’s Creek, Nursery Creek, Rendezvous Creek, The distribution of native grasslands (including Emu Flats and Bogong Creek. All these areas are Natural Temperate Grassland) are shown in within Namadgi National Park. Chapter 2 and in the Natural Temperate Detailed mapping has been completed for Long Grassland action plan (in Part B of this Flat, Grassy Creek, Orroral Valley and Emu Flats. document). The most up-to-date maps for this At the time of writing mapping was being ecological community ares publicly available on completed for Sam’s Creek, Grassy Creek, the ACT Government’s mapping portal (Visit the Nursery Creek, Rendezvous Creek and Bogong ACTmapi website). Table 7 shows approximate Creek. There is potential for sites to exist on areas of grassland community types based on leasehold land in the central Naas Valley, upper the most recent mapping. Gudgenby River area, and lower Blue Gum Native grassland occurs on a mix of land tenure Creek area. types, including on:  ACT Government managed land such as urban nature reserves, urban open space, 8.4 THREATENED AND roadsides, and Namadgi National Park. UNCOMMON  Commonwealth land, including areas GRASSLAND SPECIES IN managed by the Department of Defence (e.g. THE ACT Majura Training Area and Campbell Park), CSIRO (e.g. Ginninderra Experimental 8.4.1 Threatened species Station) and the National Capital Authority Native grasslands in the ACT are an important (e.g. Yarramundi Grassland). ecosystem for a range of threatened flora and  Canberra International Airport. fauna species. These species include three plant species and four animal species declared as  Rural leases and agistments. threatened in the ACT under the NC Act (2014) The largest areas of lowland native grassland (Table 8), and an additional two plant species are found in the eastern and southern areas of listed as threatened under the EPBC Act. Canberra’s urban area, particularly the Currently, the plant Gentiana baeuerlenii is only Jerrabomberra and Majura Valleys, including known from one location in higher elevation native grasslands in the Majura Training Area montane grasslands of the Orroral Valley, ACT, and the Canberra International Airport. and despite annual surveys has not been Relatively large areas of native grasslands can recorded since 1998.The Hoary Sunray also be found in Gungahlin and Belconnen, (Leucochrysum albicans var. tricolor) and the including Crace Nature Reserve, Mulanggari Austral Toadflax (Thesium australe) are found in Nature Reserve, Gungaderra Nature Reserve, native grasslands and grassy woodlands, and are Molonglo river corridor, and Lawson Grasslands included in the ACT Lowland Woodland (former Belconnen Naval Transmission Station). Conservation Strategy (ACT Government 2004). Smaller grassland fragments in Canberra’s west include Dunlop Nature Reserve, Umbagong Park and Kama Nature Reserve. The total area of lowland Natural Temperate

8.4.2 — Uncommon and rare species

8.4.2 Uncommon and rare species Grassland below 625 m asl is around 880 ha. There are many species occurring in native Individual sites containing this community, grasslands of the ACT that may be of including descriptions, sizes, and management conservation concern (Table 9 and 10) even priorities, are provided in the ACT Natural though they are not currently listed under ACT Temperate Grassland action plan. About two or Commonwealth legislation as threatened. thirds of these Natural Temperate Grasslands These include species that are uncommon or are on ACT land, with a high level of reservation rare because they are either at the margin of 88 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans their distribution or they occur naturally at low some records also from the Queanbeyan area density. Some of these species are of and near Bungendore in NSW. The species has conservation concern because they are mostly been recorded in high quality native declining (in the ACT or elsewhere) and because grassland during surveys for threatened reptiles. small populations tend to be more vulnerable to Given the greatly contracted extent of Natural disturbance. Minimising threats and monitoring Temperate Grassland, it is not surprising that a their abundance and/or habitat is required to recent targeted survey for the species in the help prevent these species becoming Canberra area found only 18 individuals at four threatened. locations (Vertucci and Speirs 2014), and 23 of 32 records for this species (ACT Government An example of one of these uncommon species Wildlife Atlas) have come from Canberra Airport is the Canberra Raspy Cricket (Cooraboorama or the adjoining Majura Training Area canberrae). The historic and present distribution (Department of Defence land), which are of this species appears to be extremely grassland sites that have an uncertain future. restricted. The species is predominantly known from grasslands in the north of the ACT, with Table 7. Grassland community types based on most recent mapping of 73,740 hectares of the eastern ACT. These totals will change as mapping of the remainder of the ACT progresses. Grassland Community Area mapped Notes Natural Temperate Grassland < 625 m 880 ha Approximate area, not mapped at the association level. Natural Temperate Grassland >625 m 1900 ha Potential Natural Temperate Grassland approximate area, grassland not mapped at the association level, includes r1, r2, a14. Native grassland (excluding Natural 2600 ha Approximate area, may include areas of Temperate Grassland) secondary grassland – currently unable to differentiate. Not mapped at the association level. Table 8. Conservation Status of ACT and Commonwealth threatened flora and fauna species found in ACT native grasslands. Species Common Name Cwlth ACT NSW VIC QLD Gentiana baeuerlenii Baeuerlen’s Gentian E E E - - Lepidium ginninderrense Ginninderra Peppercress V E - - - Rutidosis leptorhynchoides Button Wrinklewort E E E T - Thesium australe Austral Toadflax V - V - - Leucochrysum albicans var. tricolor Hoary Sunray E - - E - Delma impar Striped Legless Lizard E V V T - Tympanocryptis pinguicolla Grassland Earless Dragon E E E T E Synemon plana Golden Sun Moth CE E E T - Aprasia parapulchella Pink-tailed Worm-lizard V V V T Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 89 Species Common Name Cwlth ACT NSW VIC QLD Perunga ochracea Perunga Grasshopper - V - - - E: endangered; V: vulnerable; T: threatened (as defined under Victorian legislation); (Nom.): nominated; Legislation: Commonwealth: Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999; ACT: Nature Conservation Act 2014; NSW: Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995; Vic: Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Note that under this Act, species are listed as ‘threatened’ rather than being assigned to categories). Table 9. Uncommon and rare grassland Fauna species in the ACT. Common Name Fauna Species Canberra Raspy Cricket Cooraboorama canberrae Lewis’s Laxabilla Laxabilla smaragdina Key’s Matchstick Grasshopper Keyacris scurra Shingleback Lizard Trachydosaurus rugosus Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis Brown Quail Coturnix pypsilophora Horsfield’s Bushlark* Mirafra javanica Brown Songlark Cincloramphus cruralis * previously Singing Bushlark Table 10. Uncommon and rare grassland Flora species in the ACT. Common Name Flora Species Dawson’s Wattle Acacia dawsonii Muellers Bent Agrostis muelleriana Water Plantain Alisma plantago-aquatica Plump Swamp Wallaby-grass Amphibromus pithogastrus Bunch Wiregrass Aristida behriana Comb Wheat Grass Australopyrum pectinatum Mountain Wheat Grass Australopyrum velutinum Slender Bamboo Grass Austrostipa verticillata Prostrate Bossiaea Bossiaea prostrata Blue Grass Lily Caesia calliantha Cut-leaved Burr-daisy Calotis anthemoides Yellow burr-daisy Calotis lappulacea Annual Bittercress Cardamine paucijuga Green-top Sedge Carex chlorantha Dry Land Sedge Carex hebes Bristly Cloak Fern Cheilanthes distans Gentianella muelleriana subsp. jingerensis 90 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Common Name Flora Species Snow Coprosma Coprosma nivalis Emu-foot Cullen tenax Thick Bent-grass Deyeuxia crassiuscula Alpine Bent-grass Deyeuxia frigida Blue Flax-Lily Dianella longifolia var. longifolia Fisch’s Greenhood Diplodium fischii Little Dumpies Diplodium truncatum Australian Anchor Plant Discaria pubescens Late Mauve Doubletail Diuris dendrobioides Purple Donkey Orchid Diuris punctata var. punctata Small Snake Orchid Diuris subalpina Prostrate Blue Devil Eryngium vesiculosum A Cranesbill Geranium Geranium obtusisepalum Alpine Crane’s Bill Geranium sessiliflorum subsp. brevicaule Fan Grevillea Grevillea ramosissima subsp. ramosissima Pennywort Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Mountain black-tip greenhood Hymenochilus clivicola Alpine Swan Greenhood Hymenochilus crassicaulis Shade Peppercress Lepidium pseudotasmanicum Alpine Blown Grass Lachnagrostis meionectes Australian Mudwort Limosella australis Australian Trefoil Lotus australis var. australis Murnong, Yam Daisy Microseris lanceolata Sweet Onion Orchid Microtis oblonga Southern Rustyhood Oligochaetochilus squamatus Bog Carraway Oreomyrrhis ciliata Rosemary Everlasting Ozothamnus rosmarinifolius Parantennaria Parantennaria uniceps Austral Pillwort Pilularia novae-hollandie Narrow Plantain Plantago gaudichaudii Hooker’s Tussock Grass Poa hookeri Rock Poa Poa saxicola Long Podolepis Podolepis hieracioides Channelled Leek Orchid Prasophyllum canaliculatum Subalpine Leek Orchid Prasophyllum sphacelatum Tadgell’s Leek Orchid Prasophyllum tadgellianum Charming Leek Orchid Prasophyllum venustum Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 91 Common Name Flora Species Stocky Leek Orchid Prasophyllum viriosum Mountain Greenhood Pterostylis alpina Small Mountain Greenhood Pterostylis aneba A Wallaby Grass Rytidosperma nudiflorum A Wallaby Grass Rytidosperma oreophilum Medusa bog sedge Schoenus latelaminatus Pink Five-Corners Styphelia triflora Hooked Cudweed Stuartina hamata Behr’s Swainson-pea Swainsona behriana Silky Swainson-pea Swainsona sericea Collared Sun Orchid Thelymitra simulata Twining Fringe Lily Thysanotus patersonii Swamp Violet Viola caleyana A Violet Viola fuscoviolacea Flat Bluebell Wahlenbergia planiflora subsp. planiflora Zornia Zornia dyctiocarpa var. dyctiocarpa Table 11. Grassland areas added (or in the process of being added) to the ACT’s conservation estate since 2005, including Natural Temperate grassland (NTG), other native grassland areas, and exotic grassland. New or extended reserve Area NTG Area Native Area exotic (ha) Grassland (ha) grassland (ha) Callum Brae (largely a woodland reserve) - 8 - East Jerrabomberra (committed to conservation but 19 12 60 not yet gazetted as reserve) Gungaderra Extension Area - 14 4 Harman-Bonshaw (in process of being transferred to 12 160 22 management by ACT Government for conservation) Jarramlee (committed to conservation but not yet 5 60 35 gazetted as reserve) Kama (largely a woodland reserve) 22 - - Kenny (committed to conservation but not yet - 16 48 gazetted as reserve) Mullangarri Extension - 15 8 Percival Hill (largely open forest) 1 - 3 West Jerrabomberra 110 62 8 Total 169 347 188 92 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans

8.5 — GRASSLAND 8.5.1 Protection in conservation

8.5 GRASSLAND 8.5.1 Protection in conservation CONSERVATION reserves ACTIVITIES IN THE ACT A key objective for grassland conservation SINCE 2005 arising from the previous Strategy was: “a comprehensive, adequate and representative The previous ACT Lowland Grassland system of Natural Temperate Grassland areas in Conservation Strategy (ACT Government 2005) the ACT is protected by reservation or other described a range of conservation activities measures where reservation is not practical or carried out in lowland temperate grasslands of desirable”. This has been largely achieved for the ACT. These activities included protection of land owned and managed by the ACT grassland sites within reserves, development of Government by the addition of over 700 ha of recovery plans, surveys and monitoring of grasslands, including 169 ha of Natural threatened species, and research into the Temperate Grassland, as either new reserves or ecology of threatened species including the as additions to existing reserves (Table 11). Grassland Earless Dragon, Striped Legless Lizard, Since the last strategy (2005), Natural Perunga Grasshopper, Golden Sun Moth, Button Temperate Grassland at a number of small sites Wrinklewort and Ginninderra Peppercress. on Territory land has been lost to urban Since the previous strategy, these activities have development (total area lost is less than 10 ha). continued to be undertaken in addition to a Natural Temperate Grassland has also been lost range of new conservation activities in both (total area less than 10 ha) on Commonwealth lowland and higher elevation grasslands of the land to development on the Canberra ACT. The conservation activities in native International Airport (leased) (<10 ha) grasslands undertaken since the previous report There are still substantial tracts of native are summarised below. Additional conservation grassland on Commonwealth-owned land, activities pertaining to individual threatened which are not specifically protected for long- grassland species are outlined in the respective term conservation (such as Department of action plans. Defence lands and the Canberra International Community groups and universities continue to Airport). play a key role in the conservation of native grasslands. Not-for-profit community groups 8.5.2 Management of kangaroo grazing undertake a wide range of on-ground pressure management activities and experimental A ‘conservation culling’ program for kangaroos restoration projects, in addition to advocacy and commenced in five reserves in 2009 and raising public awareness. Since the previous expanded gradually to 11 reserves containing strategy, significant research projects on areas of the endangered grassland or woodland grasslands and their fauna have been communities. The program is managed in undertaken by universities and other accordance with the Controlled Native Species institutions (including the Australian Botanic Management Plan for eastern grey Kangaroos Gardens), often in partnership with the ACT (ACT Government 2017a), and the ACT Government. These projects include Honours, Kangaroo Management Plan (ACT Government PhD and post-doctoral research on Grassland 2010). Where possible it is also managed on a Earless Dragons, Golden Sun Moths, grazing co-operative basis with kangaroo management effects of kangaroos, and translocation of undertaken by other land managers, including threatened plants. Supporting and partnering rural landholders (as outlined in ‘Calculation of with community groups, universities and other the Number to Cull’, ACT Government 2016a) organisations in the future will be essential to and the Commonwealth Government. For more achieving the goals of this strategy. information, view the Calculation document (1467Kb) Elements of the ACT rural kangaroo culling program may also have benefits for conservation of native grasslands in some cases, although this program is primarily carried out by Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 93 private landholders to reduce economic impacts  Surveys for the Pink-tailed Worm-lizard of kangaroos on rural production. have been undertaken in the Molonglo River valley and adjacent areas, including

8.5.3 — Mapping and surveys vegetation surveys at Molonglo and

8.5.3 Mapping and surveys vegetation surveys at Molonglo and Ginninderry, to inform planning for urban A range of projects involving mapping and development. Mapping was also undertaken surveying of vegetation that includes grasslands for this species in the Urambi, Cooleman and of the ACT have been undertaken since the Pinnacle areas. previous strategy.  Canberra Nature Map. A website and app  The Native Vegetation of New South Wales allowing the community to record locations and the ACT. State-wide mapping, of sightings of plants and animals. classification and descriptions of vegetation (Keith 2004).  Weed mapping projects. Weed mapping on reserves by ACT Government and weed  Plant communities of the upper spraying contractors using mobile mapping Murrumbidgee catchment in New South technology. Weed mapping by citizens using Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. the Weed Spotter website and app. Classification and descriptions of vegetation communities (Armstrong et al. 2013).

8.5.4 — Research projects

8.5.4 Research projects  The peat-forming mires of the Australian Mulligans Flat-Goorooyarroo Woodland Capital Territory. Mapping and descriptions Experiment. Although this project focuses on of peat-forming mires of the ACT by the restoration of a grassy woodland habitat, many Australian National University. Includes of the results and conclusions could potentially mapping and description of Poa sod tussock be extended to grassland habitats of the ACT. grassland (fen), equivalent to community a14 The project uses an experimental approach to Poa costiniana – Carex gaudichaudiana understanding grassy woodland dynamics and subalpine valley grassland of the Australian comparing possible management strategies, and Alps bioregion of Armstrong et al. (2013) includes a predator-proof sanctuary in (Hope, Nanson and Flett 2009). Mulligan’s Flat (Manning et al. 2011). Research  The vegetation of the Kowen, Majura and topics include: species reintroductions, Jerrabomberra districts of the ACT. vegetation patterns and processes, impacts of Vegetation mapping of approximately 21,000 grazing and fire management, ecological effects ha in the Kowen, Majura and Jerrabomberra of woody debris, invertebrate and reptile districts. This ACT Government project ecology, ecological impacts of carrion, and litter mapped 4,906 ha of native grassland and and soil dynamics. A full list of publications can 424 ha of Natural Temperate Grassland be viewed at: Mulligans Flat – Goorooyarroo (Baines et al. 2014). Woodland Experiment website.  ACT Vegetation Community Mapping. Eastern Grey Kangaroo Research. A number of Territory-wide mapping of vegetation research projects on kangaroos and their communities commenced by the ACT grazing effects have been conducted or are Government in 2013 is expected to be currently underway, much of which has included completed by 2017. Where possible the grassland ecosystems: mapping classifies grasslands dominated by  Doctoral Thesis by B. Howland (Howland native species into the appropriate 2016, Australian National University) on the association (see section 8.1.6). Where it is interactions between kangaroos and not possible to classify grassland to the grassland fauna (Howland et al. 2014; 2016a; association level it is mapped as Native 2016b) Grassland (areas dominated by native species but with unknown diversity), Natural  Doctoral Thesis by D. Fletcher (Fletcher 2006, Temperate Grassland (areas that have a University of Canberra) on population diversity of native forbs and are known to dynamics of Eastern Grey Kangaroos in meet the criteria that define this endangered temperate grasslands. ecological community) or Exotic Grassland  Methods for estimating kangaroo densities (areas dominated by exotic species). (Howland 2008). 94 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans  Impacts of kangaroo grazing on lowland Grassland Earless Dragons (Hoehn et al. woodland and grassland communities, 2013). including vegetation structure, herbage  Honours thesis by T. Stevens on home ranges mass, floristics, insects reptiles and birds of Grassland Earless Dragons (Stevens et al. (McIntyre et al. 2010; Barton et al. 2011; 2010). Armstrong 2013; Manning et al. 2013; Vivian and Godfree 2013; Howland et al. 2014,  Golden Sun Moth: survey methods (A. 2016a, 2016b; McIntyre et al. 2015). Richter et al. 2009, University of Canberra), habitat manipulation (Sea and Downey  Movement behaviour of kangaroos in urban 2014a, University of Canberra) and Canberra (ACT Government unpublished translocation methods (Sea and Downey data). 2014b, SMEC Australia Pty Ltd).  Fertility control (ACT Government 2013b).  Research by the ACT Government on rock The ACT Government has supported placement to improve habitat connectivity research into fertility control for Eastern for Pink-tailed Worm-lizards in the Molonglo Grey Kangaroos since 1998, undertaken in River corridor (ACT Government). collaboration with the Invasive Animals CRC and CSIRO using the immunocontraceptive  Seed storage, germination trials and vaccine GonaCon™. translocations of Ginninderra Peppercress (Australian National Botanic Gardens, Development of the Floristic Value Score. A Greening Australia, ACT Government). method to assess the relative conservation value of grasslands in the ACT and surrounding  Experimental grassland management using NSW region has been researched and developed small scale burns (ACT Government). by Rehwinkel (2015). The method incorporates Grassland enhancement project. The ACT species richness and the abundance of Government is undertaking a three year project significant ‘indicator’ species to calculate a to trial positive disturbance regimes for Floristic Value Score (FVS). The FVS was grassland management using fire, grazing, incorporated into the condition thresholds of planting tube stock, slashing, rock placement the Approved Conservation Advice for the and complementary weed and pest animal updated listing of NTG-SEH under the EPBC Act control. These trials aim to inform adaptive in 2016 (Commonwealth of Australia 2016a). management of Natural Temperate Grassland to The FVS is also now used by the ACT support the recovery of a suite of threatened Government and ecological consultants to grassland species, including the Grassland assess the quality of native grassland sites in the Earless Dragon, Striped Legless Lizard, Golden ACT, and has been adopted by the NSW Office Sun Moth, and the Pink-tailed Worm-lizard. of Environment and Heritage. Croke Place Grassland Management Ecology of threatened species. Since the Experiment. Long-term research on the floristic previous Strategy several significant research responses of a remnant patch of Natural projects have been undertaken in partnership Temperate Grassland to mowing and burning, with the ACT Government on the ecology of undertaken by the North Belconnen Landcare threatened grassland species, including: Group in association with ACT Government and  Doctoral thesis by W. Dimond (University of the Ginninderra Catchment Group (Hodgkinson Canberra) “Population decline in the 2016). endangered Grassland Earless Dragon in Ginninderra Catchment Grassland Restoration Australia : identification, causes and Research Project. This experimental project management” (Dimond 2010; Dimond et al. aims to find efconomical and effective means of 2012). restoring degraded grassland. Treatments at  Post-doctoral research by L. Doucette on the each of the 15 sites include mowing, 2 burning field ecology and reproduction in captivity of regimes and non-treatment (controls). This Grassland Earless Dragons. project is managed by the Ginninderra Catchment Group in collaboration with ACT  Genetics studies by S. Sarre and others Government, ACT Rural Fire Service, CSIRO, (University of Canberra) to examine the Greening Australia, University of Canberra, effects of habitat fragmentation on Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 95 Australian National University, Friends of Grassland Earless Dragon ecology, including two Grasslands, and a number of Landcare and PhD studies. Parkcare groups in the Catchment. Grassland enhancement project. This ACT Government project will be monitoring reptiles,

8.5.5 — Monitoring birds, and floristics, with targeted surveys for

8.5.5 Monitoring birds, and floristics, with targeted surveys for Conservation Effectiveness Monitoring threatened fauna (Grassland Earless Dragon, Program (CEMP). This program provides the Striped Legless Lizard, Perunga Grasshopper, framework for systematically assessing and Golden Sun Moth) to better understand how evaluating effectiveness of reserve management grazing, slashing and fire can be used to manage actions aimed at maintaining and improving grasslands. This program involves over 250 reserve condition. The program gathers permanent monitoring plots across seven information from various monitoring programs grassland reserves. These plots are subject to and qualitative sources across government and detailed floristic (5 x 1 m quadrat), structure non-government groups to make structured (grass structure, cover) and fauna surveys assessments of reserve condition and annually or biannually from 2015 to 2018. effectiveness of management programs. This Grassland condition surveys have been ensures information is available to support undertaken for 49 lowland native grassland sites adaptive, evidence-based decision making into in the ACT as part of an invstigation into native the future. One of the eight ecosystem units for grasslands by the ACT Commissioner for which a condition monitoring plan is being Sustainability and the Environment (Cooper developed is lowland grasslands (the Lowland 2009). A subsequent report (Hodgkinson 2014) Native Grassland Ecosystems Condition to the Commissioner assessed the condition of Monitoring Plan) (ACT Government 2015b). grasslands at 14 grassland sites. These surveys Vegetation condition monitoring. Monitoring of provide a valuable baseline against which to ACT lowland grassland and woodland has been assess future trends in grassland condition. carried out since 2009 in a range of reserves. The project commenced during the end of the 8.5.6 Herbage mass management drought in response to concerns about In 2009 large fenced kangaroo exclosures were kangaroo grazing (Armstrong et al. 2013). Sites constructed at Jerrabomberra West Nature were resurveyed in 2012 (Baines and Jenkins Reserve, at Jerrabomberra East Grassland 2012) and 2013 (Vivian and Godfree 2013). In conservation area and at the Majura Training 2014, a subset of 24 sites, including eleven in Area to protect core habitat for the Grassland grasslands, were retained to focus solely on Earless Dragon from overgrazing during the monitoring vegetation condition (Vivian and drought of 2002–2009. High rainfall in Baines 2014), with research on the effect of subsequent years led to high herbage mass kangaroo grazing allocated to a separate within the exclosures, which is now project. Vegetation condition is assessed by experimentally managed by a combination of measuring changes in the floristic value score patch burning and grazing (Cook, Evans and and vegetation structure. Osborne 2015). Long-term threatened species monitoring is undertaken by the ACT Government for the 8.5.7 Fire ecology ACT’s threatened grassland species (Table 8) Grassland enhancement project. This project and is outlined in the respective action plans for (see section 8.5.4) is investigating the use of each species (Part B). These survey and fire, slashing and grazing as a tool for monitoring programs have been undertaken for conservation management of native grasslands over two decades and form the basis for and threatened species habitat. determining long-term trends in the distribution and abundance for threatened species. A long- term monitoring program for Grassland Earless 8.5.8 Community collaboration and Dragons that was established in 2003 detected engagement the severe population decline of this species A broad range of community organisations and during the 2002–2009 drought, and subsequent dedicated individuals volunteer their time and signs of population recovery. The detection of expertise to activities that support nature this decline prompted a number of studies into 96 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans conservation in the ACT (ACT Government citizens to report sightings of plant species 2013a). Community organisations supporting through photography. The tool is being grassland conservation activities include Friends expanded to include reptiles and birds. of Grasslands, Molonglo Catchment Group,  Weed Spotter: a website and app allowing Ginninderra Catchment Group, Southern ACT citizens to report sightings of weeds or to Catchment Group, Friends of the Pinnacle, map weed extent. Friends of Mt Painter, and Umbagong Landcare Group. Members of these groups are involved in  Snakes Alive!: an annual exhibition by the projects that include monitoring, weeding, ACT Herpetological Association and revegetation, research, advocacy, workshops Australian National Botanic Gardens raising and conferences, and education/outreach. Since awareness of reptiles and amphibians, the previous strategy, community engagement including the threatened grassland species activities involving, or focusing on, grasslands Grassland Earless Dragon and Striped Legless include the following: Lizard (Reid 2015).  Golden Sun Moth survey: Community-based  ACT Region Catchment Groups Art Prizes citizen science project tosurvey/monitor 2015 ‘Native Grasslands’ Exhibition. Golden Sun Moth abundance at numerous  Contribution to reference/educational sites in the ACT. Funded by WWF, materials on grassland monitoring, such as coordinated by University of Canberra, monitoring chapter (Sharp et al. 2015) in involved FoG and other interested citizens Land of Sweeping Plains (Williams et al. (Richter et al. 2009). 2015).  Vegwatch: a robust monitoring tool  Several ACT Government research projects developed for the Molonglo Catchment have involved community volunteers, Group to enable its volunteer member including kangaroo surveys, vegetation groups to monitor the effectiveness of their surveys and surveys for Striped Legless on-ground work (Sharp and Gould 2010). Lizards and other repiles.  The Grass Experiment at the Pinnacle Nature Reserve: a collaborative project between the 8.5.9 Independent review Friends of the Pinnacle, the Australian The ACT Commissioner for Sustainability and the National University, and ACT Parks and Environment (CSE) conducted an investigation Conservation to experimentally investigate into the conservation of native grasslands in the methods to reduce the dominance of exotic ACT between 2007 and 2009 (Cooper 2008, species in a grassy ecosystem (Friends of the 2009). The aim was to assess the condition of Pinnacle 2011). grasslands (including grazing by kangaroos) and  Restoration and management activites at management arrangements, to ensure the Yarramundi Grassland, a collaboration protection and long-term sustainability of native between Friends of Grasslands and the lowland grasslands. The CSE engaged additional Natonal Captial Authority. surveys for selected reseves in 2014 (Hodgkinson 2014). The reports made numerous  A 2014 forum run by Friends of Grasslands: recommendations that were considered by the ‘Grass half full or grass half empty? Valuing ACT Government and have subsequenty native grassy landscapes’ (Milligan and informed and influenced ACT Government Horton 2014) to present and demonstrate management programs for native grasslands. achievements in grassland conservation and management throughout south-eastern Australia.  Seeing Grasslands: a project funded in 2010 that aimed to raise the profile of grasslands through community photographic workshops, resulting in exhibitions and a book (Reid 2015).  Canberra Nature Map: a website and app founded by an ACT resident in 2014 allowing Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 97

8.6 — EVIDENCE BASE FOR Nature, directed at fostering a new regime of

8.6 EVIDENCE BASE FOR Nature, directed at fostering a new regime of communications and cooperation at the THE ACT NATIVE global level to enable the increased GRASSLAND STRATEGY conservation and protection of indigenous temperate grasslands (Peart 2008; Henwood Over the past few decades there has been 2010). significant interest in grassland research, conservation and management, both in  Research from the Grassy Groundcover Australia and globally, particularly for lowland Restoration Project, a restoration and Natural Temperate Grassland. This interest has research initiative by Greening Australia and resulted in improved knowledge of grassland the University of Melbourne (Gibson-Roy et management for long-term conservation and al. 2010; Gibson-Roy and Delpratt 2015). the publication of a range of management  Research from the TasFACE (free-air CO2 guidelines. This strategy draws upon this enrichment) experiment, which examines literature to provide guidance on best-practice, climate change impacts on Themeda- evidence-based strategies and principles for Rytidosperma grasslands of south-eastern grassland conservation and management. Gaps Australia (Hovenden et al. 2006). in knowledge and evidence are highlighted where relevant. Examples of recent  Research on Grassland Earless Dragons: publications, reports and initiatives that have Honours thesis (Stevens et al. 2010), PhD contributed to advancing the field of thesis (Dimond et al. 2012), Post-doctoral conservation and management relevant to the genetics studies (Hoehn et al. 2013), Post- grasslands of the ACT include doctoral study of field ecology and captive breeding (Doucette unpublished data).  The book Land of Sweeping Plains: managing and restoring the native grasslands of south-  Research into the management of kangaroo eastern Australia (Williams, Marshall and grazing pressure for the conservation of Morgan (eds.) 2015: a synthesis of the grassland reptiles (Howland et al. 2014, scientific literature on temperate grassland 2016a), and birds (Howland et al. 2016b) in ecology, management, and restoration. ACT grassland ecosystems.  The formation of the Temperate Grasslands  Effects of stock grazing in grassy ecosystems Conservation Initiative (TGCI) through the of south-eastern Australia (Lunt 2005); International Union for Conservation of Pink-tailed Worm-lizard (R. Milner) 98 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans  Management regimes in Victorian lowland photosynthetic pathways used by plants). The C3 grassy ecosystems (Wong and Morgan 2007); species include Austrostipa spp., Poa spp. and Rytidosperma spp., and the C4 species include  Action plans for the ACT’s threatened Themeda triandra and Bothriochloa macra. grassland flora and fauna. Climate change can potentially alter the composition of these species in grasslands due to the different impacts of increased CO2 and

8.7 — CLIMATE CHANGE: temperatures on C3 and C4 species, leading to

8.7 CLIMATE CHANGE: temperatures on C3 and C4 species, leading to changes in grassland structure, function and POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON resources for grassland fauna. It has been NATIVE GRASSLANDS suggested Themeda triandra will increase in abundance (increased CO2 levels) (Hovenden The increase in greenhouse gas emissions and Williams 2010) and forbs will decrease (due caused by human activities is predicted to have to lower availability of water). However, a range of impacts on the climate of the experimental research on the effects of climate Canberra region. Recent climate change change on temperate grassland species has projections by the CSIRO and the Bureau of yielded mixed results. Meteorology (Timbal et al. 2015) predict that the Canberra region will experience: Climate change will also affect grassland fauna, both directly (e.g. effect of temperature on  Higher mean, maximum and minimum physiology, behaviour or food availability), as temperatures. For example, for 2030 the well as indirectly through changes in the mean warming is projected to be around 0.6 composition, structure and extent of grassland to 1.3°C above the climate of 1986–2005, plant communities. Species most at risk include and for 2090, it is projected to be between those with long generations, poor mobility, 1.3 and 4.5°C, depending on the emissions narrow ranges, specific host relationships, scenario. isolated and specialised species and those with  An increase in the temperature reached on large home ranges (Hughes and Westoby 1994). the hottest days, the frequency of hot days In contrast, some pest animal species (which are and the duration of warm spells. often habitat and dietary generalists) may be advantaged by climate change, adding further  A decline in the number of frost days. pressure on native fauna. Drought and altered  A decline in cool season rainfall and seasonal rainfall patterns are likely to have increased intensity of heavy rainfall events. already contributed to the recent decline of the Grassland Earless Dragon in the ACT because of  A decline in annual snowfall and maximum the impacts on the species’ survival and snow depth. reproductive rates (Dimond et al. 2012). Other  Increased duration of meteorological grassland reptiles (such as the Striped Legless drought and frequency of extreme drought. Lizard (Delma impar)) may also be at risk from an increased incidence/severity of drought  An increase in the number of severe fire (NSW Government 2011). danger days (i.e. with a Forest Fire Danger Index of greater than 50). Changes to the dominant grasses can impact fauna by altering habitat structure and the These climate change projections are predicted availability of resources. For example, a shift to to affect grasslands in south-eastern Australia in an increased dominance of Themeda triandra at a range of ways, although there remains the expense of C3 grasses could result in a substantial uncertainty in the exact nature of decline in food availability for the Golden Sun the effects on grasslands mainly due to the Moth, which prefers C3 grasses for food. The complex interactions between changes in CO2, Golden Sun Moth might also be susceptible to temperature, seasonal rainfall, water availability changes in grassland productivity and/or and soil nutrients (Hovenden, Newton and Wills invasion of critical inter-tussock spaces by 2014; Prober et al. 2015). weeds (NSW Government, 2011). However, Many of the native grassland associations in the Golden Sun Moth larvae are able to use Chilean ACT and region are dominated by a mix of C3 Needlegrass as food and so an increase in this and C4 plant species (C3 and C4 refer to different weed might not be detrimental to the species. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 99 Another potential impact is the effect of altered measured for any kangaroo species have been leaf chemistry due to climate change on recorded on a number of ACT sites (ACT herbivores, including insects, with the effect on Government 2010 p 154–5), for example 4–7 grazing mammals an important area of future kangaroos per ha (equivalent to 400–700 research (Hovenden and Williams 2010). kangaroos per square km). De-coupling of essential obligate symbiotic In natural grasslands (not managed for relationships under climate change is another livestock) where kangaroo abundance is limited concern. An example is the loss of a specialist by food availability rather than culling or pollinator (either because the pollinator and predation, Eastern Grey Kangaroos are flowering are out of synchrony or the pollinator responsible for almost all of the grazing. has become locally extinct), resulting in local Kangaroos can eat 4.5 tonnes of living plant extinction of the plants dependent on the parts per ha each year when the density of pollinator. kangaroos is relatively high at 2.4 kangaroos/ha (ACT Government 2010, p104). The level and A loss in the quality or extent of native grassland nature of this herbivory largely determines the (through invasion by weeds, trees or shrubs) will vegetation structure (such as height and density affect plant and animal species dependent on of vegetation) of the grassland, which can affect native grassland for habitat. To ensure the the suitability of habitat for many other survival of viable wild populations of species organisms. The heterogeneous grass structure dependent on native grassland (such as considered desirable for conserving a diversity Grassland Earless Dragons), management of of fauna is not generally observed in either habitat will need to consider the requirement overgrazed or undergrazed conditions. for control of weeds and invading woody Management of grazing pressure from species. Maintaining grassland habitat by kangaroos can have profound effects on a controlling woody species will be ongoing if natural grassland ecosystem and be used to there is climatic pressure to change native maintain herbage biomass and grassland grassland to grassy woodland, and in such structure within desirable limits for situations long-term conservation goals (and conservation. Such manipulation may also be a long-term resource requirements) should be necessary step to achieving some other goals. carefully considered and clearly defined. For example, moderation of grazing pressure is Grasslands are expected to experience more likely to be an essential precursor to the frequent and greater extremes in temperature successful control of many weed species and rainfall. Grasslands with a higher herbage because overgrazed conditions favour many mass may help buffer small fauna species (e.g. weed species. However all herbivores graze reptiles and arthropods) from temperature selectively and the plant species they do not eat extremes by providing shade and minimising soil will tend to increase in abundance, which can temperature extremes (through shade and include weeds. For example Burgan (Kunzea acting as a thermal buffer). Higher herbage mass phylicoides) and St John’s Wort (Hypericum may also help maintain soil moisture by perforatum) are not eaten by kangaroos, though reducing evaporation. Management of grassland these species may be eaten by sheep. habitat will need to take into account the potential benefits of maintaining adequate Grazing pressure from kangaroos is generally sward biomass and structure to help buffer more difficult to manipulate than grazing grassland fauna from predicted climatic pressure from domestic livestock because extremes. numbers of livestock on a paddock can be more easily changed (livestock can be more easily fenced in or out of areas and can be easily added or removed from a paddock though

8.8 — KANGAROO GRAZING yarding and transport)

8.8 KANGAROO GRAZING yarding and transport). OF NATIVE Despite the practical advantages of livestock, GRASSLANDS kangaroos are preferable for long term conservation because they are distinctly The ACT region is within an area that is different grazers to livestock, being highly bioclimatically favourable to Eastern Grey selective for grasses (Jarman and Phillips 1989). Kangaroos and some of the highest densities 100 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Golden Sun Moth (D. Rees) Native grasslands have also evolved under kangaroo grazing, and kangaroos cause less damage to soils of grasslands than hard-hoofed livestock. However, under certain circumstances it may be necessary to use livestock for conservation grazing purposes, for example where grazing by kangaroos is unable to maintain grass structure and biomass within desired limits for conservation (which may be for a short period of time during wetter years). Also, kangaroos are not able to create an eaten down ‘asset protection zone’ (a 100m wide strip alongside housing to reduce the bush fire risk), nor do kangaroos graze-down Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) pasture (which cattle readily consume).

8.9 — DESCRIPTIONS OF

8.9 DESCRIPTIONS OF GRASSLAND ASSOCIATIONS The following are descriptions from Armstrong et al. (2013) of the nine grassland associations found in the ACT that are likely to contain Natural Temperate Grassland. r1: Sub-montane moist tussock grassland of the South Eastern Highlands bioregion Equivalent community in previous Action Plan (ACT Government 2005): No equivalent Community r1 is a dense moist tussock grassland dominated by Poa sieberiana and/or Themeda triandra in the upper stratum with a variety of forbs in the inter-tussock spaces, including Brachyscome scapigera, Asperula spp. (Asperula conferta or Asperula scoparia), increase in density at ecotones with adjacent Coronidium sp. ‘Alps’, Plantago antarctica, woodland and forest communities. Relatively Hydrocotyle algida, Ranunculus lappaceus, undisturbed sites may have a variety of Geranium antrorsum and Leptorhynchos uncommon grassland forbs, including squamatus. Other grasses are present including Prasophyllum wilkinsoniorum, Diplarrena Rytidosperma spp., Anthosachne scabra and moraea and Thysanotus tuberosus. Hemarthria uncinata. A variety of rushes Juncus spp. and sedges Carex spp. may also be present. This community is found on a variety of Isolated or scattered trees may occur including substrates but most commonly on colluvium or Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. pauciflora, alluvium on footslopes and flats. It also occurs Eucalyptus dalrympleana, Eucalyptus ovata or on basalt and granite lithologies and on midslopes and plateaux. Acacia melanoxylon. There may be isolated shrubs or patches of shrubs including Hakea Poor soil drainage, seasonal waterlogging and microcarpa, Discaria pubescens, Banksia severe frosts drive the distribution of this marginata, Bossiaea riparia, Bursaria spinosa community, as they restrict the establishment of and Mirbelia oxylobioides. Trees and shrubs woody species. Community r1 occurs in the Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 101 southern ACT (Namadgi NP) and the adjacent particularly on the broad flats associated with Yaouk area in NSW. creeks and rivers. Poor soil drainage associated with frequent seasonal waterlogging and, to a Elsewhere in NSW, it occurs near Delegate, lesser degree winter frosts, drive the Nunnock Swamp (South East Forests NP), Kydra distribution of this community as they restrict River and the upper headwaters of the the establishment of woody taxa. It is Shoalhaven River (Deua NP). distributed widely across the region wherever Degraded sites (i.e. lacking some of the main suitable habitat exists. species that define this community) may be Degraded sites (i.e. lacking some of the main difficult to distinguish from degraded sites of diagnostic taxa) may be confused with degraded Community r2 [Poa labillardierei – Themeda examples of Community r3 [Rytidosperma sp. – triandra – Juncus sp. wet tussock grassland of Themeda triandra – Juncus sp. tussock grassland footslopes, drainage lines and flats of the South of occasionally wet sites of the South Eastern Eastern Highlands bioregion] or Community r7 Highlands bioregion] or Community r7 [Themeda triandra – Rytidosperma sp. – Poa [Themeda triandra – Rytidosperma sp. – Poa sieberiana moist tussock grassland of the South sieberiana moist tussock grassland of the South Eastern Highlands bioregion]. Eastern Highlands bioregion]. r2: Poa labillardierei – Themeda triandra – r3: Rytidosperma sp. – Themeda triandra – Juncus sp. wet tussock grassland of footslopes, Juncus sp. tussock grassland of occasionally drainage lines and flats of the South Eastern wet sites of the South Eastern Highlands Highlands bioregion bioregion (r3) Equivalent community in previous Action Plan Equivalent community in previous Action Plan (ACT Government 2005): Wet Themeda (ACT Government 2005): No equivalent grassland Community r3 is a dense to mid-dense, low to Community r2 is a tall, dense or mid-dense wet mid-high tussock grassland dominated by tussock grassland dominated by Poa Wallaby Grasses (Rytidosperma spp.) and/or labillardierei usually with Themeda triandra, the Themeda triandra, with rushes (Juncus spp.) in sedge Carex appressa and rush Juncus spp. in the upper stratum and a variety of smaller the upper stratum and a variety of grasses and grasses, sedges and forbs in the lower stratum. forbs in the inter-tussock spaces, including Lower stratum species include Lachnagrostis Microlaena stipoides, Rytidosperma spp., spp., Schoenus apogon, Haloragis heterophylla, Anthosachne scabra, Acaena ovina, Asperula Hydrocotyle algida, Carex appressa, spp. (Asperula conferta or Asperula scoparia), Amphibromus spp. and Anthosachne scabra. Euphrasia spp., Coronidium sp. ‘Alps’ and Isolated or scattered trees may be present, Hemarthria uncinata. Isolated or scattered trees including Eucalyptus ovata, Eucalyptus rubida may be present, including Eucalyptus pauciflora and Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. pauciflora. subsp. pauciflora, Eucalyptus viminalis, Trees increase in density at ecotones with Eucalyptus rubida, Eucalyptus stellulata, adjacent woodland or (rarely) forest Eucalyptus aggregata, Eucalyptus bridgesiana, communities. Relatively undisturbed sites have Acacia dealbata, Acacia mearnsii or Acacia a variety of uncommon grassland forbs including melanoxylon. Isolated shrubs or patches of Craspedia spp., Dichopogon fimbriatus, Montia shrubs may also occur including Kunzea australasica and Calotis anthemoides. parvifolia, Melaleuca parvistaminea, Astroloma This community is found most commonly on humifusum, Einadia nutans and Hakea flats on or adjacent drainage lines or wetlands, microcarpa. Trees and shrubs increase in density and occasionally on footslope and midslope where this community merges into the adjacent situations. Substrates are colluvium or alluvium woodland communities. Relatively undisturbed derived from sedimentary or granite parent sites may have a variety of uncommon grassland material. Poor soil drainage associated with forbs including Craspedia spp., Geranium frequent seasonal waterlogging and severe antrorsum, Calocephalus citreus, Ranunculus winter frosts drive the distribution of this lappaceus and Brachyscome decipiens. community, as they restrict the establishment of Community r2 is found on colluvium or alluvium woody taxa. and on drainage lines in footslopes and 102 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans This community occurs in the Bondo and Pimelea curviflora, Rutidosis leptorhynchoides, Murrumbateman subregions of the South Wurmbea dioica, Microtis spp., Dichopogon Eastern Highlands bioregion and the upper fimbriatus, Bulbine bulbosa and Calotis Shoalhaven valley. Degraded sites (i.e. lacking anthemoides. some of the main diagnostic taxa) may be Community r5 is found on a variety of confused with degraded examples of topographic situations, including footslopes, Community r2 [Poa labillardierei – Themeda midslopes and flats and on a variety of triandra – Juncus sp. wet tussock grassland of substrates, including sedimentary strata, footslopes, drainage lines and flats of the South colluvium, alluvium or granite. The combined Eastern Highlands bioregion], although factors of severe winter and spring frosts, Community r3 generally occurs on drier sites exposure to hot drying westerly winds in than those occupied by Community r2. summer, and to a lesser degree seasonal Community r7 [Themeda triandra – waterlogging and cracking clays, limit the Rytidosperma sp. – Poa sieberiana moist tussock establishment of woody taxa in this community. grassland of the South Eastern Highlands bioregion] is another grassland community with This grassland is mainly found in the which Community r3 frequently co-occurs. Murrumbateman subregion, but is also found in the Shoalhaven River valley. Degraded sites (i.e. r5: Rytidosperma sp. – Austrostipa bigeniculata lacking some of the main species that define this – Chrysocephalum apiculatum tussock community) may be difficult to distinguish from grassland of the South Eastern Highlands degraded examples of Community r3 bioregion [Rytidosperma sp. – Themeda triandra – Juncus sp. tussock grassland of occasionally wet sites of Equivalent community in previous Action Plan the South Eastern Highlands bioregion] or (ACT Government 2005): Austrodanthonia Community r7 [Themeda triandra – Grassland and Austrostipa Grassland Rytidosperma sp. – Poa sieberiana moist tussock Community r5 is a mid-dense to dense, low to grassland of the South Eastern Highlands tall tussock grassland dominated by bioregion]. Rytidosperma spp. (mainly Rytidosperma carphoides and Rytidosperma auriculatum), r6: Dry tussock grassland of the Monaro in the Bothriochloa macra, Austrostipa bigeniculata South Eastern Highlands bioregion and Themeda triandra. Chrysocephalum Equivalent community in previous Action Plan apiculatum and Lomandra bracteata are (ACT Government 2005): Dry Themeda common components of the lower stratum. Grassland Other grasses and forbs are present, including Panicum effusum, Plantago varia, Austrostipa Community r6 is an open to dense, mid-high to scabra, Anthosachne scabra, Goodenia tall tussock grassland dominated by one or more pinnatifida, Triptilodiscus pygmaeus, of the following in the upper stratum: Poa Calocephalus citreus, Schoenus apogon and sieberiana, Rytidosperma spp., Themeda Tricoryne elatior. One of the very few NSW triandra, Austrostipa scabra and Austrostipa populations of Lepidium hyssopifolium is found bigeniculata. There is a diversity of forbs and in this community. Isolated or scattered trees other grasses in the inter-tussock spaces, and tall shrubs may be present including including Chrysocephalum apiculatum, Acaena Eucalyptus melliodora, Eucalyptus blakelyi, ovina, Asperula conferta, Wahlenbergia spp., Eucalyptus rubida, Eucalyptus bridgesiana, Scleranthus diander, Anthosachne scabra, Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. pauciflora or Plantago varia, Poa meionectes, Bothriochloa Acacia dealbata. Smaller shrubs may occur macra, Brachyscome heterodonta, Enneapogon including Lissanthe strigosa, Daviesia nigricans and Leptorhynchos squamatus. genistifolia, Melichrus urceolatus and Acacia Isolated or scattered trees may be present, genistifolia. Trees and shrubs increase in density including Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. where this community merges with the adjacent pauciflora, Eucalyptus lacrimans, Acacia woodland communities. dealbata or Acacia rubida. Isolated patches of shrubs may also occur, generally containing Relatively undisturbed sites have a variety of Einadia nutans, Melicytus sp. ‘Snowfields’, uncommon grassland forbs, including Eryngium Cryptandra amara, Pimelea glauca, Discaria ovinum, Tricoryne elatior, Calocephalus citreus, Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 103 pubescens, Mirbelia oxylobioides and Dodonaea Asperula conferta, Juncus spp., Acaena ovina, procumbens. Trees and shrubs increase in Anthosachne scabra, Schoenus apogon and density in ecotones with adjacent woodland Plantago varia. Isolated or scattered trees may communities or on rocky sites. Relatively be present, including Eucalyptus pauciflora undisturbed sites have a variety of uncommon subsp. pauciflora, Eucalyptus rubida, Eucalyptus grassland forbs including Geranium antrorsum, aggregata, Eucalyptus melliodora, Acacia Rutidosis leiolepis, Swainsona sericea, Cullen dealbata or Acacia mearnsii. Isolated shrubs or tenax, Pimelea curviflora and Stackhousia patches of shrubs may also occur including monogyna. Melicytus sp. ‘Snowfields’, Hovea linearis, Pimelea glauca, Lissanthe strigosa, Daviesia This community is found on a variety of latifolia, Daviesia mimosoides, Leucopogon substrates; most commonly on basalt and fraseri, Melichrus urceolatus, Bossiaea buxifolia, sedimentary strata, occasionally occurring on Cryptandra amara and Kunzea parvifolia. Trees granite, and rarely on colluvium or alluvium. It and shrubs increase in density at ecotones with commonly occurs on midslope, upperslope and adjacent woodland communities. Relatively plateau situations, and rarely on footslopes and undisturbed sites have a variety of uncommon flats. It occurs within the drier portions of the grassland forbs including Hypericum japonicum, Monaro region, commonly referred to as the Tricoryne elatior, Pimelea curviflora, Microtis Monaro rainshadow. spp., Prasophyllum petilum, Calocephalus Severe winter and spring frosts, exposure to hot citreus, Eryngium ovinum, Craspedia spp., drying westerly winds in summer, periodic snow Ranunculus lappaceus, Rutidosis and the occurrence of cracking clays leptorhynchoides, Bulbine bulbosa, Stackhousia (particularly on colluvial soils derived from monogyna and Wurmbea dioica. basalt) all serve to limit the establishment of This community is found on midslopes and woody taxa in this community. Community r2 footslopes and to a lesser degree on flats. It is [Poa labillardierei – Themeda triandra – Juncus most commonly found on sedimentary, sp. Wet tussock grassland of footslopes, colluviums and granite lithologies, and drainage lines and flats of the South Eastern infrequently on alluvium and basalt. It is Highlands bioregion] may be found in moist distributed widely, being found in the depressions and drainage lines adjacent to this Murrumbatemen and Crookwell subregions of community. Sites along the wetter fringe of the the South Eastern Highlands, the Shoalhaven region, especially degraded sites (i.e. lacking Valley, and in moister outer fringes of the some of the main species that define this Monaro region beyond rainshadow areas. community) may be confused with degraded Outliers occur near Tumbarumba, Tumut, examples of Community r7 [Themeda triandra – Bathurst and Orange. Severe winter and spring Rytidosperma sp. – Poa sieberiana moist tussock frosts, exposure to hot, drying westerly winds in grassland of the South Eastern Highlands summer, occasional waterlogging and the bioregion]. occurrence of cracking clays limit the r7: Themeda triandra – Rytidosperma sp. – Poa establishment of woody taxa. Community r7 sieberiana moist tussock grassland of the South grades into Community r2 [Poa labillardierei – Eastern Highlands bioregion Themeda triandra – Juncus sp. wet tussock grassland of footslopes, drainage lines and flats Equivalent community in previous Action Plan of the South Eastern Highlands bioregion] and (ACT Government 2005): Wet Themeda Community r3 [Rytidosperma sp. – Themeda Grassland triandra – Juncus sp. tussock grassland of Community r7 is an open to dense, mid-high to occasionally wet sites of the South Eastern tall tussock grassland with the upper stratum Highlands bioregion] in moist depressions and dominated by Themeda triandra and with a sub- drainage lines. dominance of Rytidosperma spp. and Poa Where distribution overlaps, it may be confused sieberiana. with Community r6 [Dry tussock grassland of the Inter-tussock spaces are generally occupied by Monaro in the South Eastern Highlands herbaceous taxa including Chrysocephalum bioregion]. Confusion between this community apiculatum, Leptorhynchos squamatus, and those above may occur where the Microlaena stipoides, Wahlenbergia spp., communities intergrade, especially in degraded 104 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans sites (i.e. those lacking some of the main It is sparsely distributed, with isolated diagnostic taxa that define Community r7). occurrences in the Yass, Goulburn, Tarago and Braidwood regions. Often, Community r8 occurs r8: Rocky Grasslands Themeda triandra – adjacent to Community r7 [Themeda triandra – Lomandra filiformis – Aristida ramosa dry Rytidosperma sp. – Poa sieberiana moist tussock tussock grassland in the South Eastern grassland of the South Eastern Highlands Highlands bioregion bioregion], which occurs on moister sites Equivalent community in previous Action Plan downslope. Confusion between these two communities is expected to occur where the (ACT Government 2005): No equivalent communities intergrade, and especially in Community r8 is an open to dense, mid to tall degraded examples (i.e. lacking some of the tussock grassland with the upper stratum main diagnostic taxa that define these dominated by Themeda triandra, Aristida communities). Community r8 does not occur in ramosa, Lomandra filiformis and Austrostipa the Monaro, where it is generally replaced by a densiflora. Other gramonoids may include subtype of Community r6 [Dry Tussock Rytidosperma spp., Microlaena stipoides, Grassland of the Monaro in the South Eastern Lomandra multiflora, Austrostipa scabra and Highlands bioregion]. Poa sieberiana. Inter-tussock spaces are generally occupied by a diverse range of forbs a14: Poa costiniana – Carex gaudichaudiana including Chrysocephalum apiculatum, subalpine valley grassland of the Australian Wahlenbergia spp., Pimelea curviflora, Alps bioregion Goodenia hederacea subsp. hederacea and Equivalent community in previous Action Plan Gonocarpus tetragynus. Isolated or scattered (ACT Government 2005): No equivalent trees may be present including Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. pauciflora, Eucalyptus Community a14 is a grassland or occasionally melliodora, Jacksonia scoparia, Acacia mearnsii open heathland confined to broad valley floors or Acacia dealbata. and seepage areas on gentle slopes. Dominant species vary between localities, but common Isolated patches of shrubs may also occur components include herbaceous species such as including Lissanthe strigosa, Hibbertia Poa costiniana, which is usually dominant, obtusifolia, Melichrus urceolatus, Astroloma Hookerochloa hookeriana, Baloskion australe, humifusum, Bursaria spinosa, Dillwynia sericea Carex gaudichaudiana, Empodisma minus and and Dodonaea boroniifolia. Trees and shrubs Stylidium montanum as well as shrubs including increase in density at ecotones with adjacent Epacris breviflora, Epacris gunnii and Hakea woodland communities, and shrubs may be microcarpa. In the northern part of its range, especially dense in rocky areas. Relatively including the ACT, Poa labillardierei is often undisturbed sites have a variety of herbaceous dominant. Soils are typically sodden humified taxa uncommon in grassland communities peats. including Pimelea curviflora, Tricoryne elatior, Dianella revoluta, Boerhavia dominii, Stylidium Community a14 is common from Bimberi, graminifolium sens. lat., Bulbine glauca, Brindabella and Scabby Ranges (ACT), through Cymbopogon refractus and Dianella longifolia. lower altitude plains within Kosciuszko NP (Kiandra and Tantangara areas, Mt. Selwyn, This community is most commonly found on Tooma/Tumut Divide, Cooleman Plain, Happy midslopes and upperslopes, although it can Jacks Plain and Currango Plain). It also occurs in infrequently occur on rocky flats adjacent to the more easterly ranges of Victoria (e.g. Mt. creeks. It is found most commonly on soils Wombargo-Cobberas area, Nunniong Plateau, derived from sedimentary strata and Davies Plain and Dinner Plain). infrequently from granite, usually on steep exposed northwest- facing slopes, including in It commonly grades into Community a2 river gorges. [Baeckea gunniana – Epacris paludosa – Richea continentis – Sphagnum cristatum wet Sites generally overlook extensive valleys or heathland of the Australian Alps bioregion plains; thus they are subjected to hot, drying (Bog)] in areas with impeded drainage and north-westerly winds in summer, which is a Community a30 [Poa hookeri – Poa clivicola – main determinant of species composition in this Oreomyrrhis argentea – Ranunculus graniticola community. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 105 grassland of the Australian Alps bioregion] on mapping unit. The Poa hookeri-dominated drier sites. variant is characterised by dwarf tussocks of Poa hookeri and the closed cover of mat-forming a30: Poa hookeri – Poa clivicola – Oreomyrrhis herbs, shrubs and low shrubs (e.g. Calotis argentea – Ranunculus graniticola grassland of pubescens, Coprosma nivalis, Dillwynia the Australian Alps bioregion prostrata, Pimelea biflora, Pultenaea Equivalent community in previous Action Plan fasciculata, Pultenaea polifolia, Rutidosis (ACT Government 2005): No equivalent leiolepis). Community a30 is the most common grassland of the treeless plains in Kosciuszko NP, Community a30 is a grassland characterised by a occurring from the upper Thredbo Valley in the dense cover of one or often several species of south to Emu Plain in the west, Cooleman Plain Poa (mainly Poa clivicola, Poa costiniana, Poa in the north and Snowy Plain in the east. It is the hiemata or Poa hookeri but occasionally Poa dominant community of large plains such as petrophila or Poa phillipsiana) with numerous Kiandra, Happy Jacks and Long Plains and also intertussock spaces containing a large range of occurs in the ACT at Cheyenne Flat and Bimberi herbaceous species. Tall shrubs such as Hakea (and probably elsewhere at high altitude). microcarpa and Cassinia monticola may be present in this community and at times are Its distribution is controlled by temperature and abundant enough for the vegetation to be soil depth: low temperatures associated with structurally an open heathland. cold air drainage in the growing season do not favour tall shrub and tree establishment. It is Despite the greater shrub cover, such examples best expressed where soils are deep and on are floristically inseparable from surrounding shallow soils it is replaced by heathlands and grasslands. There is photographic evidence that woodlands. these shrubs are recent invaders of the grassland community. Their invasion has The lower edge of this community commonly probably been facilitated by past grazing adjoins Community a14 [Poa costiniana – Carex disturbance, although climate change will also gaudichaudiana subalpine valley grassland of favour expansion of shrubs into frost hollows. the Australian Alps bioregion] and its upper The component of this community dominated edge is usually Community u158 [Alpine Sallee by Poa hookeri was regarded as a distinct shrub-grass subalpine mid-high woodland of the community by McDougall & Walsh (2007) and Australian Alps Bioregion]. Patches of may well be so. Community a33 [Bossiaea foliosa – Cassinia monticola – Kunzea muelleri – Hovea montana In the places where it occurs (Kosciuszko NP heathland of the Australian Alps bioregion] and north from the Happy Jacks area), it forms a Community a34 [Weeping Snow Gum – Small- mosaic with grassland dominated by other fruited Hakea – Blue Snow-grass grassy open species, making it hard to collect homogeneous woodland of the Australian Alps bioregion] may samples and increasing the likelihood of be found in a mosaic within the grassland. combination in the classification. In any case, the grasslands would be inseparable as a 106 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Blue Grass Liley (J. Lidner) Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 107 9. REFERENCES 108 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 109 Management Plan (ACT Government ACT Government 2004. Woodlands for Wildlife: Canberra). 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Early post-fire regeneration in subalpine Greening Australia (ACT Region), Canberra. heathland and grassland in the Victorian Alpine National Park, south-eastern Sinclair SJ, Duncan DH and Bruce MJ 2014. Australia, Austral Ecology 26: 670-679. Mortality of native grasses after a summer fire in Natural Temperate Grassland suggests Walker J and Hopkins MS 2009. Vegetation, in ecosystem instability, Ecological Australian soil and land survey field Management and Restoration 15(1): 91-94. handbook 3rd Edition (CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood Victoria). Snell K, Grech C and Davies J 2007. National best practice management manual – Chilean Ward D, Honan P and Lefoe G 2002. Colony needle grass (Victorian Government, structure and nest characteristics of Melbourne). European wasps, Vespula germanica (F.) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), in Victoria, Stevens TA, Evans MC, Osborne WS and Sarre Australia, Australian Journal of Entomology SD 2010. Home ranges of, and habitat use 41: 306–309. by, the grassland earless dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla) in remnant Williams KJH 2015. Understanding the social native grasslands near Canberra, Australian context of native grasslands, in Land of Journal of Zoology 58(2): 76-84. sweeping plains: managing and restoring the native grasslands of south-eastern Australia, Timbal B, Abbs D, Bhend J, Chiew F, Church J, eds NSG Williams, A Marshall, JW Morgan Ekstrom M, Kirono D, Lenton A, Lucas C, (CSIRO Publishing, Clayton South): pp. 163– McInnes K, Moise A, Monselesan D, 181. Mpelasoka F, Webb L and Whetton P 2015. Murray Basin Cluster Report in Climate Williams NSG and A Marshall 2015. Introduction Change in Australia Projections for in Land of sweeping plains: managing and Australia’s Natural Resource Management restoring the native grasslands of south- Regions: Cluster Reports eds M Ekstrom, P eastern Australia, eds NSG Williams, A Whetton, C Gerbing, M Grose, L Webb and J Marshall, JW Morgan (CSIRO Publishing, Risbey (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, Clayton South): pp. 1-4. Australia). Williams NSG, Marshall A and Morgan JW (eds.) Tremont RM and McIntyre S 1994. Natural 2015. Land of sweeping plains: managing grassy vegetation and native forbs in and restoring the native grasslands of south- temperate Australia: structure dynamics and eastern Australia (CSIRO Publishing, Clayton life histories, Australian Journal of Botany 42: South). 641-658. Williams NSG, Marshall A, Morgan JW, Delpratt J, Gibson-Roy P and Wong N 2015. The Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 117 future of south-eastern Australia’s native Williams NSG, Morgan JW, McDonnell MJ and temperate grasslands in Land of sweeping McCarthy MA 2005. Plant traits and local plains: managing and restoring the native extinctions in natural grasslands along an grasslands of south-eastern Australia, eds urban–rural gradient, Journal of Ecology 93: NSG Williams, A Marshall, JW Morgan (CSIRO 1203-1213. Publishing, Clayton South): pp. 419-431. Williams KJ, Prober SM, Harwood TD, Doerr VAJ, Williams NSG, McDonnell MJ and and Seager EJ Jeanneret T, Manion G, and Ferrier S 2014. 2005. Factors influencing the loss of an Implications of climate change for endangered ecosystem in an urbanising biodiversity: a community-level modelling landscape: a case study of native grasslands approach (CSIRO Land and Water Flagship, from Melbourne, Australia, Landscape and Canberra). www.AdaptNRM.org Urban Planning 71: 35–49. Williams AL, Wills KE, Janes JK, Vander Schoor Williams NSG and Morgan JW 2015. The native JK, Newton PC and Hovenden MJ 2007. temperate grasslands of south-eastern Warming and free-air CO2 enrichment alter Australia, in Land of sweeping plains: demographics in four co-occurring grassland managing and restoring the native species, New Phytologist 176(2): 365–374. grasslands of south-eastern Australia, eds Wong N and Morgan JW 2007. Review of NSG Williams, A Marshall, JW Morgan (CSIRO Grassland Management in south-eastern Publishing, Clayton South): pp. 27–59. Australia. Parks Victoria Technical Report No. Williams NSG, Morgan JW, McCarthy MA and 39 (Parks Victoria, Melbourne). McDonnell MJ 2006. Local extinction of grassland plants: the landscape matrix is more important than patch attributes, Ecology 87(12): 3000-3006. 118 Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 119 Draft Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 120 PART B ACTION PLANS The Native Grassland Conservation Strategy provides a strategic framework for the Action Plans in this section. Action Plans are statutory documents under the Nature Conservation Act 2014. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy and Action Plans 121 NATURAL TEMPERATE GRASSLAND ENDANGERED ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITY ACTION PLAN 122 Natural Temperate Grassland Draft Action Plan PREAMBLE Natural Temperate Grassland was declared an endangered ecological community on 15 April 1996 (Instrument No. DI1996-29 Nature Conservation Act 1980). Under section 101 of the Nature Conservation Act 2014, the Conservator of Flora and Fauna is responsible for preparing a draft action plan for listed ecological communities. The first action plan for this ecological community was prepared in 1997 (ACT Government 1997). This revised edition supersedes all previous editions. This action plan includes the ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy set out in schedule 1 to the ‘Nature Conservation (Native Grassland) Action Plans 2017’, to the extent it is relevant. Measures proposed in this action plan complement those proposed in the action plans for Yellow Box / Red Gum Grassy Woodland, and component threatened species that occur in Natural Temperate Grassland: Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar), Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla), Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana), Perunga Grasshopper (Perunga ochracea), Ginninderra Peppercress (Lepidium ginninderrense), Button Wrinklewort (Rutidosis leptorhynchoides) and Baeuerlen’s Gentian (Gentiana baeuerlenii). CONSERVATION STATUS CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES Natural Temperate Grassland is recognised as a The overall objective of this plan is to conserve threatened community in the following sources: Natural Temperate Grassland in perpetuity as a viable and well-represented community across National its natural geographic range in the ACT. This Critically Endangered – Natural Temperate includes managing and restoring natural Grassland of the South Eastern Highlands – ecological and evolutionary processes within the Environment Protection and Biodiversity community. Conservation Act 1999 (Department of Specific objectives of the action plan: Environment 2016b)  Conserve all remaining areas of Natural Australian Capital Territory Temperate Grassland in the ACT that are in moderate to high ecological condition. Endangered – Natural Temperate Grassland – Nature Conservation Act 2014  Retain areas of native grassland in lower ecological condition that serve as ecological New South Wales buffers or landscape connections, or that are a priority for restoration. Natural Temperate Grassland currently has no formal conservation status as an ecological  Manage Natural Temperate Grasslands to: community under NSW legislation.  maintain and improve grassland The Commonwealth Natural Temperate structure and function Grassland listing may overlap with grassland  reduce the impacts of threats components of the NSW-listed Tablelands Snow Gum, Black Sallee, Candlebark and Ribbon Gum  improve threatened species habitat Grassy Woodland in the South Eastern  conserve grassland biodiversity Highlands, Sydney Basin, South East Corner and NSW South Western Slopes Bioregions  Increase the extent, condition and ecological community. connectivity of Natural Temperate Grassland Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 123 in the ACT by restoring priority grassland  Treeless or contains up to 10% projective sites. cover of trees, shrubs or sedges.  Promote a greater awareness amongst all  Dominated by native grasses and/or native relevant agencies, landholders and forbs (more than 50% total vegetative cover, stakeholders of the objectives of this Action excluding introduced annuals). Plan, and strengthen community  A diversity of native forbs present, or if engagement in grassland conservation. disturbed, having components of the indigenous native species (including both existing plants and reproductive propagules COMMUNITY DESCRIPTION in the soil e.g. soil seed banks) sufficient to AND ECOLOGY re-establish the characteristic native groundcover (Environment ACT 2005). DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION Fauna are an intrinsic part of grassland Native grasslands are vegetation communities ecosystems, and are essential for a range of dominated (> 50% cover) by native grasses and functions such as pollination, seed dispersal, forbs where the cover of shrubs and trees is less nutrient recycling and maintenance of soil than 10% (Eddy 2002). condition. Common grassland fauna include Native grasslands include Natural Temperate mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs, and Grassland, which is defined as follows: invertebrates such as spiders, ants, flies, moths, Natural Temperate Grassland is a native beetles, and grasshoppers (Eddy 2002; Antos ecological community that is dominated by and Williams 2015). Eastern Grey Kangaroos moderately tall (25–50 cm) to tall (50 cm–1.0 m) (Macropus giganteus) are the most abundant dense to open native tussock grasses (Themeda native mammalian herbivore in grasslands in the triandra, Rytidosperma species, Austrostipa ACT, and through grazing can have a profound species, Bothriochloa macra, Poa species). There effect of the structure and composition of is also a diversity of native herbaceous plants Natural Temperate Grasslands. (forbs), which may comprise up to 70% of Threatened species found in Natural Temperate species present. The community is naturally Grassland (Table 1) include three threatened treeless or contains up to 10% cover of trees or grassland reptiles: Grassland Earless Dragon shrubs in its tallest stratum. In the ACT it occurs (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla), Striped Legless up to 1200 m above sea level (asl) in locations Lizard (Delma impar) and Pink-tailed Worm- where tree growth is limited by cold air Lizard (Aprasia parapulchella). The Pink-tailed drainage. While the definition of Natural Worm-lizard is associated with both grasslands Temperate Grassland is expressed in terms of and grassy woodlands, and a separate action the vegetation, the ecological community plan has been prepared for this species (ACT comprises both the flora and the fauna, the Government 2017). Natural Temperate interactions of which are intrinsic to the Grassland in the ACT is home to two threatened functioning of grassy ecosystems. species of invertebrates: the Perunga The key defining characteristics to identify Grasshopper (Perunga ochracea), and the Natural Temperate Grassland in the field are: Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana). More detailed information on the description,  Occurrence within the ACT’s temperate zone habitat and ecology of native grasslands where tree growth is climatically limited (including Natural Temperate Grassland), is (elevation up to approximately 1200 m). given in section 8 of the strategy (Part A of this document). 124 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan Table 1. Threatened species in ACT Natural Temperate Grasslands. Species Status Natural Temperate Grassland Sites* Button Wrinklewort Endangered - EPBC Act Campbell Park Offices, Crace NR, HMAS Harman, (Rutidosis 1999 and NC Act 2014 Woods Lane, Kintore St (Yarralumla), Majura Training leptorhynchoides) Area, St Mark’s (Barton), Tennant St (Fyshwick). Ginninderra Peppercress Vulnerable - EPBC Act Lawson Grasslands (former Belconnen Naval (Lepidium 1999, Endangered - NC Transmission Station), Franklin Grasslands. ginninderrense) Act 2014 Baeuerlen’s Gentian Endangered - EPBC Act Orroral Valley (Namadgi National Park). (Gentiana baeuerlenii) 1999 and NC Act 2014 Grassland Earless Dragon Endangered - EPBC Act Majura Training Area, Canberra Airport, Majura Valley (Tympanocryptis 1999 and NC Act 2014 West, Jerrabomberra West NR, Jerrabomberra East, pinguicolla) Cookanalla, Bonshaw. Striped Legless Lizard Endangered - EPBC Act Mulangarri NR, Gungaderra NR, Crace NR, Lawson (Delma impar) 1999, Vulnerable -NC Grasslands, Yarramundi Grassland, Majura Valley West, Act 2014 Majura Training Area, Fyshwick, Jerrabomberra East, Jerrabomberra West NR, Bonshaw, Amtech East. Golden Sun Moth Critically Endangered - Mulangarri NR, Gungaderra NR, Crace NR, Franklin (Synemon plana) EPBC Act 1999, Grasslands, Lawson Grasslands, Dunlop NR, Jaramlee, Endangered - NC Act Lake Ginninderra, Lawson Grasslands, University of 2014 Canberra, Yarramundi Grassland, Limestone Ave, St John’s (Reid), Lady Denman Drive, Dudley Street, Novar Street (Yarralumla), Black Street (Yarralumla), Kintore Street (Yarralumla), St Mark’s (Barton), York Park, Constitution Ave, Campbell Park, Majura Valley West, Majura Training Area, Canberra International Airport, Amtech East, Jerrabomberra West NR, Jerrabomberra East, HMAS Harman. Perunga Grasshopper Vulnerable - NC Act Crace NR, Gungaderra NR, Mulangarri NR, Lawson (Perunga ochracea) 2014 Grasslands, Yarramundi Grassland, Canberra Airport, Majura Training Area, Majura Valley West, Cookanalla, Amtech East, Jerrabomberra West NR, Jerrabomberra East. Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Vulnerable – EPBC Act Molonglo and Murrumbidge River Corridors, also sites (Aprasia parapulchella) 1999 and NC Act 2014 in woodlands. * Species may also occur in sites in the ACT in addition to those containing Natural Temperate Grassland. Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 125 Figure 1. Distribution of Natural Temperate Grassland and lower condition grasslands in the ACT. 126 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan DISTRIBUTION productive and undisturbed sites is often dominated by Themeda triandra with Poa The distribution of Natural Temperate Grassland sieberiana as a co-dominant or sub-dominant in the ACT extends from the low-lying plains of species. On drier sites with poorer soils, or on Canberra’s urban area to valleys of up to 1200 sites with a long history of grazing, Natural m asl in the mountains of Namadgi National Temperate Grassland is instead often Park (Figure 1). However, the extensive dominated by grasses such as Rytidosperma and modification of Natural Temperate Grassland Austrostipa species. since European settlement in the Canberra district from the early 1800s has resulted in the The identification of Natural Temperate loss and fragmentation of the community. As a Grassland within these grassland communities consequence, throughout its distributional generally requires field surveys to determine range, Natural Temperate Grassland usually whether the four key defining characteristics occurs as small and often isolated remnants, (see Definition section) relating to location, tree particularly in the lower elevation plains where cover, and native vegetation characteristics are the ACT’s urban and industrial development is met (e.g. Baines et al. 2014). Grasslands in the concentrated (ACT Government 2005). ACT exist across a continuum of quality, and those that do not fit the definition and criteria The definitions and descriptions of Natural provided in this action plan may be considered Temperate Grassland community types have instead as native grassland or exotic grassland. changed over time as research into the composition, distribution and ecology of native In the ACT, Natural Temperate Grassland occurs grasslands has developed. In the previous action on a mix of land tenures, including: plans, Natural Temperate Grassland was  ACT Government managed land such as considered to consist of five floristic urban nature reserves, urban open space, associations: Wet Themeda Grassland, Poa roadsides, and Namadgi National Park. labillardieri Grassland, Danthonia (now Rytidosperma) Grassland, Dry Themeda  Commonwealth land, including areas Grassland and Stipa (now Austrostipa) Grassland managed by the Department of Defence (e.g. (ACT Government 2005, 1997). These Majura Training Area and Campbell Park), community types and descriptions have been CSIRO (e.g. Ginninderra Experimental recently refined at a regional level (Armstrong et Station) and the National Capital Authority al. 2013), and an ACT-wide map based on these (e.g. Yarramundi Grassland). newer classifications is in development. Natural  Canberra International Airport. Temperate Grassland is now considered to exist in nine native grassland communities in the ACT  Rural leases and agistments. (Armstrong et al. 2013). Each grassland In Canberra’s lowland urban area, Natural community type is differentiated by structure, Temperate Grassland is particularly fragmented dominant and co-dominant native grass species, and restricted. The largest extent can be found native forb composition, and distribution across in the east and south, particularly the the landscape. Jerrabomberra (Figure 2) and Majura (Figure 3) These characteristics are dependent on a range valleys, including native grasslands in Majura of site factors and land use practices since Training Area and Canberra International European settlement including drainage, slope, Airport. Relatively large areas of native elevation, landscape position, geology, soil type, grasslands can also be found in Gungahlin and agricultural history. Site productivity is a (Figure 4) and Belconnen (Figure 5), including particularly important factor influencing the Crace Nature Reserve, Mulanggari Nature distribution of different grassland communities Reserve, Gungaderra Nature Reserve and (Schultz et al. 2011; Lunt et al. 2012; Williams Lawson Grasslands (former Belconnen Naval and Morgan 2015; Armstrong et al. 2013). For Transmission Station). example, Natural Temperate Grassland in wet sites such as creek and river flats is likely to be dominated by the large tussock grass Poa labillardierei, with co-dominant sedges and rushes such as Carex appressa and Juncus spp. present. Natural Temperate Grassland in Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 127 Smaller grassland fragments in Canberra’s west include Dunlop Nature Reserve, Umbagong Park and Kama Nature Reserve (Figure 6). The smallest remnants are scattered throughout central Canberra, including patches in Yarralumla, Barton and Reid (Figure 7). The total area of Natural Temperate Grassland in these lowland areas (below 625 m) is approximately 880 ha. Figure 2. Natural Temperate Grassland distribution in the Jerrabomberra Valley. 128 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan Figure 3. Natural Temperate Grassland distribution in the Majura Valley. Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 129 Figure 4. Natural Temperate Grassland distribution in Gungahlin. Dry Tussock Grassland 130 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan Figure 5. Natural Temperate Grassland distribution in Belconnen. Figure 6. Natural Temperate Grassland distribution in West Belconnen. Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 131 Figure 7. Natural Temperate Grassland distribution in Central Canberra. Natural Temperate Grassland has been recently In some of these valleys, the grasslands have mapped in higher elevation areas of the ACT been extended by the clearing of trees during (Figure 8). The most extensive areas are to be the pastoral period, and these locations should found in the high quality native grasslands in the be considered secondary grasslands (ACT valleys of Namadgi National Park. These include Government 2010). The most up to date Long Flat, Grassy Creek, Orroral Valley, Sam’s distribution data for this community is publicly Creek, Nursery Creek, Rendezvous Creek, available on the ACT Government’s mapping Bogong Creek, and Emu Flats. portal (Visit the ACTmapi website). 132 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan Figure 8. Natural Temperate Grassland distribution within Namadgi National Park. Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 133 PREVIOUS AND CURRENT All management and conservation actions have MANAGEMENT been undertaken in a regional context, recognising that Natural Temperate Grassland in The management and conservation of Natural the ACT is part of a broader ecological Temperate Grassland in the ACT has evolved community that includes the surrounding South over time from a focus on identification and East Highlands of NSW, as well as being part of protection to adaptive management and the once-widespread grassland belt that restoration. The first major steps towards the extended throughout south-eastern Australia. conservation of the community in the ACT were To achieve this regional emphasis, conservation undertaken in the early 1990s. Prior to this, and management activities are undertaken in knowledge of natural grassland remnants in the partnership and collaboration with other ACT was limited, with only a small number of relevant regional and cross-border partners incomplete surveys conducted (ACT such as the NSW Office of Environment and Government 1997). This lack of knowledge was Heritage, the Kosciuszko to Coast (K2C) addressed by a four year recovery plan, which partnership, the South East Local Land Services, commenced in 1993. The recovery plan and the Yass and Queanbeyan - Palerang achieved a range of measures including Regional Councils. mapping grassland distribution and surveying grassland floristics, ecological research into Management of Natural Temperate Grasslands grassland plants and some threatened species, in the ACT has five key strategies: impacts of herbicides on selected native grasses, 1. management of herbage mass, structure and development of a management plan, disturbance regimes establishment of a long-term monitoring 2. monitoring program, compilation of a database, and the 3. invasive species management presentation of seminars and educational 4. restoration materials (ACT Government 1997). During this 5. community engagement period, Natural Temperate Grassland was also Each strategy is briefly outlined below, for more declared as an endangered ecological in-depth information on each please refer to the community in the ACT (1996). Since then, action ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy plans have been produced and revised for (ACT Government 2016c). managing the community and its component threatened grassland species (Table 1). Management of Herbage Mass, Structure and A core focus of Natural Temperate Grassland Disturbance Regimes management has been to ensure the The main methods for managing herbage mass community is protected in an adequate and are prescribed burning, grazing by native and representative system. The majority of the introduced grazers, and mowing/slashing. remaining community is now protected in land managed by the ACT Government, including Frequent burning on an annual to five-yearly urban nature reserves, urban open space, cycle is considered to be an important ecological roadsides and Namadgi National Park, although process in Themeda triandra-dominated Natural this remains an ongoing process. Other areas of Temperate Grassland for maintaining floristic Natural Temperate Grassland occur on land that diversity and fauna habitat (Morgan 2015). is not exclusively managed for conservation, However, there are logistical challenges in such as Canberra Airport, and land managed by regular prescribed burning of small grassland the Commonwealth Government (e.g. remnants, particularly in Canberra’s urban area Department of Defence land at Majura Training (Hodgkinson 2005). The use of fire for ecological Area and Campbell Park and land managed by purposes in Natural Temperate Grassland has the National Capital Authority such as been investigated in an experimental approach Yarramundi Grassland). In many cases in several sites in the urban area of Canberra, management of Natural Temperate Grassland including Jerrabomberra West Nature Reserve (and the associated threatened species) is (Cook and Baines 2014; E. Cook pers. comm. undertaken in consultation with the ACT 2015) and several grassland sites in the Government and/or guided by management Ginninderra Catchment (ACT Government 2005, plans (e.g. Canberra Airport 2010). Ginninderra Catchment Group), and current 134 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan research is investigating the benefit of Temperate Grassland across a broad range of ecological burns across lowland grasslands in sites, mostly in the lowland urban grassland the ACT on floristic diversity and reptile remnants. Monitoring generally focuses on abundance (M Gilbert pers comm), with a view trends in grassland floristics and structure as an to utilising this management tool more broadly indicator of overall site quality. Regular across the lowland grasslands. monitoring is also carried out in Natural Temperate Grasslands for threatened species, The manipulation of grazing regimes to manage with details described in the respective Action grassland biomass and structure is achieved by Plans for each species. modifying grazing pressure. Grazing by native herbivores is an integral ecological process in The method for assessment of the quality of a native grasslands, and kangaroos are the Natural Temperate Grassland site in the ACT has preferred grazers to manage grassland biomass changed over time. Previously, a Botanical in the ACT. However, domestic livestock are also Significance Rating was used to assist with the used at sites that have a history of stock grazing, identification of conservation values. The such as Dunlop Nature Reserve, Mulangarri ratings, ranging between 1 (very high Nature Reserve, and parts of Crace Nature conservation value) and 5 (minimal conservation Reserve. The strategic use of stock for biomass value), were determined by the diversity of management (including for fire risk native and exotic plant species present, management) is being investigated at several uncommon native species, and the level of lowland ACT grassland sites to determine how disturbance (ACT Government 1997). The timing and application can achieve the best method at the time of publication for assessing results for biodiversity (M Gilbert pers comm). the relative condition of grasslands in the ACT and the broader region is the Floristic Value Mowing or slashing is also undertaken in select Score (FVS), developed by Rehwinkel (2015). lowland Natural Temperate Grassland sites, The FVS calculates a numerical score for a site although it is primarily used to clear along fence based on species richness and the presence and lines, as fuel hazard reduction and to improve cover abundance of significant Indicator Species access (Hodgkinson 2005). Mowing is (ACT Government 2016c). considered to be a useful tool for reducing herbage mass in very small grassland fragments Invasive Species Management where burning or grazing are impractical, or where kangaroos are present in insufficient Invasive plants and animals are widespread in numbers or not at all, rather than for Natural Temperate Grasslands, but have varying maintaining native grassland diversity (Eddy degrees of impact on grassland ecology. Invasive 2002; Morgan 2015). However, current research plants are a particularly widespread and large is investigating the impact of mowing in lowland component of most Natural Temperate grasslands on floristic diversity (R Milner pers Grassland sites, and it is not possible to control comm, Ginninderra Catchment Group), to or eradicate them all. In some locations, determine if the method may be suitable for invasive grasses can provide important habitat high diversity sites where other methods of for threatened grassland fauna, and in some biomass removal is not practical. areas may be managed in-situ to maintain the habitat rather than controlled or eradicated. For Other grassland enhancement techniques example, Striped Legless Lizards can use areas currently being investigated in lowland dominated by Phalaris aquatica whereas Golden grasslands in the ACT include rock replacement, Sun Moths are known to be present in to enhance reptile and invertebrate habitat, and grasslands comprised entirely of Chilean scraping, to remove the weed seed bank in Needlegrass (Nassella neesiana) (Braby and exotic grassland patches (M Gilbert pers. Dunford 2006; Richter et al. 2013). comm., R Milner pers. comm.). Invasive species management in the ACT is Monitoring guided by the ACT Pest Animal Strategy 2012- 2022 (ACT Government 2012) and the ACT Monitoring is a valuable tool for detecting Weeds Strategy 2009-2019 (ACT Government trends in Natural Temperate Grassland 2009), which supersede previous strategies. An communities over time. The ACT Government important focus of invasive species conducts regular monitoring of Natural management is the establishment of priorities Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 135 for invasive species control to assist in the Further information and guidleines on allocation of limited resources. This includes restoration can be found in the National identifying and controlling high-impact species, Standards for the Practice of Ecological and areas of high conservation value, such as Restoration in Australia and the framework Namadgi National Park and sites where within (SERA Standards Reference Group, 2016) threatened species are present. For Natural Temperate Grasslands, the four most serious Community Engagement weeds requiring priority control are the Community engagement and education is perennial grass species African Lovegrass increasingly considered to be important for (Eragrostis curvula), Chilean Needlegrass successful long-term grassland conservation, (Nassella neesiana) and Serrated Tussock particularly as many Natural Temperate (Nassella trichotoma), and the perennial forb St Grassland remnants are in urban areas. Public John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) (ACT appreciation of native grasslands is generally Government 2016c). Priority invasive animals low, with the ecosystems often undervalued for control include the European Rabbit, the and viewed as messy, unmanaged, and even European Red Fox and, in higher elevation threatening (Williams 2015). Improved grasslands, feral pigs and horses (ACT community engagement and education raises Government 2012). the appreciation and understanding of Natural Temperate Grassland, and encourages people to Restoration of Natural Temperate Grassland become volunteers and advocates for grassland Restoration is the process of returning existing conservation (Reid 2015). Recently, a key habitats to a known past state or to an strategy identified by the ACT Government for approximation of the natural condition by nature conservation is to increase rates of repairing degradation, by removing introduced environmental volunteering in the Canberra species, or by reinstating species or elements community (ACT Government 2013). Citizen that previously existed (Australian Heritage science is another key community engagement Commission 2002). In practice, however, activity that involves the community directly in restoration of very degraded or destroyed scientific activities such as collecting data (Reid habitats is very difficult, and the results of 2015). An example of citizen science restoration projects can be widely variable involvement in grassland research is the (Suding 2011). community monitoring of Golden Sun Moth populations at 28 sites around Canberra (Richter In the ACT, restoration of Natural Temperate et al. 2009). Grassland has focused on small-scale management activities of sites to achieve attainable targets, particularly in sites that are already in moderately good condition (ACT THREATS Government 2016c). These include activities Temperate grasslands are considered to be one such as weed control, improving fauna habitat of the world’s most endangered ecosystems elements, threatened species translocation, (Peart 2008). This situation is reflected in south- managing herbage mass and grazing levels, and eastern Australia where temperate grasslands planting native forbs amongst tussock grasses. have undergone enormous and widespread Ecological restoration is recognised as an decline and degradation since European increasingly important approach in native settlement, with agriculture considered to be grassland management in the ACT, and sites the greatest cause of grassland loss (Gilfedder et that are considered as priorities for restoration al. 2008; Williams and Morgan 2015). are those that add the most ecological value to Five emerging major threats to Natural the surrounding landscape (ACT Government Temperate Grasslands in south-eastern 2016c). These are most likely to be sites that Australia have been proposed by Williams and improve connectivity between two high quality Morgan (2015), each of which is applicable to remnants, sites that increase the size of a Natural Temperate Grasslands in the ACT. These Natural Temperate Grassland patch, and sites threats, which are likely to intensify over the that increase the connected area of habitat for a next few decades, are as follows: threatened species. 136 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan The effects of historic habitat loss (such as particular, the areas on which the grassland fragmentation effects). community occurs are usually flat or undulating, and lack trees, making them attractive sites for  Ongoing loss and modification of native development. grasslands, mainly due to agricultural and urban development. Ongoing destruction of Natural Temperate Grassland can also occur if the ecosystem  Invasive plants and animals. becomes degraded to such a degree that it no  Ecologically inappropriate disturbance longer fits the description of or definition of the regimes, particularly a decline in disturbance listed community (see Definition). Destruction frequency in productive grasslands. of Natural Temperate Grassland can involve changes to soil pH and nutrient levels,  Climate change. destruction of the original soil profile, altered Managing to reduce the impact of these threats drainage patterns, heavy weed invasion, a long- are important strategies in conserving and term and abundant weed seed bank in soil, and restoring grasslands in the ACT (ACT disruptions to trophic interactions. Once Government 2016c), and each are described in degraded, it can be difficult and resource- more detail below. intensive to restore the site to high quality grassland, especially if there has been a Historic loss of native grassland considerable loss of native plant species. There are many barriers to restoration once Natural Natural Temperate Grassland throughout south- Temperate Grassland has been lost or severely eastern Australia has a long history of clearing, modified, but one of the major factors is that firstly for agriculture, and more recently for most native grassland species lack a long-lived urban and industrial development. The legacy of soil seed bank. this historic loss is that there is now very little Natural Temperate Grassland left in south- Invasive Plants and Animals eastern Australia, and the remnants are often small, fragmented and degraded. Most Invasive plants and animals are widespread in temperate grassland communities have declined Natural Temperate Grasslands across the ACT, by over 90% in their extent and are listed as including in the highest quality grasslands. The either endangered or critically endangered most significant invasive plants are those that under the Environment Protection and alter grassland structure and composition, such Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, and in some as woody weeds and large stipoid tussock cases considered extinct (Williams and Morgan grasses (Robinson 2015). Once established, 2015). Natural Temperate Grassland in the ACT invasive plants can become dominant, resulting has undergone a similar degree of loss and in large and dense monocultures that degradation, with the broader community in the outcompete and eventually exclude other native region (Natural Temperate Grassland of the grassland plants (Faithfull et al. 2010; Robinson South Eastern Highlands) thought to have 2015). declined by 98.8% of the original pre-European Invasive animals in Natural Temperate extent (Williams and Morgan 2015). Grasslands include grazers, such as the Accompanying this decline has been a European Rabbit, Brown Hare, House Mouse, widespread loss of grassland biodiversity, with feral pig, feral horse and feral deer, and five grassland animal species and three predators, including the European Fox, wild grassland plant species listed as threatened in dogs and the domestic cat. Invasive animals in the ACT (Table 1), and many more—particularly Natural Temperate Grasslands disrupt grassland mammals—considered to be locally extinct (ACT ecology by predating on or displacing native Government 2005; Antos and Williams 2015). fauna, altering grassland biomass and structure, causing soil disturbance, changing soil fertility Ongoing loss of native grassland and drainage, trampling, wallowing, spreading weeds and direct consumption of native flora. Urban and infrastructure development remains an ongoing threat to lowland Natural Temperate Grassland in the built-up areas of the ACT, despite significant areas now being protected. In Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 137 Ecologically Inappropriate Disturbance Regimes majority of Natural Temperate Grassland occurs on ACT Government managed land, including Disturbance regimes such as fire and grazing are urban nature reserves, urban open space and a key ecological process in native grassland roadsides. ecosystems, particularly because of their role in regulating herbage mass and inter-tussock Natural Temperate Grassland at higher space (Lunt et al. 2012; Tremont and McIntyre elevations is contained within Namadgi National 1994). Ecologically inappropriate disturbance Park, although there is some potential for sites regimes can include disturbances that are too to exist on leasehold land in the central Naas frequent, or too rare. This is dependent on the valley, upper Gudgenby River and lower Blue type of grassland community, with frequent Gum Creek. disturbances generally being more important as Around two-thirds of lowland remnants of grassland productivity increases. Insufficient Natural Temperate Grassland (i.e. below 625 m) disturbance regimes, where grazing and/or occur on ACT land, with the remaining third burning is removed from the ecosystem, can occurring on other land, such as Canberra result in excess biomass, loss of intertussock Airport and land under Commonwealth control space, loss of habitat and loss of species (ACT Government 2016c). In these other cases, diversity. Excessive disturbance regimes, such as the ACT Government will liaise with the relevant frequent burning events or overgrazing by authority to encourage continued protection domestic stock, introduced grazers (e.g. rabbits) and management of Natural Temperate and kangaroos, can result in the simplification of Grassland on their land. grassland structure, change in plant species composition, loss of fauna habitat, soil erosion Protection of Natural Temperate Grassland not and compaction and increased weed dispersal. only includes the protection of grassland biodiversity, but also protection of the Climate Change ecological processes within the community, including interactions between flora and fauna, Climate change is predicted to affect the disturbance regimes, nutrient cycling, structure and function of Natural Temperate pollination, seed dispersal, and evolutionary Grassland ecosystems through a range of direct processes. Increasing the size of remnants and and indirect processes (Prober et al. 2012). improving connectivity between remnants However, there remains substantial uncertainty through restoration will assist in maintaining in determining the exact nature of climate and improving these ecological processes and change impacts on grasslands, particularly due functions. to the complex interactions between changes in CO2, temperature, seasonal rainfall, water The Native Grassland Conservation Strategy availability, soil nutrients and grass growth (Part A of this document) provides a (Hovenden et al. 2014; Prober et al. 2012). Conservation Significance Category classification Further information on the potential effects of for guiding the protection and management of climate change on native grasslands can be the remaining native grassland sites (including found in the Native Grassland Conservation sites containing the Natural Temperate Strategy (ACT Government 2016c). Grassland community). The Conservation Significance Category for individual sites is based on grassland condition, area and value of CONSERVATION ISSUES AND the site as threatened species habitat. INTENDED MANAGEMENT ACTIONS SURVEY, MONITORING AND PROTECTION RESEARCH All Natural Temperate Grassland sites in the ACT The identification of Natural Temperate require protection as they represent the Grasslands requires on-ground surveys to assess remaining remnants of a community that was whether the grassland patch meets the once widespread throughout south-eastern definition and the four key defining Australia. The long term conservation of the characteristics (see Definition) of the remaining remnants is also crucial for the community (e.g. Baines et al. 2014). Currently, persistence of threatened grassland species. The native grasslands are well mapped within the 138 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan ACT up to 1200 m (asl). Natural Temperate experimental or ecological burning (e.g. St Grassland is likely to occur in many of these Mark’s), and grazing manipulation, including native grassland communities, particularly those grazing exclusion (e.g. Jerrabomberra East at higher elevation that have been less modified and West Nature Reserves) and the use of and degraded by past and present land domestic livestock. management practices. An increased monitoring effort (i.e. in frequency As well as assessing the four defining and across more sites) is also likely to be characteristics of Natural Temperate Grassland, required during future droughts. This is field surveys also assess grassland condition by particularly important to monitor whether sites using the Floristic Value Score (FVS), a method are approaching critical thresholds beyond to assess the relative conservation value of which unacceptable and irreversible grasslands in the ACT and surrounding NSW degradation will occur (Hodgkinson 2009). region. Past research into the ecology and conservation The FVS has been researched and developed by of Natural Temperate Grassland in south- Rehwinkel (2015), with details provided in the eastern Australia has focused primarily on ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy lowland high productivity Themeda triandra- (Part A of this document). In the ACT, grassland dominated communities. A major research mapping units are generally considered to be priority is into management approaches and Natural Temperate Grassland under both the guidelines for other grassland community types, EPBC and NC Act if they have a FVS of 5 or and Natural Temperate Grassland that occurs at higher (Commonwealth of Australia 2016a). By higher elevations, particularly in relation to this criteria, a Natural Temperate Grassland site herbage mass management and the use of needs to contain multiple indicator species, prescribed fire for ecological purposes. This is which are species that are rare due to being being partly addressed by current research disturbance-intolerant (mostly to grazing) or are investigating grassland biomass management declining. Therefore, it is important to ensure across ACT lowland grasslands, to provide surveys to identify Natural Temperate Grassland guidelines on the use of fire, grazing and sites are carried out in spring, when indicator slashing for ecological purposes (Grasslands species are most likely to be visible and Enhancement Program, M Gilbert pers. comm.). identifiable. Other priority research areas include: Monitoring of a subset of Natural Temperate  development of methods to distinguish and Grassland sites is required to determine map secondary grasslands as distinct from whether management actions are resulting in Natural Temperate Grassland the maintenance or improvement of grassland  map the Natural Temperate Grassland condition. This is particularly important at sites communities as described in Armstrong et al. where the monitoring of grassland threatened (2013). species is being undertaken. Current best- practice monitoring actions have been prepared  research of the taxonomy and ecology of in the Lowland Native Grassland Ecosystems grassland invertebrates, improved taxonomic Condition Monitoring Plan: PCS Conservation understanding of the ACT’s rare grassland Effectiveness Monitoring Program (ACT plant species, and research on grassland Government 2015), and include a set of plant species ecology (in addition to the monitoring indicators relating to ecosystem threatened species) condition and stressors. Under this program a  increased replication of monitoring sites to monitoring plan is also being prepared for the adequately represent all grassland upland native grassland ecosystems. associations in the ACT, including higher Priority sites for monitoring include: elevation grasslands, which may be  sites with threatened species present particularly important for detecting woody species encroachment and plant  sites where kangaroo populations are being compositional changes under climate change managed  an increase in targeted adaptive  sites where specific management actions are management monitoring programs to being trialled and carried out, such as Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 139 investigate effectiveness of different up of thatch. Active management is more grassland management strategies. frequently required in productive grasslands, particularly lowland grassland dominated by Themeda triandra, and less frequently MANAGEMENT required (if at all) in higher elevation grasslands. If threatened species are present Due to the decline in the extent and condition of at the site, herbage mass should be managed Natural Temperate Grassland, management to provide the necessary habitat actions should be focused on maintaining and requirements as described in the relevant improving the existing condition of Natural species’ action plan and as summarised in Temperate Grassland sites and minimising the the Native Grassland Conservation Strategy. impacts of any adverse activities on grassland At sites where more than one threatened condition, particularly in urban areas where species is present, or where there are threats are more numerous and in closer multiple ecological values, there may be proximity. incompatible habitat requirements. In these It is important to recognise that the objectives sites, the priority for management is given in and targets for each priority management action the Native Grassland Conservation Strategy are specific to the grassland community present (Part A of this document). at a site. This is due to the variation between  Establishment and implementation of native grassland communities and the types of ecologically appropriate disturbance nearby threats (including pest plants and regimes. Implementing disturbance regimes animals), natural disturbance regimes, rates of (grazing, fire, mowing/slashing) is herbage mass accumulation, degree of site particularly important in higher productivity modification and degradation, and history of sites where grass growth is fastest. Where land use in the ACT. grazing is used to manage herbage mass and All site-level management actions must also structure, the preferred method is to use take into account the presence of threatened native herbivores (kangaroos), with grazing flora and fauna (Table 1). by stock used in circumstances where Priority management actions in Natural kangaroo grazing is unable to maintain the Temperate Grassland are: desired herbage mass/structure at a site. Each Natural Temperate Grassland site  Management of herbage mass and should have its own fire management plan structure to maximise site quality and and resources allocated to conduct biodiversity. As a general rule, management ecological burns (Hodgkinson 2009). actions should aim to maintain a grassland Livestock grazing is an alternative structure that has intermediate levels of disturbance that may be implemented in herbage biomass, which will promote a grass lower quality sites with a history of grazing structure suitable for many grassland and where kangaroos are absent or low in species, including threatened species. Such number, and where the focus is on reducing grassland will usually have well-defined herbage mass rather than maintaining tussocks mostly ranging in height between 5 grassland floristic diversity. In sites where cm and 20 cm, and inter-tussock spaces fire and grazing is impractical, composed of shorter grasses and forbs with mowing/slashing can be used as a tool to perhaps some bare ground and cryptogams. reduce herbage mass under certain Removing most of the herbage biomass conditions (ACT Government 2016c). Where should be avoided as this creates a very possible, frequent fire (every 1–5 years) short grassland. Short grassland has grass should be implemented in high quality mostly <5 cm high and usually a high Themeda triandra lowland Natural proportion of bare ground but may also have Temperate Grassland sites for maximising dead thatch or short forbs. Maintaining grassland biodiversity. grasslands that have high herbage mass should also be avoided. High biomass  Management of priority weeds, particularly grasslands tend to have mostly tall (>20 cm) at sites with threatened species present. dense grass with very little or no inter- These include woody weeds, Weeds of tussock spaces and potentially a large build- National Significance, and the four most 140 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan serious grassland weeds—African Lovegrass  Incorporating appropriate statements of (Eragrostis curvula), Chilean Needlegrass management actions into relevant plans and (Nassella neesiana), Serrated Tussock strategies. (Nassella trichotoma) and St John’s Wort Strategies for undertaking these priority (Hypericum perforatum). Weed management management actions can be found in the Native should be guided by the ACT Weed Strategy Grassland Conservation Strategy (Part A of this (ACT Government 2009). document).  Control of priority pest animals. These include the European Rabbit and the European Red Fox and, in higher elevation ENVIRONMENTAL OFFSET grasslands, the feral pigs and horses. Pest REQUIREMENTS animal management should be guided by the Environmental offset requirements for species ACT Pest Animal Strategy (ACT Government and ecological communities in the ACT are 2012). outlined in the ACT Environmental Offsets Policy  Restoration of priority grassland sites. and associated documents such as the ACT These are sites that are already in Environmental Offsets Assessment moderately good condition and occur in Methodology and the Significant Species locations where restoration would add the Database. most ecological value to the surrounding An Environmental Offsets Assessment may landscape, such as by increasing patch size or result in a development being ‘flagged’. A flag improving connectivity between sites, identifies an area of land with significant particularly for enabling dispersal of protected matter values. If a proposed impact is threatened species. Priority sites for flagged, it will require additional consideration increasing connectivity have been identified by the Conservator of Flora and Fauna as to and include: Gungahlin grassland reserves; whether offsets are appropriate in the particular West Majura/Campbell Park; Eastern Majura instance. A proposed development on Natural Valley (Majura Training Area/Canberra Temperate Grassland will be flagged if it is on a Airport); Eastern Jerrabomberra Valley Conservation Significance Category 1 or 2 (Cookanalla/Bonshaw/Jerrabomberra East grassland site as described in the Native Nature Reserve); Western Jerrabomberra Grassland Conservation Strategy, unless it can Valley (Jerrabomberra West Nature be demonstrated that: Reserve/Callum Brae) and West Belconnen (Dunlop Nature Reserve/Jaramlee).  the area of clearance is a peripheral component of a grassland remnant AND  Management of critical threshold sites. Sites that are identified as approaching critical  it is not habitat of significant grassland fauna thresholds for ecological condition should be (or habitat of the Golden Sun Moth) AND assessed for appropriate management  it has only five or less native herbs in the interventions. Thes include, but not limited most diverse 20x20 m of the area of to, weed control, vegetation restoration, investigation AND biomass and pest animal management, appropriate disturbance regime planning,  it is devoid of any significant or regionally and mitigation of threatening activites. rare plants.  Avoiding incompatible activities that will cause further degradation to grassland sites and biodiversity. These include activities that IMPLEMENTATION exacerbate threats, such as those that may Implementation of this action plan and the ACT facilitate weed invasion (e.g. construction of Native Grassland Conservation Strategy will trails and tracks) and activities that impact require: directly on grassland function, structure and  Land planning and land management areas composition, such as planting of non-local of the ACT Government to take into account trees, rock removal, soil compaction and the conservation of threatened species. dumping of materials. Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 141  Allocation of adequate resources to other research institutions to facilitate and undertake the actions specified in the Native undertake required research. Grassland Conservation Strategy and action  Collaboration with non-government plans. organisations, such as Greening Australia, to  Liaison with other jurisdictions (particularly undertake on-ground actions. NSW) and other land holders  Engagement with the community, where (Commonwealth Government and Canberra relevant, to assist with monitoring and other Airport) with responsibility for the on-ground actions, and to help raise conservation of a threatened species or community awareness of conservation community. issues.  Collaboration with universities, CSIRO, Australian National Botanic Gardens and OBJECTIVES, ACTIONS AND INDICATORS Table 2. Key objectives, actions and indicators Objective Action Indicator 1. Conserve all remaining Apply formal measures to protect all All Conservation Significance Conservation Conservation Significance Category 1 Category 1 sites protected by Significance Category 1 sites on Territory-owned land. Encourage appropriate formal NTG sites in the ACT. formal protection of all Conservation measures. Significance Category 1 sites on land Protect Conservation owned by other jurisdictions. Significance Category 2 and 3 NTG sites in the ACT Protect Conservation Significance All Conservation Significance from unintended impacts Category 2 and 3 NTG sites on Territory- Category 2 and 3 sites (unintended impacts are owned land from unintended impacts. protected from unintended those not already Encourage other jurisdictions to protect impacts. considered through an Category 2 and 3 NTG sites from environmental unintended impacts. assessment or other statutory process). Ensure protection measures require site Protection measures include management to conserve NTG on requirement for Territory-owned land. Encourage other conservation management. jurisdictions to require site management to conserve NTG on their land. 2. Manage Natural Manage Natural Temperate Grassland to Natural Temperate Temperate Grasslands maintain ecological condition, including Grassland ecological to: implementing an appropriate condition maintained and  maintain and improve grazing/slashing/burning regime. management actions are grassland structure, recorded. function and diversity  reduce the impacts of Monitor the condition of Natural Threats are identified and threats Temperate Grassland and the effects of management actions taken management actions. to reduce impact. 142 Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan Objective Action Indicator  conserve grassland Implement site-specific management Herbage mass levels and biodiversity. actions to maintain required habitat inter-tussock spaces are structure for threatened species. maintained at ecologically appropriate levels. 3. Enhance the long-term Identify priority grassland sites for Extent, condition and viability of Natural restoration based on quality and connectivity of Natural Temperate Grassland by potential for adding ecological value to Temperate Grassland has increasing the extent, the surrounding landscape. Undertake increased. condition and management or facilitate research and connectivity in the ACT trials into increasing condition, by restoring priority connectivity or extent. grassland sites. 4. Improved understanding Undertake or facilitate research on Research undertaken and of the ecology, appropriate methods for managing and reported and where restoration methods and restoring the community and its habitat appropriate applied to the threats to this (slashing/grazing/ burning etc.), conservation management community. vegetation biomass, lifecycle, of the community. germination, recruitment and genetics. 5. Promote a greater Undertake or facilitate stakeholder and Engagement and awareness awareness of, and community engagement and awareness activities undertaken and strengthen stakeholder activities. reported. and community engagement in, grassland conservation. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACT Government 2007. Namadgi National Park Feral Horse Management Plan (Territory and Lyndsey Vivian contributed to the preparation of Municipal Services, Canberra). this action plan. The illustration of the community was modified from illustrations ACT Government 2009. ACT weeds strategy 2009 - prepared for the ACT Government by Bev Bruen 2019 (Department of the Environment, Climate and Liz Faul. Change, Energy and Water, Canberra). ACT Government 2010. ACT Kangaroo Management Plan (Territory and Municipal REFERENCES Services, Canberra). ACT Government 1997. Natural Temperate ACT Government 2012b. ACT Pest Animal Strategy Grassland: An endangered ecological 2012-2022 (Environment and Sustainable community. 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Plant traits and local Systematics 42: 465-487. extinctions in natural grasslands along an urban–rural gradient, Journal of Ecology 93: Tremont RM and McIntyre S 1994. Natural grassy 1203-1213. vegetation and native forbs in temperate Australia: structure dynamics and life histories, Australian Journal of Botany 42: 641-658. PERSONAL Vivian LM and Godfree RC 2014. Relationships between vegetation condition and kangaroo COMMUNICATIONS density in lowland grassy ecosystems of the G. Baines, Senior Ecologist ACT Government northern Australian Capital Territory: analysis of E. Cook, Ecologist ACT Government data 2009, 2010 and 2013 (CSIRO, Canberra). M. Gilbert, Grassland Ranger ACT Government Walker J and Hopkins MS 1994. Vegetation, in Australian soil and land survey field handbook R. Milner, Ecologist ACT Government (Inkata Press, Melbourne). Williams KJH 2015. Understanding the social context of native grasslands, in Land of sweeping plains: managing and restoring the native grasslands of south-eastern Australia, eds NSG Williams, A Marshall, JW Morgan (CSIRO Publishing, Clayton South): pp. 163–181. Williams NSG and Morgan JW 2015. The native temperate grasslands of south-eastern Australia, in Land of sweeping plains: managing Natural Temperate Grassland Action Plan 147 BAEUERLEN’S GENTIAN GENTIANA BAEUERLENII ACTION PLAN Baeuerlen’s Gentian Draft Action Plan 148 PREAMBLE In accordance with section 21 of the Nature Conservation Act 1980, the subalpine herb Baeuerlen’s Gentian (Gentiana baeuerlenii L.G.Adams) was declared an endangered species on 15 April 1996 (formerly Instrument No. 89 of 1997). Under section 101 of the Nature Conservation Act 2014, the Conservator of Flora and Fauna is responsible for preparing a draft action plan for listed species. The first action plan for this species was prepared in 1997 (ACT Government 1997). This revised edition supersedes all earlier editions. This action plan includes the ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy set out in schedule 1 to the ‘Nature Conservation (Native Grassland) Action Plans 2017’, to the extent it is relevant. Measures proposed in this action plan complement those proposed in the action plans for Natural Temperate Grassland, Yellow Box/Red Gum Grassy Woodland, and component threatened species. CONSERVATION STATUS  Manage the species and its habitat to maintain the potential for evolutionary Gentiana baeuerlenii is recognised as a development in the wild. threatened species in the following sources:  Enhance the long-term viability of National populations through management of adjacent grassland to facilitate expansion of Endangered – Environment Protection and populations into suitable habitat, and by Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. establishing new populations. Australian Capital Territory Endangered – Nature Conservation Act 2014. SPECIES DESCRIPTION AND Special Protection Status Species – Nature ECOLOGY Conservation Act 2014. DESCRIPTION New South Wales Gentiana baeuerlenii is a small annual herb, standing 2–4 cm high. The flowers are borne Endangered – Threatened Species Conservation singly at the ends of branching stems. Each is Act 1995. bell shaped, greenish outside and blue-white inside with five petals. CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES The overall objective of this action plan is to DISTRIBUTION conserve the species in perpetuity in the wild The species is currently known only from one across its natural geographic range in the ACT. location, which was identified during a This includes the need to maintain natural remarkable chance rediscovery in the Orroral evolutionary processes. Valley, Namadgi National Park by Mr Laurie Specific objectives of the action plan are to: Adams of the Australian National Herbarium. It was believed to be extinct, having previously  Conserve all ACT populations because the been described from the Quidong area near species is not known to occur outside the Bombala NSW from specimens found there in ACT. 1887. No plants have been observed at the Namadgi site between 1998 and 2014. Baeuerlen’s Gentian Action Plan 149 The most up to date distribution data for this Baeuerlen’s Gentian species is publicly available on the ACT Government’s mapping portal (Visit the ACTmapi website). HABITAT AND ECOLOGY The species occurs in the inter-tussock space of moist tussock grassland and sedgeland (Poa labillardieri and Carex gaudichaudii) associated with ground water, possibly a spring-fed area. The area is probably secondary grassland or a relict grassland opening, once surrounded by open woodland. The site is on the lower slopes of a broad valley, above a river and lower valley floor. The Flora of NSW (Harden 2000) notes that flowers have been observed in October, however the only collection in New South Wales was made in March. The Namadgi National Park population has been recorded as flowering between autumn and early winter (March–June). kangaroos grazing within the fenced area, the The orchid Spiranthes sinensis, the herb biomass has built up to an extent that could Ranunculus pimpinellifolius and the grass hinder germination. Options such as grass Hemarthria uncinata were found in association trimming and burning have been investigated. with the herb and this group of more Some physical removal of weeds and grass widespread species may be indicators for other thatch is carried out during the annual site potential sites. assessments. Visitor access is not encouraged, there is no signage to the location and the entry to the area PREVIOUS AND CURRENT is obscure to access. There has been no walking MANAGEMENT or vehicle track development near the site. Due to the nature of this species and the small size of the site, management actions have been THREATS directed towards maintaining existing conditions and ensuring activities located It is very likely the species was once widespread nearby do not adversely affect the site. but has become restricted through activities associated with land clearing and grazing, Since 2002 the site has been assessed for the particularly in times of drought, as the wet presence of the species on an annual basis grassy areas in which it is found would have during May or June. In 2002 extensive pig remained palatable well into the driest seasons. rooting damage was observed surrounding the site. To mitigate future risks from pig activity Although the species is likely to be unpalatable while still allowing for kangaroo grazing, a stock to stock because it contains certain chemicals proof fence was erected around the population known to render plants distasteful, it could have that same year. There is also an annual pig been grazed inadvertently, along with other control program conducted across Namadgi herbage species. Its habitat may have been National Park by Parks and Conservation. trampled, especially when adjoining areas dried out. The site was burnt in the 2003 bushfires; this may have resulted in the death of some seed When the species was last observed in 1998 due to the severity of the fires. Despite there were less than ten plants counted at the 150 Baeuerlen’s Gentian Action Plan site. At the time of discovery in 1991, 20 plants on seed regeneration. Further research on this were observed. aspect is required. The main threat to the survival of this There will be no track development near the population, and therefore the species, is likely site; thus, visitor access to the area where the to be deliberate or unintended actions species is located is not encouraged. associated with park management activities in the local area. It is not clear whether grazing animals such as kangaroos may also pose a ENVIRONMENTAL OFFSET threat to survival of remaining plants, or REQUIREMENTS whether some level of grazing may benefit the Environmental offset requirements for species species by keeping competing grass tussocks and ecological communities in the ACT are and other plant growth short and open. outlined in the ACT Environmental Offsets Policy and associated documents such as the ACT Environmental Offsets Assessment CONSERVATION ISSUES AND Methodology and the Significant Species INTENDED MANAGEMENT Database. ACTIONS In the Assessment Methodology and Database, PROTECTION some of the threatened species have special offset requirements to ensure appropriate The small number of plants known to exist protection. Gentiana baeuerlenii only occurs in a would not support adequate seed production. single site in Namadgi National Park. Given this When the number of available plants is greater, species’ extremely limited distribution, offsets propagation must be undertaken. This is the for this species are not appropriate and impacts only way to ensure biodiversity conservation as are to be avoided the habitat is fragile, is being grazed by macropods and could accidentally be burnt. Nothing is known of the species’ fire ecology, SURVEY, MONITORING AND but it appears to be an annual and dependent RESEARCH Baeuerlen’s Gentian Action Plan 151 It is very unlikely the species exists anywhere small plants. Any spread of tea-tree will be else in the ACT. Given this degree of rarity, monitored and appropriately controlled. surveys aimed at finding specimens beyond the  Carry out physical weed control if weeds immediate area are not economically justified. pose a threat to the population or the site. Survey opportunities will be found in other work Herbicides will not be used anywhere in the by making field workers aware of the species vicinity of the site where there is any and alerting interested naturalists and possibility of it adversely affecting the conservation groups. Contact will be maintained species. with the NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service on this matter. Research opportunities will be  Avoid incompatible activities such as pursued should the population be observed to development of facilities, recreational use or have germinated in sufficient numbers to allow access tracks in or near the sites, especially for such actions to be carried out. where these may alter drainage. ACT Government (currently through the  Introduced weeds will not be allowed near Conservation Research unit) will monitor the the site. existing population on an annual basis in  Maintain feral pig control in the area. collaboration with Namadgi National Park rangers.  Consider burning habitat and adjacent areas Priority research areas include: of similar habitat, subject to assessment.  Improved knowledge of life history and  Maintain a low profile for the sites where the ecology, such as plant longevity, seed species is located. longevity, conditions associated with  Incorporate appropriate statements of germination and recruitment, and effects of management actions in relevant plans and surrounding vegetation biomass. strategies.  Methods for establishing additional  Should germination occur, seek expert populations, such as translocation of plants, advice on the need and potential for ex-situ in association with the Australian National conservation measures to be taken for this Botanic Gardens, Greening Australia and species. Both vegetative and seed collection other parties. will be considered; and if the species re-  Investigations of chemistry, composition and emerges, the recovery actions, outlined by structure of soil at the known sites to assist Young (2001), will be evaluated and T, similar habitat to where Baeuerlen’s Gentian occurs. appropriate actions undertaken. with identification of similar sites for establishment of other populations. IMPLEMENTATION MANAGEMENT Implementation of this action plan and the ACT Due to the nature and small size of the site Native Grassland Conservation Strategy will containing the species, management actions will require: be directed towards maintaining existing  Land planning and land management areas conditions and ensuring activities located of the ACT Government to take into account nearby do not adversely affect the site. To aid the conservation of threatened species. management and monitoring of the species the site has been unobtrusively marked.  Allocation of adequate resources to undertake the actions specified in the Priority management actions: strategy and action plans.  Carry out vegetation biomass management  Liaison with other jurisdictions (particularly when necessary by artificially trimming the NSW) and other land holders tussock grass during the non-flowering (Commonwealth Government and Canberra season. This will be done by careful use of a Airport) with responsibility for the ‘whipper-snipper’ and removing cut grass by conservation of a threatened species or raking to avoid continuous build up of community. decaying matter which smothers soil and 152 Baeuerlen’s Gentian Action Plan  Collaboration with universities, CSIRO,  Engagement with the community, where Australian National Botanic Gardens and relevant, to assist with monitoring and other other research institutions to facilitate and on-ground actions, and to help raise undertake required research. community awareness of conservation issues.  Collaboration with non-government organisations such as Greening Australia to undertake on-ground actions. OBJECTIVES, ACTIONS AND INDICATORS Table 1. Key Objectives, Actions and Indicators Objective Action Indicator 1. Conserve all ACT Maintain formal measures to protect All populations protected by populations because the all populations. appropriate formal measures. species is not known to occur outside the ACT. Ensure protection measures include Protection measures include requirement to conserve the species requirement for conservation in the long-term. management. Maintain alertness to the possible Vegetation surveys in suitable presence of the species while habitat also aim to detect the conducting vegetation surveys in species. suitable habitat. If germination occurs at suitable Seed bank in the National Seed numbers, develop a seed bank as an Collection is maintained and insurance against loss of the extant seed collected at regular population. intervals (determined by seed longevity). 1. Manage the species and its Monitor the population and effects of Trends in abundance are habitat to maintain the management actions. known. Management actions potential for evolutionary are recorded. development in the wild. Manage habitat to maintain its Suitable habitat conditions are suitablilty for the species. maintained by site management. Potential threats (e.g. weeds) are avoided or managed. Populations are stable or increasing. 2. Enhance the long-term Undertake or facilitate research and Research and trials have been viability of populations trials into increasing the size of undertaken to increase size of through management of populations or establishing new populations or establish new adjacent grassland to populations. populations. Population size facilitate expansion of increased or new population(s) populations into suitable established. habitat. Establish new populations. Baeuerlen’s Gentian Action Plan 153 Objective Action Indicator 3. Improved understanding Undertake or facilitate research on Research undertaken and of the species’ ecology, appropriate methods for managing reported and where habitat and threats the species and its habitat appropriate applied to the (subject to finding plants (slashing/grazing/burning etc.), conservation management of or new populations). vegetation biomass, lifecycle, the species. germination, recruitment, and genetics. 4. Promote a greater Undertake or facilitate stakeholder Engagement and awareness awareness of, and and community engagement and activities undertaken and strengthen stakeholder awareness activities. reported. and community engagement in the conservation of the species. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The illustration of the species was prepared for the ACT Government by John Pratt. REFERENCES Adams LG 1995. Flora of Australia. Volume 28, Gentianales (CSIRO Australia, Melbourne). Adams LG and Williams JB 1988. Gentiana sect. Chondrophyllae (Gentianaceae) in Australia, Telopea 3(2): 167-176. Harden GJ 2000. Flora of NSW. Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. University of NSW Press, Sydney. Young A 2001. Issues and options for genetic conservation of small populations of threatened plants in the ACT. Consultancy report prepared for Environment ACT (CSIRO, Canberra). 154 Baeuerlen’s Gentian Action Plan Baeuerlen’s Gentian Draft Action Plan 155 BUTTON WRINKLEWORT RUTIDOSIS LEPTORHYNCHOIDES ACTION PLAN 156 Button Wrinklewort Action Plan PREAMBLE The Button Wrinklewort (Rutidosis leptorhynchoides F.Muell) was declared an endangered species on 15 April 1996 (Determination No. DI1996-29 under the Nature Conservation Act 1980). Under section 101 of the Nature Conservation Act 2014, the Conservator of Flora and Fauna is responsible for preparing a draft action plan for listed species. The first action plan for this species was prepared in 1998 (ACT Government 1998). This revised edition supersedes all previous editions. This action plan includes the ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy set out in schedule 1 to the ‘Nature Conservation (Native Grassland) Action Plans 2017’, to the extent it is relevant. Measures proposed in this action plan complement those proposed in the action plans for Natural Temperate Grassland, Yellow Box/Red Gum Grassy Woodland, and component threatened species such as the Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar), Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla) and the Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana). CONSERVATION STATUS New South Wales Rutidosis leptorhynchoides is recognised as a Endangered – Threatened Species Conservation threatened species in the following sources: Act 1995. National / International Victoria Endangered – Australian and New Zealand Threatened taxon – Schedule 2 of the Flora and Environment and Conservation Council Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. (ANZECC) Endangered Flora Network (1998). Endangered – Rare or Threatened Australian Plant (ROTAP) (1996). CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES The overall objective of this action plan is to Endangered – Part 1, Schedule 1 of the preserve R. leptorhynchoides in perpetuity in Environment Protection and Biodiversity the wild across its natural geographic range in Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). the ACT. This includes the need to maintain The species is also the subject of a National natural evolutionary processes. Recovery Plan (NSW OEH 2012) and Action Specific objectives of the action plan: Statement No. 28, prepared by the Victorian Department of Conservation and Environment.  Conserve all large and medium size The National Recovery Plan identifies all populations in the ACT. Protect small populations of more than 10 plants and the populations from unintended impacts habitat they occupy as critical to the survival of (unintended impacts are those not already the species due to the small area of total considered through an environmental occupancy and the small proportion of the total assessment or other statutory process). population outside formal conservation  Manage the species and its habitat to reserves, and the threat of weed invasion at maintain the potential for evolutionary most sites. development in the wild. Australian Capital Territory  Enhance the long-term viability of Endangered – Nature Conservation Act 2014. populations through management of Button Wrinklewort Action Plan 157 adjacent grassland to increase habitat area, populations occur in grasslands and woodlands and by establishing new populations. on partially modified and lightly grazed land, including a travelling stock reserve and sites on Department of Defence land. SPECIES DESCRIPTION AND In the ACT region, R. leptorhynchoides occurs at ECOLOGY 11 sites in the suburbs just south of Lake Burley Griffin (Barton, Kingston, Yarralumla, Red Hill), DESCRIPTION the Majura Valley, the Jerrabomberra Valley The Button Wrinklewort Rutidosis (ACT and NSW) and at Crace Nature Reserve in leptorhynchoides (Figure on the opposite page) Gungahlin. The largest populations are in is an erect perennial forb in the daisy family woodland at Stirling Park, Barton (about 49,000 (Asteraceae). In spring and summer it produces plants) and in grassland at the Defence-owned multiple, mostly-unbranched flowering stems Majura Training Area (about 27,000 plants) 20–35 cm tall. The stems are hairless above and (NSW OEH 2012). The ACT woolly towards the base, and die back to the Jerrabomberra/Fyshwick sites are small and woody rootstock in late summer or autumn. A fragmented, but are adjacent to larger NSW new basal rosette of upright leaves appears in populations at Queanbeyan Nature Reserve and early winter, and new stems arise from buds at nearby ‘The Poplars’ (rural property). the soil surface. The stem leaves are narrow, While there are large populations in Red Hill dark green ageing to yellow-green, usually 1.5– Nature Reserve (>3000 plants) and Crace 3.5 cm long, 0.5–1.5 mm wide, mostly hairless Grassland Reserve (about 5000 plants), the and with the edges rolled under. The yellow flat- other ACT sites contain 80 to 2000 plants. The topped hemispherical flower-heads are 8–15 species appears to have been lost from two mm in diameter, and develop at or near the top small sites in recent years. of the stems. Each flower-head is made up of a cluster of many small florets surrounded by The most up-to-date distribution data for this rows of greenish bracts. The individual fruits are species is publicly available on the ACT small and dark brown, each topped with whitish Government’s mapping portal (Visit the scales. ACTmapi website). DISTRIBUTION HABITAT AND ECOLOGY Rutidosis leptorhynchoides appears to have In the ACT, R. leptorhynchoides occurs on the been formerly widespread in south-eastern margins of stands of Yellow Box/Red Gum Australia, with disjunct populations in New Grassy Woodland with a ground layer of various South Wales and on grassy plains in Victoria. In native grasses and other forbs, in secondary south-eastern NSW and the ACT it occurs from grasslands derived from that community, and in the Michelago and Canberra/Queanbeyan Natural Temperate Grassland. Soils are usually districts to the Goulburn area. In Victoria it is shallow stony red-brown clay loams. found across the western plains. Herbarium Apple Box (Eucalyptus bridgesiana) is also records show a reduction in the number and occasionally present at sites. Rutidosis size of R. leptorhynchoides populations as the leptorhynchoides prefers an open habitat and is species’ grassland and woodland habitat was a poor competitor amongst tall, dense, sward- converted to grazing (Scarlett and Parsons forming grasses. It is found where the soil is too 1990). Nationally, 29 known extant populations shallow to support the growth of plants that occupy a total of about 13.4 hectares (ha), with may rapidly overtop it and on deeper soils a further 11 populations having become extinct where the vegetation is kept short by regular in recent times. Many populations have fewer disturbance (Scarlett and Parsons 1990). It may than ten plants, and only eight contain 5000 or also be adapted to the sparser growth of more plants (NSW OEH 2012). Some are Themeda grass found under trees in woodlands restricted to small, scattered refugia that have (Morgan 1995a). escaped grazing, ploughing and the application of fertilisers, including road margins, railway In Victoria, intermittent burning is prescribed to easements and cemeteries (Young 1997). Larger maintain floristic diversity and habitat structure 158 Button Wrinklewort Action Plan at some R. leptorhynchoides sites (DSE 2003). In population size can reduce the number of self- NSW and the ACT maintenance of habitat incompatibility alleles leading to a reduction in structure appears to be less dependent on mate availability and reduced fertilisation burning, possibly because poorer soils and/or success. This has been demonstrated in competition from trees restrict groundcover laboratory and field studies of plants from R. density and maintain inter-tussock spaces leptorhynchoides populations of varying sizes (Morgan 1997, NSW OEH 2012). (Pickup and Young 2008, Young and Pickup 2010). Rutidosis leptorhynchoides flowers between December and April in the ACT. The florets are Seed set appears to be influenced by population insect-pollinated, and most of the wind- density, with sparsely distributed plants dispersed seed falls within one metre of the producing less seed than plants in denser parent plant (Morgan 1995a, 1995b; Wells and groups in both natural and planted populations Young 2002). The scales at the top of the fruit of various sizes (Morgan 1995a, Morgan and could facilitate wider dispersal by vertebrates Scacco 2006). This may reflect the presence of (Scarlett and Parsons 1990). The seeds are fewer pollinators or less pollen being picked up short-lived in the soil, only remaining viable for and transferred among sparsely distributed up to 18 months, so recruitment depends on plants. Other research has shown reduced seed seeds from the previous year and therefore on set in small populations (<200 plants) compared the survival and reproductive success of the to large populations (>1000 plants), despite the standing population (Morgan, 1995a, 1995b). maintenance of pollinator service as measured by the number of pollen grains deposited on Seeds germinate after autumn rains, and open-pollinated stigmas (Young and Pickup seedling mortality is usually high. In Victoria, 2010). recruitment may be limited by high summer mortality of seedlings in open microsites and by Research into the genetics and demographics of deep shading in dense, unburnt grasslands R. leptorhynchoides has led to the development (Morgan 1995b, 1997). Studies of germination of a computer model that can be used to predict under field conditions showed that emergence population trends and the effects of changes in was greatest in larger inter-tussock gaps (30– demographic parameters. The model shows a 100 cm), and seedling survival was greatest in clear relationship between the amount of the largest gaps. Rutidosis leptorhynchoides genetic diversity in a population and how grows slowly and few or no seedlings flower in quickly it is likely to go extinct. The model their first year (Morgan 1995b, 1997). Time suggests that diploid populations with fewer from recruitment to first flowering is usually than 50 mature individuals will become extinct two or three years (ACT Government 1998; faster than those with more than 200 plants, Young et al. 2000b). Established plants are and that long-term viability requires more than believed to live longer than 10 years under field 400 reproductive plants with at least 20 self- conditions (Scarlett and Parsons 1990). incompatibility alleles (Young et al. 2000b; Young, unpublished data, in NSW OEH 2012). There are two main chromosomal races of R. leptorhynchoides, diploid and tetraploid. All populations in the ACT and NSW that have been tested are diploid, though both diploid and PREVIOUS AND CURRENT tetraploid populations occur in Victoria (Murray MANAGEMENT and Young 2001, NSW OEH 2012). The species has a sporophytic self-incompatibility EX-SITU CONSERVATION AND mechanism that prevents self-pollination or TRANSLOCATION crosses between related plants that share self- Since the 1980s there have been several incompatibility alleles. Self-crosses of R. attempts to establish new populations of R. leptorhynchoides generally result in no fruit, and leptorhynchoides at a number of Victorian sites, crosses between unrelated plants produce up to by planting of tubestock and direct seeding into twice as many fruits as those between plants areas where the topsoil had been removed. A which share one parent (Young et al. 2000a). number of such populations died out without Self-incompatibility systems function to prevent producing a second generation of plants, inbreeding and are an advantage in large, despite testing of seed from five re-established genetically diverse populations, but decreasing populations showing no reduction in Button Wrinklewort Action Plan 159 reproductive fitness (Morgan 2000). Gibson-Roy from four populations of R. leptorhynchoides in (2011) reported 90% survival at 12 months for the ACT, with some seed used to grow tubestock planted into newly constructed tubestock (by Greening Australia) and some grasslands in Victoria, with widespread and seed retained for direct seeding at the site. In consistent emergence from direct seeding. autumn 2010 planting of tubestock and direct seeding took place in six plots that had been There have been several attempts to establish prepared by weeding and grass reduction, with new populations of R. leptorhynchoides in the further plantings around the same plots in 2011. ACT. An early translocation of plants onto a site Monitoring in 2012 showed survival of 33% and near Stirling Park appears to have failed. This 45% of tubestock planted in 2010 and 2011, but may have involved replanting of mature plants very few plants were produced from direct removed from the site of the new Parliament seeding. Almost all (93%) of plants from House in the 1980s (NCA, unpublished data in tubestock were flowering in 2012, while few of Rowell 2007a). Three groups of plants were the plants derived from direct seeding were translocated into a fenced woodland block in flowering and fewer flowers were produced by Yarralumla, but the site became densely these plants. There was no evidence of covered in woody weeds and eucalypt recruitment from either treatment at this early regeneration. Six plants from one group were stage of the trial. located in 1995, but after weed control in 2007 only one plant remained. In 2011 this plant was The interim conclusion is that planting of seen again, but no seedlings have been tubestock is the preferred method of re- recorded on the block (Rowell 2007a, Rowell establishing populations in the ACT, due to the unpublished data 2011). Between 1994 and rapid result and the reduced impact of seed 1998, 1705 seedlings were planted at three collection on ex-situ populations (Conservation locations on Red Hill. By 2007 only 14 plants Planning and Research, unpublished data 2012). remained, and no recruitment was recorded The density of the vegetation surrounding the from the plantings (M Mulvaney, pers. comm. in trial site may need to be reduced regularly to NSW OEH 2012). enhance R. leptorhynchoides survival, germination and recruitment, due to its location Recent research has shown that to maximise in an (ungrazed) kangaroo exclusion area. progeny fitness, seed for R. leptorhynchoides restoration projects should be sourced from large genetically diverse populations (Pickup et al. 2013). Because most R. leptorhynchoides CONTROLLED AND EXPERIMENTAL seed is deposited close to the parent plant, seed BURNING should be collected from multiple non-adjacent In some Victorian populations burning at a plants to maximise diversity (especially of self- frequency of 2–5 years is used to control incompatibility alleles). herbage mass. Adult plants are reported to be To maximise pollen transfer and therefore seed rarely killed by fire (NSW OEH 2012). In the ACT, production in new populations, plants should be an experimental spring burn before a dry placed in groups. Because mixing of ploidy levels summer in 2000 killed 40–50% of adult plants, may result in the production of infertile while many fewer died on unburnt control plots offspring, diploid races should not be mixed (pers. comm. S Sharp and G Baines in NSW OEH with tetraploid races. As a precaution, ACT 2012). In 1995 an autumn burn of a small site restoration projects should use seed sourced containing a group of seven R. leptorhynchoides from ACT populations for which the plants resulted in all the plants surviving the chromosome number is known. In the ACT, burn and most flowering in the next summer; chromosome number has not been confirmed however, the population died out because no for populations at Woods Lane, Tennant Street, seedlings were produced, despite some seed Baptist Church, Campbell Park, Crace Nature collected from the site being re-introduced after Reserve and HMAS Harman (NSW OEH 2012). the fire (Rowell 1996a, 2007b). The ACT Parks and Conservation Service (PCS) A fuel reduction burn was carried out at the St began a translocation trial in a fenced Mark’s site in Barton in 2009, with no reported (kangaroo) exclosure at Jerrabomberra East ill effects on R. leptorhynchoides plants Nature Reserve in 2010. Seed was collected (Conservation Planning and Research 160 Button Wrinklewort Action Plan unpublished data 2011), though it is not certain approach of burning no more than once every the plants were in the area burnt. five years has therefore been recommended until further research determines whether fire is The National Capital Authority’s fire hazard beneficial at some sites, and the preferred management plan for Stirling Park requires season and frequency of burning (NSW OEH occasional prescribed burns in some areas for 2012). fuel reduction. Past mapping of R. leptorhynchoides at Stirling Park has shown changes in the density of trees, eucalypt regeneration and woody weeds, and suggested OTHER SITE-SPECIFIC that increased shading has had a deleterious MANAGEMENT ACTIONS effect on R. leptorhynchoides (Wittmark et al. Sites on Territory Land: 1984, Rowell 1996b, Muyt and Watson 2006). In 2011 a study was undertaken of the effects of a  Conservation Research (ACT Government) controlled autumn burn at Stirling Park. inspects most sites on Territory land every Measurements were taken before and after the 2–3 years. Reports are prepared on plant burn of R. leptorhynchoides, weeds, grasses, numbers and condition, area of occupancy, bare ground, litter and shade in burnt and site condition, threats and suggested unburnt plots (Ross 2011, Ross and Macris management actions. 2012), with further monitoring of the same plots  Conservation Research communicates with in spring 2012 (C Ross, unpublished data) and site owners/managers regarding issues spring 2014 (Matthews 2014). The immediate identified during monitoring. post-burn data showed no evidence of R. Sites on National Capital Authority Land: leptorhynchoides mortality as a result of the fire, and there was an increase in bare ground and a  An updated management plan has been decrease in native grass and weed cover, prepared and implemented for Stirling Park changes which could favour establishment of R. and associated woodlands (Sharp 2016). leptorhynchoides seedlings. Major work has included removal of planted Monitoring in spring 2011 recorded more eucalypts, controlled burns and weed seedlings in burnt plots, but results were patchy. control. By spring 2012 the number of R.  Friends of Grasslands and other volunteers leptorhynchoides had declined, but by the same have assisted NCA at Stirling Park with amount on burnt and control plots. Monitoring woody weed removal, spraying of in spring 2014 recorded a large number of herbaceous weeds and monitoring of the seedlings on some plots, and few or none at effects of controlled burning. others, though this did not appear to be related to the fire treatment (Matthews 2014). In 2014, Sites on Defence Land: numbers of established (non-seedling) plants  Annual weed control is undertaken following had declined across all treatments, with the strict environmental prescriptions. decline being greatest on heavily burnt plots and least on unburnt plots.  Rutidosis leptorhynchoides populations at Majura Training Area, Campbell Park and However, the 2014 results did not meet criteria Harman are monitored and mapped every for meaningful statistical analysis, so further two years on average. Monitoring includes research is required on the effect of fire on R. counting or sub-sampling populations, leptorhynchoides populations in the ACT. Fuel measuring area of occupancy, plant size, reduction burning at Stirling Park will provide reproductive status and size/age structure of further opportunities for monitoring. subpopulations. Population modelling for R. leptorhynchoides  Herbage mass in some subpopulations is has shown that a 20–30 fold increase in seedling managed by occasional high slashing if recruitment would be required to offset a 3–5% recommended by consultants monitoring the loss of reproductive plants, such as may occur populations. following fire (Young, unpublished data in NSW OEH 2012). Where fire is used to reduce The size structure of the subpopulations on biomass in ACT populations, a precautionary Defence sites is measured by recording the number of plants with stem numbers in the Button Wrinklewort Action Plan 161 following classes: single stem, 2–5, 6–20, >20. advantageous to ACT populations of the species Research on R. leptorhynchoides has shown is inconclusive at this stage. there is a significant relationship between the Shading and competition from eucalypt and number of stems and biomass (M. Pickup pers. shrub regeneration is a threat at woodland sites comm. 2014), and that plant size is associated such as Stirling Park and Red Hill. with survival in natural populations (A. G. Young unpublished data in Pickup et al. 2012). New The species disappears under heavy grazing germinants are also counted, being single- because it is palatable to stock, though there is stemmed vegetative plants less than 5 cm in some evidence to suggest that intermittent height. This monitoring has shown significant grazing in late summer may not be detrimental. differences between sub-populations separated Some of the larger surviving national by only 50 to 200 metres (Harman, four sub- populations had a prior history of sheep rather populations; Campbell Park, two sub- than cattle grazing, suggesting that light to populations). At Campbell Park no new moderate sheep grazing may not be detrimental germinants were found in the eastern sub- whereas cattle grazing may be (NSW OEH 2012). population in 2010 and 2013, while the western Erosion of genetic diversity and increased population had large numbers of single- inbreeding may compromise both short and stemmed plants in 2013. This difference may long-term population viability by reducing have been associated with increased biomass individual fitness and limiting the gene pool on and weed cover in the eastern population which selection can act in the future. This between monitoring events. At Harman a applies to populations of fewer than 200 plants. reduction of plants in the lower stem classes was noted in two sub-populations where grass More frequent drought in south-eastern or woody weed cover had increased between Australia is one of the predicted effects of monitoring events, while subpopulations that climate change. This may adversely affect some had been slashed and had woody weeds R. leptorhynchoides populations, particularly removed showed an increase in numbers of through reduced germinant survival due to dry small plants over the same period (AECOM conditions and/or increasing intervals between 2014). rain events. THREATS Rutidosis leptorhynchoides is at risk from habitat CONSERVATION ISSUES AND loss throughout its range due to agricultural and INTENDED MANAGEMENT urban development. Stirling Park is a possible ACTIONS future site for a new Prime Minister’s residence and Tennant Street Fyshwick could be affected PROTECTION by future expansion of the industrial area. Small The long term conservation of R. sites are more vulnerable to incidental damage leptorhynchoides depends on the retention of associated with human activity, such as roadside its native grassy habitat, which in the ACT region maintenance, dumping of waste, inappropriate is Natural Temperate Grassland and Yellow mowing and parking of vehicles. Box/Red Gum Grassy Woodland. Both of these Weed invasion poses a risk at many sites. On ecological communities have been declared formerly grazed sites, agricultural weeds are of endangered in the ACT and management most concern, and small sites can be invaded by principles for each are set out in the respective weeds that thrive in disturbed areas. Woodland action plans and strategies. In the ACT the sites are also vulnerable to invasion by woody species occurs on a range of land tenures; weeds. Territory land (land owned and managed by the ACT Government and leasehold rural land), Competition with other understorey vegetation National Capital Authority land (Commonwealth presents a disadvantage to the species at some land controlled and managed by the National sites. In Victoria, ’intermittent’ burning of some Capital Authority) and Defence land grassland communities is recommended to (Commonwealth land controlled and managed maintain floristic diversity (McDougall 1987, by the Department of Defence). The ACT Lunt 1990), but whether burning is 162 Button Wrinklewort Action Plan Government will liaise with the National Capital Database, some of the threatened species have Authority and the Department of Defence to special offset requirements to ensure encourage continued protection and appropriate protection. The Button Wrinklewort management of populations of R. does not have any special offset requirements. leptorhynchoides on their land, in particular, Stirling Ridge and the Majura Field Firing Range. Demographic modelling suggests that SURVEY, MONITORING AND populations of R. leptorhynchoides need to have RESEARCH at least 200 plants to avoid the deleterious While it is possible some small populations of R. consequences of incompatible genes that result leptorhynchoides remain undetected in the ACT, in low reproductive (seed) viability. it is likely that all medium and large populations Populations of 200 or more plants are likely to have been discovered. Knowledge of the be viable in the longer-term and sites where distribution and abundance of the species in the they occur should be protected by formal legal ACT will be refined from data collected during measures. The National Recovery Plan for R. surveys for other plant species or from leptorhynchoides (NSW OEH 2012) states that all opportunistic observations from naturalists and populations of ten or more plants are important other interested persons. for the survival of the species and to maintain Populations of R. leptorhynchoides will need to genetic diversity. Consistent with the National be monitored to determine overall abundance Recovery Plan (NSW OEH 2012), any loss of trends. A representative set of sites should be plants from populations of ten or more monitored to evaluate the effects of individuals should be offset by achieving management. Intermittent and ad hoc improved long-term protection and management of a suitable currently unreserved Button Wrinklewort (E. Cook) population or other compensatory arrangements. The ACT contains some of the largest and most viable (in the long term) remaining populations of R. leptorhynchoides and their conservation is likely to be critical to the survival of the species; only a small number of viable populations remain in NSW and Victoria. Each site contributes to the overall genetic diversity of the species, because R. leptorhynchoides plants are likely to be genetically distinct between sites. Conservation effort should focus on protecting populations that are large (> 1000 plants) and medium-sized (200–1000 plants) as a cluster of sites. Small populations (< 200 plants) should be protected from unintended impacts and efforts directed to increasing their size (and hence viability) to 200 or more plants. ENVIRONMENTAL OFFSET REQUIREMENTS Environmental offset requirements for species and ecological communities in the ACT are outlined in the ACT Environmental Offsets Policy and associated documents such as the ACT Environmental Offsets Assessment Methodology and the Significant Species Database. In the Assessment Methodology and Button Wrinklewort Action Plan 163 monitoring has shown a decline in a few In particular, research is required to identify populations and increases in others. appropriate grazing, slashing and fire regimes (including intensity, frequency and season). In A protocol for two-yearly monitoring would addition to providing the basis for a slashing, involve measuring all plants for smaller grazing or fire management regime, this populations and an appropriate sampling information is relevant to the management of method for large and medium-sized other native grassland and woodland populations, recording: communities.  Number of plants (total or samples). Ongoing fuel reduction burning at Stirling Park  Area occupied. provides a starting point for fire regime research, and any results from experimental  Reproductive status (vegetative or flowering, burning or fuel reduction burning in adjacent number of flowers). NSW populations could also provide relevant  Population size structure e.g. height, data. A secondary priority for research is the stems/plant (1, 2–5, 6–10, 11–20, >20 etc.). development of techniques to establish new populations that have at least 200 plants.  Number of new germinants (<5cm, single stem, vegetative). Recording new germinants The Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research separately from established plants is (CSIRO Division of Plant Industry) is conducting desirable to monitor germination and ongoing research into aspects of the population recruitment, and to explain large variations biology of R. leptorhynchoides, including the in population numbers that may be caused effects of inbreeding and outbreeding by flushes of germination followed by depression, hybridisation, loss of self- mortality of seedlings. incompatibility alleles, local adaptation, pollinator limitation, and reproductive success  Surrounding herbage mass. and mortality in small and large populations.  Weed cover. The results of the research are being used to develop models to predict the outcome for  Management history. populations of various sizes under a range of Seedling establishment: Monitoring is required management conditions. This information is to show whether the relative paucity of relevant to the maintenance of existing seedlings in areas of denser vegetation leads to populations and to the establishment of new a long-term decline in the number of adult populations. plants present. This should be undertaken in conjunction with monitoring of small experimental burning/slashing plots in some of the larger populations. The results of any accidental burning should also be monitored. MANAGEMENT Site inspection for damage: Sites with medium Management actions for R. leptorhynchoides or large populations should be inspected should focus on conserving it as a component of quarterly, or as appropriate, for deliberate or the grassland or woodland ecological accidental damage. This includes unauthorised community. Management actions need to take grazing, mowing, burning or planting; access by into account the need to maintain species cars, trail bikes or other motor vehicles; diversity in the community, including the trampling; rock, soil, wood or plant removal; requirements of other sensitive species present. and dumping of rubbish. Fences/barriers and A key management aim should be to increase signs should be installed or upgraded where the number of plants in small (< 200 plants) necessary. populations to improve long-term population viability. A priority for research is the identification of appropriate management actions to conserve Specific management issues relating to existing populations, ensuring they remain conservation of the species: viable over the long term, and developing Woody weed control: This is most important on techniques to increase the size of small the woodland sites; older woody weeds should populations so they contain at least 200 plants. be cut and removed, and the stumps dabbed 164 Button Wrinklewort Action Plan with herbicide. Seedlings and suckers should be establishment) are likely to outweigh the costs controlled annually by hand-pulling and spot- (mortality of adult plants). spraying with herbicide (spot spraying of Population modelling and analysis of data from herbicide should not be conducted within 2 monitoring of populations in the ACT region metres of any R. leptorhynchoides plant). indicates that the maintenance of reproductive Regeneration of native trees and shrubs: Non- plants should be given priority over intervention indigenous native trees (e.g. Acacia baileyana, aimed at increasing germination and seedling A. cultriformis) and shrubs should be treated as establishment, as a large increase in woody weeds. In the absence of fire, slashing or germination would be required to offset the grazing, regeneration of eucalypts and some small increase in the mortality of adult plants native shrubs such as Cassinia quinquefaria, which might follow treatments such as autumn Bitter Pea (Daviesia mimosoides), Silver Wattle burning (A. Young pers. comm.). (Acacia dealbata) and Green Wattle (A. Management prescriptions also need to address mearnsii) may shade out R. leptorhynchoides. a general concern about the survival of small Where necessary, a selection of these should be remnant populations, namely the increased removed (cut and dabbed) annually to maintain random fluctuations in demographic parameters an open mixed-age/species woodland. such as seedling mortality, genetic erosion Herbaceous weed control: Priority should be owing to genetic drift and inbreeding depression given to weeds that can be invasive in native (Young 1997). Demographic and genetic grassland/woodland, such as St John’s Wort simulation modelling shows that diploid (Hypericum perforatum), African Lovegrass populations with fewer than 50 mature (Eragrostis curvula), Serrated Tussock (Nassella individuals will become extinct significantly trichotoma) and Chilean Needlegrass (Nassella faster than those with more than 200 plants neesiana). Control methods should take account (Young et al. 2000b). A potential recovery action of the characteristics of each site, and proximity for small populations with reduced fertilisation to R. leptorhynchoides plants. success due to mate limitation is to increase genetic diversity by introducing seed, pollen or Understorey competition: Intervention may be nursery-grown plants from larger, more necessary where monitoring shows a continuing genetically diverse populations. Research has lack of seedling establishment around adult shown that fertilisation success increases in plants in dense understorey vegetation, and/or crosses between populations, and that small deterioration in the quality of the community. In populations would gain the greatest benefit some local populations (Campbell Park, Crace from this ‘genetic rescue’ (Pickup and Young Nature Reserve, Red Hill Nature Reserve, Majura 2008, Pickup et al. 2013). Small re-established Training Area and Jerrabomberra East populations appear to suffer the same translocation site) kangaroo grazing will affect constraints as small remnant populations, so grass biomass as kangaroos eat grasses in management should aim to maintain population preference to forbs. Recruitment of R. size above 200 plants to avoid the effects of loss leptorhynchoides should be taken into account of self-incompatibility alleles, and re- when determining the desirable level of establishment projects should source seed kangaroo grazing at a site. Stock grazing may broadly for the same reasons (Young et al. have an adverse effect on R. leptorhynchoides 2000b). and its habitat, although the specieds has persisted for many years on sites with long A study of local adaptation in relation to histories of grazing. Any application of this form population characteristics in R. leptorhynchoides of grazing should be closely monitored. also suggested that selecting seed from large, Occasional careful slashing in late summer may genetically diverse populations from be used on sites where other factors (e.g. fire environments similar to candidate sites is likely risk to property) make burning undesirable. to provide the most appropriate seed sources Patch burning may be appropriate on other sites for restoration (Pickup et al. 2012). Suitable but its effects should be monitored. Burning candidate populations for this type of genetic should not be used as a broad-scale enhancement would be small to medium sized management tool on R. leptorhynchoides sites in populations (<1000 plants) showing poor seed the ACT until it has been established by set and seedling establishment below experimentation that the benefits (seedling replacement rate on sites containing habitat Button Wrinklewort Action Plan 165 suitable for expansion of the population. The conservation of a threatened species or National Recovery Plan nominates St Marks community. (Barton) and Capital Hill as suitable recipient  Collaboration with universities, CSIRO, populations in the ACT (NSW OEH 2012). Australian National Botanic Gardens and Given the significant problems faced by other research institutions to facilitate and populations with less than about 200 plants, the undertake required research. priority for management and research should be  Collaboration with non-government to increase the size of extant small (< 200 organisations, such as Greening Australia, to plants) populations. undertake on-ground actions. IMPLEMENTATION  Engagement with the community, where Implementation of this action plan and the ACT relevant, to assist with monitoring and other Native Grassland Conservation Strategy will on-ground actions, and to help raise require: community awareness of conservation issues.  Land planning and land management areas of the ACT Government to take into account the conservation of threatened species.  Allocation of adequate resources to undertake the actions specified in the strategy and action plans.  Liaison with other jurisdictions (particularly NSW) and other land holders (Commonwealth Government and Canberra Airport) with responsibility for the 166 Button Wrinklewort Action Plan OBJECTIVES, ACTIONS AND INDICATORS Table 1. Objectives, Actions and Indicators Objective Action Indicator 1. Conserve all large and Apply formal measures to protect All large and medium size medium size all large and medium size populations are protected by populations in the ACT. populations on Territory-owned appropriate formal measures. land. Encourage formal protection Protect small ACT of all large and medium size populations from populations on land owned by unintended impacts other jurisdictions. (unintended impacts are those not already Protect all small populations on All sites with small populations considered through an Territory-owned land from are protected by appropriate environmental unintended impacts. Encourage measures from unintended assessment or other other jurisdictions to protect all impacts. statutory process). small populations from unintended impacts. Ensure protection measures Protection measures include require site management to requirement for conservation conserve the species on Territory- management. owned land. Encourage other jurisdictions to require site management to conserve the species on thier land. Identify other extant populations Vegetation surveys in suitable by maintaining alertness to the habitat also aim to detect the possible presence of the species species. while conducting vegetation surveys in suitable habitat. 2. Manage the species Monitor populations and the Trends in abundance are known. and its habitat to effects of management actions. Management actions are maintain the potential recorded. for evolutionary development in the Manage habitat to maintain its Suitable habitat conditions are wild. suitablilty for the species. maintained by site management. Potential threats (e.g. weeds) are avoided or managed. Populations are stable or increasing. 3. Enhance the long-term Undertake or facilitate research Research and trials have been viability of populations and trials into techniques for undertaken to increase the size of through management increasing the size of small (<200 small populations. Small of adjacent grassland plants) populations. population(s) have increased in to facilitate expansion size. Button Wrinklewort Action Plan 167 Objective Action Indicator of populations into Undertake or facilitate research Research and trials have been suitable habitat. and trials into establishing new undertaken to establish new Establish new populations. populations. New population(s) populations. established. 4. Improved Undertake or facilitate research Research undertaken and understanding of the on appropriate methods for reported and where appropriate species’ ecology, managing the species and its applied to the conservation habitat and threats. habitat (slashing/grazing/ burning management of the species. etc.), lifecycle, germination, recruitment and genetics. 5. Promote a greater Undertake or facilitate Engagement and awareness awareness of, and stakeholder and community activities and promotion strengthen stakeholder engagement and awareness undertaken and reported. and community activities and promotions. engagement in the conservation of the species. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ERM 2011. ACT Threatened Species Monitoring and Management. For Spotless Services and Alison Rowell contributed to the preparation of Department of Defence (Environmental this action plan. This action plan draws on Resources Management Aust. Pty Ltd, research work undertaken by Dr Andrew Young, Canberra). Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research (CSIRO). The illustration of the species on the cover page Gibson-Roy P 2011. Reconstructing new was prepared for the ACT Government by John populations of the endangered Rutidosis Pratt. leptorhynchoides (Button Wrinklewort) at two sites in south western Victoria. Australasian Plant Conservation 19(3): 13-14. REFERENCES Lunt ID 1990. Floristic survey of the Derrimut Grassland Reserve, Melbourne, Victoria, ACT Government 1998. Button Wrinklewort Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria (Rutidosis leptorhynchoides): An endangered 102(1): 41-52. species. Action Plan No. 8. (Environment ACT, Canberra). McDougall KM 1987. Sites of Botanical Significance in the Western Region AECOM 2011. Threatened Species Monitoring (Department of Geography, University of and Management 2010. Majura Training Melbourne, Melbourne). Area, ACT. Prepared for Spotless and Department of Defence (AECOM Australia Morgan JW 1995a. Ecological studies of the Pty Ltd, Canberra). endangered Rutidosis leptorhynchoides I. Seed production, soil seed bank dynamics, AECOM 2014. 2013-2014 ACT Threatened population density and their effects on Species Monitoring. Report prepared for recruitment. Australian Journal of Botany Spotless Services and Department of 43(1):1-11. Defence (AECOM Australia Pty Ltd, Canberra). Morgan JW 1995b. Ecological studies of the endangered Rutidosis leptorhynchoides II. Patterns of seedling emergence and survival 168 Button Wrinklewort Action Plan in a native grassland. Australian Journal of Ross C 2011. Fire and the Button Wrinklewort. Botany 43(1):13-24. The short-term effects of fire on the endangered Button Wrinklewort (Rutidosis Morgan JW 1997. The effect of grassland gap leptorrhynchoides: Asteraceae) and its use in size on establishment, growth and flowering grassland and grassy woodland of the endangered Rutidosis management in the ACT. Student research leptorhynchoides (Asteraceae), Journal of project (Australian National University, Applied Ecology 34(3): 566-576. Canberra). Morgan JW 2000. Reproductive success in re- Ross C and Macris A 2012. Monitoring the established versus natural populations of a effects of fire on the Button Wrinklewort threatened grassland daisy (Rutidosis (Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides). Australasian leptorhynchoides), Conservation Biology Plant Conservation 20(4): 13-15. 14(3): 780-785. Rowell AM 1996a. Monitoring of Rutidosis Morgan JW and Scacco PJ 2006. Planting designs leptorrhynchoides site at West Block, Parkes, in ecological restoration: insights from the 1995-1996. Report prepared for National Button Wrinklewort, Ecological Management Capital Planning Authority (Canberra). and Restoration 7: 51-54. Rowell AM 1996b. Reassessment of distribution Murray BG and Young AG 2001. Widespread and abundance of Rutidosis chromosome variation in the endangered leptorrhynchoides at Stirling Ridge, ACT. grassland forb Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides F. Report to National Capital Planning Authority Muell. (Asteraceae: Gnaphalieae), Annals of (Canberra). Botany 87: 83-90. Rowell AM 2007a. Ecological values in Blocks 2, Muyt A and Watson K 2006. Stirling Ridge, 3 & 25, Section 44, Yarralumla. Report Yarralumla ACT: Vegetation survey methods, prepared for National Capital Authority management issues, flora and fauna species (Canberra). lists. Unpublished report to ACT Government (Canberra). Rowell AM 2007b. Assessment of native vegetation adjacent to West Block (part of Matthews L 2014. Follow up monitoring of the Section 23, Block 2, Parkes). Report prepared effects of fire on Button Wrinklewort in for National Capital Authority (Canberra). Stirling Park. Student research project (Canberra Institute of Technology, Canberra). Sharp S., 2016. Ecological Management Plan for National Capital Authority Conservation NSW Office of Environment and Heritage 2012. Areas. Report to the National Capital National Recovery Plan for Button Authority, Canberra, April 2016. Wrinklewort Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides (NSW Office of Environment and Heritage, Wells GP and Young AG 2002. Effects of seed Hurstville, NSW). dispersal on spatial genetic structure in populations of Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides Pickup M, Field DL, Rowell DM and Young AG with different levels of correlated paternity. 2012. Predicting local adaptation in Genetical Research 79: 219-226. fragmented plant populations: implications for restoration genetics. Evolutionary Wittmark B, Goodwin C and Kendall P 1984. An Applications 5: 913–924. ecological study of the rare daisy Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides in the Canberra area Pickup M, Field DL, Rowell DM and Young AG (Environment Section, National Capital 2013. Source population characteristics Development Commission, Canberra). affect heterosis following genetic rescue of fragmented plant populations. Proceedings Young AG, Miller C, Gregory EA and Langston A of the Royal Society B 280(1750): 20122058 2000a. Sporophytic self-incompatibility in diploid and tetraploid races of Rutidosis Pickup M and Young AG 2008. Population size, leptorrhynchoides. Australian Journal of self-incompatibility and genetic rescue in Botany 48: 667-672. diploid and tetraploid races of Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides (Asteraceae), Heredity Young AG, Brown AHD, Murray BG, Thrall PH 100: 268–274. and Miller CH 2000b. Genetic erosion, Button Wrinklewort Action Plan 169 restricted mating and reduced viability in fragmented populations of the endangered grassland herb: Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides, in Genetics, Demography and Viability of Fragmented Populations, eds AG Young and GM Clarke (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge): pp. 335-359. Young AG and Pickup M 2010. Low S-allele numbers limit mate availability, reduce seed set and skew fitness in small populations of a self-incompatible plant. Journal of Applied Ecology 47: 541–548. 170 Button Wrinklewort Action Plan Button Wrinklewort Action Plan 171 GINNINDERRA PEPPERCRESS LEPIDIUM GINNINDERRENSE ACTION PLAN 172 Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan PREAMBLE The Ginninderra Peppercress (Lepidium ginninderrense N.H.Scarlett) was declared an endangered species on 4 September 2001 (Instrument No. DI2001-299 under the Nature Conservation Act 1980). Under section 101 of the Nature Conservation Act 2014, the Conservator of Flora and Fauna is responsible for preparing a draft action plan for listed species. The first action plan for this species was prepared in 2003 (ACT Government 2003). This revised edition supersedes the earlier edition. This action plan includes the ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy set out in schedule 1 to the ‘Nature Conservation (Native Grassland) Action Plans 2017’, to the extent it is relevant. Measures proposed in this action plan complement those proposed in the action plans for Natural Temperate Grassland, Yellow Box/Red Gum Grassy Woodland, and component threatened species such as the Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar), Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla) and the Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana). Therefore, it is a key habitat for breeding, CONSERVATION STATUS dispersal and the ongoing survival of Lepidium ginninderrense is recognised as a Ginninderra Peppercress; and as 100% of the threatened species in the following sources: plants occur on this site, the habitat is critical to maintain genetic stock and potential long-term National evolutionary development Criterion (e).’ Vulnerable species – Environment Protection Note that the EPBC listing of the critical habitat and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC was made in 2005 before the discovery of the Act) according to the following criteria: low smaller Franklin population. population size, restricted area of occupancy, and no evidence of continuing decline Australian Capital Territory (Department of Environment and Heritage Endangered – Nature Conservation Act 2014. 2016). A National Recovery Plan has been Special Protection Status Species – Nature prepared (Environment ACT 2005), and about 20 Conservation Act 2014. hectares of the Lawson suburb has been added to the Register of Critical Habitat (Department of the Environment and Heritage 2005). CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES Listed Critical Habitat: northwest corner of The overall objective of this plan is to preserve Lawson Grasslands (former Belconnen Naval the species in perpetuity in the wild across its Transmission Station), ACT - Environment natural geographic range in the ACT. This Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act includes the need to maintain natural 1999 (EPBC Act) according to the following evolutionary processes. criteria: Specific objectives of the action plan are to: ‘Ginninderra Peppercress has a very restricted distribution and occurs at only one location.  Conserve all ACT populations because the Therefore, the habitat is used to meet all species is not known to occur outside the essential life cycle requirements including seed ACT. dispersal processes, recruitment, etc. The only  Manage the species and its habitat to known population of Lepidium ginninderrense maintain the potential for evolutionary occurs in the habitat in the corner of Lawson development in the wild. Grasslands in the Australian Capital Territory. Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan 173  Enhance the long-term viability of numbers varying considerably from year to year populations through management of without obvious trends. The estimated area adjacent grassland to increase habitat area, occupied over this period increased from 90 x and by establishing new populations. 30 metres to about 200 x 100 metres (Avis 2000, ENSR 2008, AECOM 2009). A second population was discovered in 2012 SPECIES DESCRIPTION AND about 6 km north-north-east of Lawson in the ECOLOGY Gungahlin suburb of Franklin (altitude 610 metres) in an 18 hectare paddock containing DESCRIPTION disturbed grassland and remnant Box-Gum The Ginninderra Peppercress (Lepidium Woodland (Taws 2013, Taylor et al. 2014). In ginninderrense N.H.Scarlett) is a perennial herb spring 2012 this population occupied an area of to a maximum height of about 20 cm, with one about 9 x 4 metres and contained 50 plants (ACT to six branched stems arising from a rootstock. Government, unpublished data). Three Stems are striate and moderately papillose. additional sub-populations were found at the Leaves are thick and fleshy, glabrous and shiny Franklin site by environmental contractors in on the upper surface. Rosette leaves are widely 2014. Staff from Conservation Research (ACT spaced and very narrow (1.5–2.0 mm wide) and Government) surveyed the site in February 2015 15–55 mm long. Lower stem leaves are up to 35 and recorded 377 plants across 12 sub- mm long, broad lanceolate in outline and populations. pinnatifid with 1–3 pairs of linear pinnae. Upper There is an historical record from the suburb of stem leaves are narrow and mostly unlobed. Reid in 1952, between the Canberra Institute of The inflorescence is an elongating raceme with a Technology and St Johns Church. A subsequent maximum length of 15 cm. Flowers are small, search failed to relocate this population (M. with four stamens, no petals and six nectaries. Gray pers. comm. in Scarlett 2001) and it is likely The four sepals are less than 1 mm long and that the site has since been developed. about 0.5 mm wide, green and with scarious margins. Fruits are flat, bilocular, 2-seeded and Lepidium ginninderrense has only been recorded bluntly obovate, 4–5 mm long and 3–3.5 mm from these three sites in the ACT and is not broad and notched at the apex. Seeds are known from outside the ACT. The species is orange, obovoid and about 1.5 mm long spatially disjunct from the other four members (Scarlett 2001). Lepidium ginninderrense flowers of the allied section Papillosa in Lepidium that in late spring. It sets seed mainly in December occur in south-eastern Australia, which are and the majority of seed is dispersed before mainly ephemeral or annual herbs confined to August (Avis 2000). the inland plains west and north of the Eastern Highlands (Hewson 1981, Scarlett 2001). The most up to date distribution data for this DISTRIBUTION species is publicly available on the ACT There are two known extant populations of L. Government’s mapping portal (Visit the ginninderrense, both in the ACT. The larger ACTmapi website). population occurs in grassland in the north-west corner of Lawson Grasslands (former Belconnen Naval Transmission Station) in the suburb of HABITAT AND ECOLOGY Lawson (the type locality). At Lawson, L. ginninderrense grows on the This population is on flat ground near floodplain of the Ginninderra Creek, in and Ginninderra Creek at an altitude of 590 metres, around slight depressions which are subject to near the estimated original boundary between winter inundation (Avis 2000, Scarlett 2001, Natural Temperate Grassland and Box–Gum AECOM 2009). The depressions may be natural Woodland (ACT Government 2005). The Lawson or some may be former vehicle tracks (HLA site includes over 100 hectares of Natural 2006). Soil testing close to L. ginninderrense Temperate Grassland, most of which is plants recorded a pale yellow brown silty clay surrounded by a security fence. The average loam layer to at least 300 mm deep, with the number of plants recorded in six counts texture suggesting alluvium originating from between 2000 and 2009 was 1715, with Ginninderra Creek and the colour suggesting 174 Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan periodic inundation (AECOM 2009). The Recruitment often occurs in bare patches or depressions carry little vegetation cover and the where spring annuals have died down in surface (with a dark microbiotic crust) cracks on summer (Avis 2000, HLA 2006). drying (Rowell, pers. obs. 2009). The habitat has Recent recruits (single-stemmed, not flowering, similarities with that of the endangered Winged approximately 3 cm tall), new stems sprouting Peppercress (L. monoplocoides), which occurs in from the base of older plants and plants bearing inland NSW and Victoria (Mavromihalis 2010). flowers and fruits, have been observed in Native grassland species associated with L. autumn surveys, and seed appears to be shed in ginninderrense at Lawson include Wallaby autumn and winter (Avis 2000, HLA 2006), Grasses (Rytidosperma spp), Windmill Grass though viable seed has been collected as early (Chloris truncata), Lemon Beauty-heads as November (Taylor et al. 2014). (Calocephalus citreus) and Fuzzweed (Vittadinia Lepidium is a large genus in which polyploidy is muelleri). Lepidium ginninderrense is also often common, and material from the associated with low-growing annual exotic forbs L. ginninderrense type locality has been and grasses which colonise the same habitat. It determined to be tetradecaploid (14 sets of is generally not found among taller native and chromosomes, Dierschke et al. 2009). The genus exotic grasses in the same area, which may out- is characterised by an autogamous mating compete L. ginninderrense for light and other system (plants self-fertilise), but the flowers of resources (Avis 2000, HLA 2006, AECOM 2009). L. ginninderrense carry six nectaries, suggesting The former Reid site was a flat area of grassland that insect pollination (and potential less than one kilometre from the Molonglo outcrossing) may also occur. River, and the habitat description is similar: ‘locally rather common, in depressions with little vegetation in grassland’ (Scarlett 2001). PREVIOUS AND CURRENT At the Franklin site the L. ginninderrense plants MANAGEMENT occur with other native grassland species in a The Lawson site is a former communication number of small patches scattered across an facility, currently managed by the Department otherwise weedy paddock. The plants are of Defence (Defence). Defence has managed the concentrated in and around bare areas that site with advice from the ACT Government and typically have a dark microbiotic crust. These specialist consultants, more recently under an bare areas are probably perched clay-lined environmental management plan (SMEC 2008). depressions over rock or impervious subsoil. Key components of management have been The vegetation surrounding the weed and biomass management and monitoring L. ginninderrense patches is dominated by dense of kangaroo grazing pressure. In relation to Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) and Tall Speargrass L. ginninderrense, the environmental (Austrostipa bigeniculata), but the species management plan prescribes continued composition within patches themselves monitoring of the size, distribution and viability resembles that of Lawson; shorter Wallaby of the population, appropriate weed control and Grasses, Windmill Grass, Fuzzweed, Scrambled management, maintenance of the surrounding Eggs (Goodenia pinnatifida) and Lemon Beauty- grassland structure and diversity to favour head, the latter being a species typical of L. ginninderrense, and management of the occasionally inundated grassland (‘Ephemeral resident kangaroo population at a stable level Drainage-line Grassy Wetland’, DSE 2009) which compatible with maintaining the ecological is present at both sites. values of the site (SMEC 2008). Observation of changes in the density and The site was resumed from pastoral leases for distribution of the Lawson population suggest Defence use in 1939, at which time it had not that L. ginninderrense is not an annual, which is been ploughed, fertilised or sown with supported by nursery experience where plants introduced pasture species. Low levels of sheep often survive more than a year (Taylor pers. grazing continued, the site was slashed at least comm. 2015).The species could be classified as annually to meet Defence operational either a biennial or (possibly short-lived) requirements, and clovers were sown around perennial or ephemeral (Avis 2000, ENSR 2008, the base of some transmission masts (Crawford ENSR-AECOM 2009, Taylor pers. comm. 2015). Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan 175 and Rowell 1995). In 1995 a small The Lawson L. ginninderrense population was (10 metre x 10 metre) enclosure was erected counted nine times between 1997 and 2011, around a small group of L. ginninderrense plants and the survey month and methods have varied to protect them from sheep grazing. In 1997 (Table 1). The surveys between 2006 and 2009 sheep were removed, and the site was mown in used similar methods, with plants counted and accordance with a grassland management plan mapped for each square metre of the known developed by Defence and the ACT Government distribution. (Avis 2000). Phalaris, Ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) These surveys showed considerable variation in and Subterranean Clover (Trifolium plant numbers between years, as well as subterranean) are scattered across the Lawson changes in the distribution of plants. Population site (AECOM 2009), suggesting some pasture estimates for Lawson have ranged from less improvement during this period. than 50 plants to more than 3000 plants (Table Mowing became unnecessary as the kangaroo 1). In some surveys dense clusters of single- population enclosed by the security fence stemmed plants were noted, suggesting that increased. By 2006 kangaroo numbers and recruitment was occurring. These clusters of grazing pressure were high and, in association plants were not always found in subsequent with ongoing dry conditions, had the potential years, indicating some mortality of young plants. to damage the endangered Natural Temperate The height and density of the vegetation Grassland ecological community and the habitat surrounding the L. ginninderrense plants has of several threatened species (Cooper 2009). also varied considerably in the last 20 years, in response to drought and years with heavier Lepidium ginninderrense is not thought to be rainfall, and with variations in the number of directly grazed by kangaroos at moderate kangaroos on the site. densities when other feed is available, but in 2007 two exclosures were constructed to The Franklin site is managed by the ACT protect most of the population from trampling, Government, which undertakes slashing along the effects of overgrazing of the surrounding tracks and fence lines. The site was previously grasses and any risk of direct grazing (ENSR under a grazing lease and the presence of 2008). After kangaroo numbers were reduced in clovers and Phalaris indicates previous pasture 2008, research was begun by the ACT improvement of at least parts of the site. A lack Government on fertility control of the kangaroo of grazing by stock or kangaroos on this site population with the aim of maintaining their often results in an accumulation of a large numbers within a range compatible with amount of vegetation (grass) biomass, and the conservation of grassland values (SMEC 2008, ACT Government plans to undertake occasional ACT Government 2010). The gates to the biomass reduction activities exclosures were opened to readmit kangaroos, (burning/slashing/grazing) to manage the which then reduced the density of the grasses vegetation biomass at this site. around the L. ginninderrense plants (AECOM 2009). Table 1. Number of Lepidium ginninderrense plants recorded in Lawson surveys, 1997 to 2011. Date of survey Number of plants Reference 1997 <50 Environment ACT in Avis 2000 1999 80 Environment ACT in Avis 2000 April/May 2000 2243 Avis 2000 February 2005 875 HLA April 2006 3523 HLA February 2007 1181 HLA February 2008 1328 ENSR-AECOM 176 Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan Date of survey Number of plants Reference Feb-March 2009 1137 ENSR-AECOM November 2011 406 Taylor et al. 2014 EX-SITU CONSERVATION AND  Australian National Botanic Gardens (ANBG) TRANSLOCATION staff collected seed from most of the Existing plants of L. ginninderrense from Lawson available plants at Lawson in 2008 and 2011 were found to produce large numbers of viable to capture the existing genetic diversity. The seed, and the ACT Government has taken seed is stored under controlled conditions in advantage of the opportunities this allows for the National Seed Bank by maternal line translocation and ex-situ conservation, as (Guja et al. 2013). recommended by Young (2001). These  Germination testing after four years of seed programs have been conducted according to the storage under controlled conditions resulted principles outlined in the Australian Network for in 100% viability and germination (Taylor et Plant Conservation ‘Guidelines for the al. 2014). Seed collection and replacement Translocation of Threatened Plants in Australia’ intervals will be determined by seed (Vallee et al. 2004) and ‘Plant Germplasm longevity. Seed longevity will be determined Conservation in Australia’ (Offord and Meagher from germination trials of stored seed. 2009). The following has been undertaken: Ginninderra Peppercress Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan 177  In 2012 the ANBG grew 1589 plants from tussocks and other plant growth is short and Lawson seed for seed production. The plants open and, subsequently, there is little were grown on plant benches under competition for space and light (Avis 2000, shadecloth and good seed set was achieved, ENSR-AECOM 2009, HLA 2006, Scarlett 2001). apparently without any significant insect The sites also appear to be occasionally or activity (J. McAuliffe pers. comm. Sept 2014). seasonally wet, either through periodic flooding (Lawson) or where rainfall collects (both sites).  In September 2013 most of the Lawson seed This wetting and drying may help maintain the production plants held at the ANBG were open habitat and facilitate L. ginninderrense translocated to selected sites at Crace (1093 seed germination. Disturbance of the existing plants) and Dunlop (487 plants) grassland drainage patterns or inappropriate management nature reserves by Greening Australia and may lead to changes in this open habitat that the ACT Government. Site preparation are not favourable for L. ginninderrense included raking away of thatch where (including high levels of vegetation biomass and necessary. Planting sites were selected for weed invasion), and it is important to identify their similarity to the existing L. and implement management practices that are ginninderrense sites, i.e. flat or gently sloping conducive to the maintenance of the habitat in sites which might accumulate water, with the appropriate condition. Individual plants may sparse Wallaby/Speargrass grassland and be quite short-lived, which could make the Lemon Beauty-heads as a key indicator populations vulnerable to even short-term species. Significant rain (70 mm) fell in the disturbances. week of planting, and plants were watered six weeks after planting. Dunlop Reserve was being grazed by sheep so the planting site was protected by temporary fencing that CONSERVATION ISSUES AND excluded sheep but not kangaroos (Cook INTENDED MANAGEMENT 2013, N Taws pers. comm. September 2014). ACTIONS Subsequent searches of these sites in spring 2014 failed to locate any of the translocated PROTECTION plants or any seedlings derived from them The Lawson and Franklin populations require (pers. obs. A Rowell, N Taws, J McAuliffe, protection as they are the only known October 2014). Follow up searches in populations of the species. The Lawson February 2015 also failed to locate any population of L. ginninderrense occurs on land surviving or germinated plants (pers. obs. E under Commonwealth (Department of Defence) Cook, G Baines February 2015). The reason control. The population is currently afforded translocated plants failed to establish is not protection due to the land being surrounded by well understood but is probably related to a man-proof fence and the Department of unseasonably hot and dry conditions Defence restricting access to authorised following translocation. persons. The Franklin population occurs on  At the time of writing, over 200,000 seeds Territory land that is not formally protected in were held in the National Seed Bank (Taylor reserve but is managed by the ACT Government et al. 2014), including over 500 from the to conserve L. ginninderrense and other Franklin population (Cook 2013). threatened species. The species is not known to occur outside the ACT and so all populations in the ACT require protection to help ensure the overall conservation objective is achieved. THREATS The main threats to the survival of the two populations (and therefore to the species) are ENVIRONMENTAL OFFSET likely to be habitat loss from urban REQUIREMENTS development and habitat degradation from Environmental offset requirements for species intended or unintended actions associated with and ecological communities in the ACT are land management and/or visitor activities. outlined in the ACT Environmental Offsets Policy The surviving (and one extinct) populations and associated documents including the ACT occur/occurred in areas where competing grass Environmental Offsets Assessment 178 Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan Methodology and the Significant Species (Dierschke et al. 2009), this should take place Database. In the Assessment Methodology and before seed from this population is used in Database, some of the threatened species have seed orchards with Lawson plants or for special offset requirements to ensure translocation. appropriate protection. The Ginninderra Peppercress has been determined as not able to withstand further loss in the ACT so offsets for MANAGEMENT this species are not appropriate. Due to the small size and fragmented distribution of the populations, management actions will be directed towards maintaining SURVEY, MONITORING AND existing conditions and ensuring that activities RESEARCH occurring nearby do not adversely affect the It is possible that the species exists elsewhere in sites. Management actions at the Lawson site the ACT given the recent discovery of a second need to take into account the presence of small population at the Franklin site. However, Natural Temperate Grassland ecological because the species is small and difficult to community (Endangered - EPBC Act 1999, NC detect in grassland, surveys aimed solely at Act 2014), the Golden Sun Moth (Synemon finding additional populations are unlikely to be plana: Critically Endangered - EPBC Act 1999) practical. Discovery of new populations is likely and the Perunga Grasshopper (Perunga to be through surveys for other plant species or ochracea: vulnerable - NC Act 2014). from opportunistic observations from Priority management actions include: naturalists and other interested persons.  Manage vegetation biomass to maintain an All known populations of L. ginninderrense will open habitat structure. need to be monitored to determine population trends and to evaluate the effects of  Control weeds if they pose a threat to the management. populations or the site. Recovery of the species will rely largely on  Manage grazing pressure, if it threatens the expanding the size/area of existing populations populations or the site, by reducing the and establishing new populations. Research is number of herbivores and/or fencing known required to determine optimal habitat L. ginninderrense populations. conditions for the species (to maintain and  Avoid incompatible activities, such as expand existing populations) and how to development of facilities, recreational use or establish new populations. access tracks in or near the sites, especially Priority research areas include: where these may alter drainage or introduce weeds.  Improved knowledge of life history and ecology, such as plant longevity, seed  Maintain a low profile for the sites where the longevity, conditions associated with species is located; the appropriateness of germination and recruitment and effects of signage and fencing will need careful surrounding vegetation biomass. consideration.  Methods for establishing additional  Incorporate appropriate statements of populations, such as translocation of plants, management actions in relevant plans and in association with the Australian National strategies. Botanic Gardens, Greening Australia and  Seek expert advice on best practices with other parties. regard to management of the species,  Investigations of chemistry, composition and particularly regarding maintenance of an structure of soil at the known sites, to assist open habitat and putting in place specific with identification of similar sites for management actions as indicated by establishment of other populations. monitoring. Biomass management, hydrology and weed control are likely to be  Determination of the chromosome number key issues for management consideration. in the small Franklin population. Due to the high frequency of polyploidy in Lepidium Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan 179  Continue field collection of seed from the  Allocation of adequate resources to Lawson and Franklin populations for storage undertake the actions specified in the in the National Seed Collection, with seed strategy and action plans. replaced at appropriate intervals determined  Liaison with other jurisdictions (particularly by seed longevity testing. NSW) and other land holders with  Maintain an ex-situ ‘insurance’ population responsibility for the conservation of a (plants and/or seed bank) while there is a threatened species or community. high risk of extant populations becoming  Collaboration with universities, CSIRO, extinct. Australian National Botanic Gardens and other research institutions to facilitate and undertake required research. IMPLEMENTATION  Collaboration with non-government Implementation of this action plan and the ACT organisations, such as Greening Australia, to Native Grassland Conservation Strategy will undertake on-ground actions. require:  Engagement with the community, where  Land planning and land management areas relevant, to assist with monitoring and other of the ACT Government to take into account on-ground actions, and to help raise the conservation of threatened species. community awareness of conservation issues. 180 Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan OBJECTIVES, ACTIONS AND INDICATORS Table 2. Objectives, Actions and Indicators Objective Action Indicator 1. Conserve all ACT Apply formal measures to protect all All populations protected by populations because populations. appropriate formal measures. the species is not known to occur outside Ensure protection measures include Protection measures include the ACT. requirement to conserve the species requirement for conservation in the long-term. management. Maintain alertness to the possible Vegetation surveys in suitable presence of the species while habitat also aim to detect the conducting vegetation surveys in species. suitable habitat. Maintain a seed bank as insurance Seed bank in the National Seed against loss of extant population(s). Collection is maintained and seed collected at regular intervals (determined by seed longevity). 2. Manage the species and Monitor populations and effects of Trends in abundance are known. its habitat to maintain management actions. Management actions are the potential for recorded. evolutionary development in the Manage habitat to maintain its Suitable habitat conditions are wild. suitablilty for the species. maintained by site management. Potential threats (e.g. weeds) are avoided or managed. At least 80% of plants are in suitable habitat. Extant populations are stable or increasing. 3. Enhance the long-term Undertake or facilitate research and Research and trials have been viability of populations trials into increasing the size of undertaken to increase the size through management populations or establishing new of populations or to establish of adjacent grassland to populations. new populations. Population size increase habitat area increased or new population(s) and by establishing new established. populations. 4. Improved Undertake or facilitate research on Research undertaken and understanding of the appropriate methods for managing reported and where appropriate species’ ecology, the species and its habitat applied to the conservation habitat and threats. (slashing/grazing/ burning etc.), management of the species. vegetation biomass, lifecycle, germination, recruitment and genetics. Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan 181 5. Promote a greater Undertake or facilitate stakeholder Engagement and awareness awareness of, and and community engagement and activities undertaken and strengthen stakeholder awareness activities. reported. and community engagement in the conservation of the species. Station, ACT, Stage 2. Report to Department ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of Defence, Environment and Heritage Alison Rowell contributed to the preparation of Section (Canberra). this action plan. The illustration of the species Department of the Environment 2016. Lepidium was prepared for the ACT Government by ginninderrense in Species Profile and Threats Kim Neubauer. Database (Department of the Environment, Canberra). Viewed 14/4/2016. http://www.environment.gov.au/sprat. REFERENCES Department of the Environment and Heritage ACT Government 2003. Ginninderra Peppercress 2005. Habitat Critical to the survival of (Lepidium ginninderrense) —an endangered Ginninderra Peppercress (Lepidium species. Action Plan No. 25 (Environment ginninderrense) (Department of the ACT, Canberra). Environment and Heritage, Canberra). ACT Government 2005. A vision splendid of the Dierschke T, Mandakova T, Lysak M and grassy plains extended: ACT Lowland Native Mummenhoff K 2009. A bicontinental origin Grassland Conservation Strategy. Action Plan of polyploid Australian/New Zealand No. 28 (Arts, Heritage and Environment, Lepidium species (Brassicaceae)? Evidence Canberra). from genomic in situ hybridization. Annals of ACT Government 2010. ACT Kangaroo Botany 104(4): 681-688. Management Plan (Territory and Municipal DSE 2009. Index of Wetland Condition. Services, Canberra). Assessment of wetland vegetation. Update – AECOM 2009. Threatened Species Monitoring: September 2009. (Victorian Government, Five Defence Properties in the ACT. Prepared Department of Sustainability and for Spotless Services (AECOM Australia Pty Environment, and the Natural Heritage Trust, Ltd, Canberra). Melbourne). Avis K 2000. Monitoring of Lepidium Mavromihalis J 2010. National Recovery Plan for ginninderrense at the Belconnen Naval the Winged Peppercress Lepidium Transmission Station Lawson ACT (Canberra monoplocoides. Department of Sustainability Institute of Technology, Canberra). and Environment, Melbourne). Cook E 2013. Threatened Species Translocation ENSR (AECOM) 2008. Flora Monitoring in and Seed Banking Plan. Ginninderra ACT/SNSW 2007/08. SN01944. Prepared for Peppercress, Lepidium ginninderrense. Spotless Services Pty Ltd (ENSR Australia Pty Internal report (Conservation Planning and Ltd, Canberra). Research, ACT government, Canberra). Environment ACT 2005. Recovery Plan for Cooper M 2009. Report on ACT Lowland Native Ginninderra Peppercress (Lepidium Grassland Investigation (Commissioner for ginninderrense). A Recovery Plan under the Sustainability and the Environment, Environment Protection and Biodiversity Canberra). Conservation Act 1999 (C’wlth), based on an Action Plan (Action Plan No. 25) prepared for Crawford I and Rowell A 1995. Vegetation and the species under the Nature Conservation Fauna Habitat Survey of the Belconnen Naval Act 1980 (ACT) (Environment ACT, Canberra). 182 Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan Hewson H 1981. The Genus Lepidium L. B and Broadhurst L 2014. Seed production (Brassicaceae) in Australia. Brunonia 4: 217- project produces translocation spin off for a 308. highly threatened species, Australasian Plant Conservation 22(3): 11-12. HLA 2006. Threatened Species Monitoring at Belconnen Naval Transmitting Station. Taws N 2013. Check Those Dead Bits! Or Finding Prepared for Resolve FM. (HLA- the Ginninderra Peppercress. News of Envirosciences Pty Ltd, Canberra). Friends of Grasslands January - February 2013, page 10. Guja L, North T, Taylor D and McAuliffe J 2013. Sowing seeds: bridging the gap between ex Young A 2001. Issues and Options for Genetic situ collections and reintroduction, Conservation of Small Populations of Australasian Plant Conservation 21(3): 14-17. Threatened Plants in the ACT (CSIRO Plant Industry, Canberra). Offord CA and Meagher PF (eds) 2009. Plant Germplasm Conservation in Australia. Vallee L, Hogbin T, Monks L, Makinson B, Strategies and Guidelines for developing, Matthes M and Rossetto M 2004. Guidelines managing and utilising ex situ collections for the Translocation of threatened plants in (Australian Network for Plant Conservation Australia. Second Edition (Australian Inc.). Network for Plant Conservation, Canberra). Scarlett NH 2001. Lepidium ginninderrense (Brassicaceae), a new species from the PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS Australian Capital Territory. Muelleria 15: 69- 73. J. McAuliffe, Nursery Manager, Australian National Botanic Gardens, Canberra SMEC 2008. Environmental Management Plan: Belconnen Naval Transmitting Station. A. Rowell, Consultant Ecologist, Canberra Prepared for Department of Defence (SMEC N. Taws, Project Manager Greening Australia, Australia, Canberra). Capital Region. Taylor D, McAuliffe J, North T, Gibson-Roy P, Vanzella B, Taws N, Baines G, Cook E, Lepschi Ginninderra Peppercress Action Plan 183 GOLDEN SUN MOTH SYNEMON PLANA ACTION PLAN 184 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan PREAMBLE The Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana Walker, 1854) was declared an endangered species on 15 April 1996 (Instrument No. DI1996-29 under the Nature Conservation Act 1980). Under section 101 of the Nature Conservation Act 2014, the Conservator of Flora and Fauna is responsible for preparing a draft action plan for listed species. The first action plan for this species was prepared in 1998 (ACT Government 1998). This revised edition supersedes the earlier edition. This action plan includes the ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy set out in schedule 1 to the ‘Nature Conservation (Native Grassland) Action Plans 2017’, to the extent it is relevant. Measures proposed in this action plan complement those proposed in the action plans for Natural Temperate Grassland, Yellow Box/Red Gum Grassy Woodland, and component threatened species such as the Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar) and the Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla). need to maintain natural evolutionary CONSERVATION STATUS processes. Synemon plana is recognised as a threatened Specific objectives of the action plan are to: species in the following sources:  Conserve large populations in the ACT. National Protect other populations from unintended impacts (unintended impacts are those not Critically Endangered – Environment Protection already considered through an and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 environmental assessment or other statutory (Commonwealth). process). Australian Capital Territory  Manage the species and its habitat to maintain the potential for evolutionary Endangered – Nature Conservation Act 2014. development in the wild. Special Protection Status Species - Nature Conservation Act 2014.  Enhance the long-term viability of populations through management of New South Wales adjacent grassland to increase habitat area Endangered – Threatened Species Conservation and connect populations. Act 1995. Victoria SPECIES DESCRIPTION AND Threatened – Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act ECOLOGY 1988. DESCRIPTION The Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana Walker 1854) is a moth in the family Castniidae. Genera CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES in this family are found in Central and South The overall conservation objective of this action America and in Australia, suggesting a plan is to maintain in the long term viable, wild Gondwanan origin for the family (Edwards populations of S. plana as a component of the 1991). All adult moths in this family are diurnal, indigenous biological resources of the ACT and and their larvae feed on monocotyledonous as a contribution to regional and national plants (Common 1990). conservation of the species. This includes the Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 185 Synemon plana adults are medium-sized, with two centuries later this had been reduced to clubbed antennae and no functional mouth- less than 1% of the original area (Kirkpatrick parts. In males, the upper side of the forewing is 1993), with the remaining remnants degraded dark brown with pale grey patterning, the hind by stock grazing and weed invasion. wing is dark bronzy brown with dark brown A recent review of the status of S. plana across patches, and the underside of both wings is its range found that between the years 2000 mostly pale grey with dark brown spots. and 2010 the known area of occupied habitat In females the upper side of the forewing is dark had increased from 10 km² to 150 km² due grey with pale grey patterning, the hind wing is mainly to increased survey of areas proposed bright orange with black submarginal spots, and for development (Hogg 2010). Currently, the the underside of both wings is silky white with species is known from 100 (mainly small) sites small black submarginal spots. The male north and west of Melbourne and in south-west wingspan is about 34 mm, and the female Victoria (Brown and Tolsma 2010; Brown et al. wingspan is about 31 mm. The male having a 2011; DSE 2013), 48 sites in NSW (OEH 2012) larger wingspan than the female is unique in the and 78 sites in the ACT. Australian Castniidae. Females have a long Most of the populations of S. plana in the ACT extensible ovipositor. region are smaller than five hectares and lie Synemon plana eggs are just over 2 mm long, within an area about 100 km long and 30 km and the larvae develop underground where they wide, extending from the Queanbeyan district in are found associated with the roots of a few the south-east to the Boorowa area in the species of grasses or at the upper end of silk- north-west (Clarke and Whyte 2003; NSW lined tunnels below the tussock base (Richter Wildlife Atlas 2015). In the ACT the species 2010). Larvae are cream in colour, and late- occurs in lowland areas adjacent to the city of instars have a red-brown head capsule. The Canberra, and in mostly small sites within the empty red-brown pupal cases protrude from the city (Table 1). ground, usually at the base of or close to a grass Table 1 shows the area of habitat at sites where tussock. The pupal cases of female moths are the species is known to occur in the ACT. These larger than those of males, reflecting the larger sites are defined as areas of contiguous, size of the gravid female abdomen (Richter apparently suitable habitat, rather than by land 2010). ownership/management. For example, relatively large areas of habitat at Canberra Airport and the Majura Training Area are DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE counted as one site because the habitat is Historically S. plana was widespread in south- continuous across the tenure boundary, while eastern Australia and relatively continuous two small areas of habitat at the University of throughout its range, showing a close Canberra are counted as two sites because they correlation with the distribution of temperate are separated by more than 200 metres of non- grasslands dominated by Wallaby Grasses habitat. (Rytidosperma spp., formerly Austrodanthonia) Because males are unlikely to fly more than 100 (Edwards 1993; O’Dwyer and Attiwill 1999). m away from suitable habitat (Clarke and Areas dominated by Wallaby Grasses probably O’Dwyer 2000), and females move even less occurred as part of a grassland mosaic, distance, populations separated by 200 metres interspersed with patches dominated by other or more are likely to be isolated and are grass species. Museum records indicate S. plana therefore treated as separate sites. was still common and widespread prior to 1950, Populations of S. plana tend to have a patchy with collections showing its distribution distribution (and density) within an area of extended from Bathurst, NSW, through the apparently suitable habitat (and this area can Southern Tablelands of NSW and central vary between years), which means actual areas Victoria to the South Australian border (Edwards occupied by S. plana are likely to be less than 1993). the habitat areas shown in Table 1. The area of temperate grassland in Australia at the time of European settlement is estimated to have been about two million hectares, though 186 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan Table 1. Location of Synemon plana populations earlier on north facing sites, those with light in the ACT ground cover and drier sites (Edwards 1994). More adults emerge on hot dry days, making it District Number of Habitat area difficult to detect the difference between long- sites (hectares) term population trends and short-term seasonal Belconnen 9 355 effects at a site without surveying the whole site on every day of a season. Mark–release– Central 25 110 recapture studies are labour-intensive and need Canberra to be carried out every day of the flying season in order to estimate the number of adult males Gungahlin 32 812 present in the population. The length of the larval period is not clear, nor is Jerrabomberra 7 60 it known if it can vary according to environmental conditions, so it is not known Majura 5 466 what proportion of the standing population is represented by the number of adults that fly in Total 78 1803 one season. Detecting and sampling larvae is difficult due to their patchy subterranean distribution and is destructive of larvae and The area of apparently suitable (or potential) their habitat. Late-season surveys of above- habitat for S. plana in the ACT is estimated to be ground pupal cases can provide a useful about 1800 hectares, with individual sites indication of S. plana density as well as locations varying in size from 0.055 ha to more than 300 where larvae have developed underground ha, and a median size of 2.8 ha. There are large because pupal cases are readily recognisable populations on Commonwealth Land at the and have been found to persist in the field for Majura Training Area and Canberra Airport in longer than three weeks. However, pupal cases the Majura Valley, at the Lawson Grasslands are likely to be more difficult to find on sites (former Belconnen Naval Transmission Station with denser vegetation or in wetter years site) and at the West Macgregor offset area. (Richter et al. 2012; Rowell pers. obs). Less extensive populations occur in the Dunlop Grasslands Reserve and Jarramlee Nature Population estimates based on mark–release– Reserve in Belconnen, in the Jerrabomberra recapture surveys have been undertaken four Grasslands (east and west), and in the times for the small (0.4 ha) site at York Park in Mulanggari, Crace, Mulligans Flat and Barton. The number of flying males was Goorooyarroo nature reserves in Gungahlin. estimated to be 520 (1992), 456 (1993) and 736 Based on the known former distribution of (1994) (Harwood et al. 1995), giving an average lowland Temperate Grassland in the ACT and population estimate for those years of 1400 areas surveyed for S. plana, it is unlikely any males per hectare This would be an annual adult significant populations of the species remain cohort of about 2300 per hectare if the undiscovered. male:female sex ratio is 60:40 as suggested by Richter et al. (2012). A two or three-year life Numerous difficulties arise when attempting to cycle would mean that double or triple the estimate population size in S. plana (Gibson and number of emerging adults estimated is New 2007). Flying adult males are the only life potentially present on this site. stage and sex that are readily detected and counted, but they are short-lived and emerge across a season of many weeks. Counts or density estimates at a site on a single day will mostly reflect a single emergence cohort, and daily emergence and flight activity is affected by weather conditions. Daily emergence patterns between sites and across a site can also vary, with the flying season starting Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 187 A similar survey at York Park in 2006 using a Hogg (2010) proposed three levels of S. plana different analysis gave estimated male numbers activity (low, moderate, high) based on numbers of 440 (Rowell 2007a), with daily male of flying males counted during a standard time population size during the peak flying period of (fixed or transect counts) or distance travelled about 55 to 65. A further mark–release– (walked transects and meandering traverses) recapture survey in 2011 found similar daily and then rated the S. plana population male population sizes of 49 and 66 during the size/activity at 56 ACT sites based on recent peak flying season (Rowell 2012). survey records. Mulvaney (2012) used the above and other data to apply the Richter et al. (2009) Given the difficulties with measuring absolute maximum moth count abundance classes to 73 population sizes for S. plana, measures of ACT sites. relative abundance or maximum daily abundance are likely be more practical for Standardised survey methods are detailed in monitoring population trends. Counts of flying DEWHA (2009) and have been developed by the males have been undertaken at most ACT sites, ACT Government. These mainly cover transect, but these have often involved different survey fixed point and fixed time counts of flying males, methods and years. Some ACT sites have been carried out in a way that allows some counted regularly, and others only once or comparison of relative S. plana abundance twice. Richter et al. (2009) reported relative between years and sites. Draft monitoring abundance of flying males at 28 sites in one guidelines for the ACT include habitat season by using the highest number of monitoring methods to be used in conjunction individuals summed from 12 ‘rotational’ counts with standardised moth counts. (standing in one spot and counting all flying Transect surveys covering some large ACT sites males within a defined radius whilst the have been repeated in several seasons, mostly observer rotates though 360 degrees) during 2– using transects across the site spaced 100 4 site visits, and characterised the abundance at metres apart with numbers of flying males each site from low (1–20 moths) to very high recorded per 100 metres of transect. These (several hundred). Richter (2010) conducted include: surveys at 24 locations over three seasons using counts along a 100 metre transect and found  Lawson Grasslands (former Belconnen Naval only a small number of sites had relatively high Transmission Station) (Clarke and Dunford abundance (hundreds) of moths. 1999; AECOM 2009),  West Macgregor (Braby 2005; Biosis 2015; Rowell 2015), Golden Sun Moth (photo K. Nash)  Canberra Airport (Crawford 2001; Rowell and Bishop 2004; Biosis 2008; Rowell 2006, 2010, 2012),  Majura Training Area (AECOM 2009, 2012). Some general findings from the above surveys:  Where it could be calculated, the average number of flying males per 100 metres for each site in the above surveys ranged from 0.2 to 34.  When whole sites were taken into account, moth numbers were consistently highest at Canberra Airport (a site managed by regular mowing), but similar densities were recorded for the portion of West Macgregor dominated by grazed Chilean Needlegrass (Nassella neesiana).  At West Macgregor, numbers of flying males were consistently higher on the creek flats 188 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan dominated by Chilean Needlegrass than on consuming and often less successful than the drier east-facing slope dominated by surveys for flying males, but can be undertaken weedy native Speargrass (Austrostipa in a different time period to when males are spp.)/Wallaby Grass (Rytidosperma spp.) flying. Surveys for females are best undertaken pasture. after the main period of male flying activity each day, when the females are more easily seen as  There is a tendency for seasons to be they walk quickly from tussock to tussock to lay characterised by either a high, moderate or eggs. low abundance of flying males at most sites across the northern ACT at the same time, Females are most readily seen on very hot with some local variation at particular sites afternoons (35–38°C) when they will perch on (probably reflecting vegetation condition). tall grass stems, presumably to escape the hot soil surface (Rowell, pers. obs). Searches of  A reduction in numbers of flying males defined areas or timed searches for females can between years appeared to be associated be combined with searches for empty pupal with excess biomass at one site and with cases, as both require close inspection of the overgrazing by kangaroos at another. ground. Pupal case surveys are best undertaken  The highest single count (per 100 metre towards the end of the flying season, when they sector) for a site is related to the abundance will be more numerous, as they remain intact at for the whole site, i.e. very high single counts the soil surface for several weeks under some occur in ‘good’ years when the count for the conditions (Richter et al. 2012). whole site is high. Unfortunately females and pupal cases are not  In seasons when males are abundant they easily found on sites with sparse or small S. may be detected across most of a site, but in plana populations. Surveys for larvae are poor years they may be found thinly destructive and require a permit to disturb the scattered or have a patchy distribution which habitat, as tussocks are uprooted and the roots may match locations of high male abundance searched. There is no formal published in previous seasons. description of the larvae, which need to be identified by an expert. Larvae are also patchily  Evidence of breeding (mating, oviposition, distributed in the habitat, possibly reflecting pupal cases) occurs in both Natural laying by individual females. Temperate Grassland and native grassland, and is detected more often in areas and The most up to date distribution data for this seasons of high male abundance. species is publicly available on the ACT Government’s mapping portal (Visit the  The number of females detected rises with ACTmapi website). the abundance of flying males, but rarely exceeds 1% of males recorded in walked transect surveys. This reflects the low HABITAT AND ECOLOGY probability of detecting females by the transect method. Synemon plana is found in native grassland, native pasture, open woodland with a grassy The presence of flying males is a fairly coarse understorey and ‘secondary’ grassland (open measure of breeding habitat, as they are able to grassy woodland that has been cleared of trees). fly some distance from their site of emergence Occupied sites have generally not been pasture and may also congregate in areas of low improved through the application of fertiliser, or herbage mass (which may or may not contain ploughed (Richter et al. 2010). Sites are the less mobile females), or shelter on the lee generally flat or gently sloping (< 5°), and in the side of ridges on windy days (AECOM 2009; ACT aspect does not appear to be a good Rowell unpublished data). predictor of habitat. Shading of habitat is Survey methods that detect females, pupae or generally minimal, with 88% of habitat in the larvae are valuable as they indicate more ACT occurring in areas without trees or in very accurately the current and previous breeding sparse woodland (Mulvaney 2012). Hogg (2010) and larval development sites, and allow better suggested that populations of S. plana in open mapping and characterisation of breeding woodland and secondary grassland may be the habitat. These surveys are more time- result of the species spreading outside its Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 189 preferred habitat (Natural Temperate females to display and attract mates (Edwards Grassland) to adjacent woodlands following 1994; Gibson 2006; Gibbons and Reid 2013). partial or complete clearing of the trees. This Where vegetation height and density varies, idea is supported by observations that habitat in male moths show a preference for flying over secondary grassland and open woodland areas of relatively low open grassland with generally supports fewer moths than primary reduced herbage mass (Gibson 2006; Gilmore et grassland. al. 2008; Brown et al. 2011). Habitat for S. plana is characterised by the Adult moths emerge from pupal cases at the soil moderate abundance of larval food plants and surface on warm dry sunny days during the the structure of the grassy layer. Sites occupied breeding season. The adults have no functional by S. plana tend to be open grasslands mouth parts, so cannot feed or drink. Mark– dominated by tussocks of Rytidosperma species release–recapture studies have shown that (Wallaby Grasses), and to a lesser extent Tall most live for only one or two days (Edwards Speargrass (Austrostipa bigeniculata) and 1993; Edwards 1994; Harwood et al. 1995; Kangaroo Grass (Themeda triandra), that are Rowell 2007a; Rowell 2012). In the ACT the generally low to moderate in grass height and flying period is usually between mid-October have a moderate to high grass cover with areas and early January with a peak from mid- of bare ground (inter-tussock space) (Clarke and November to early December, but varies Dear 1998; O’Dwyer and Attiwill 1999; Gilmore according to seasonal conditions. Examination et al. 2008; Mulvaney pers. obs.; Rowell pers. of 650 pupal cases from eleven ACT sites obs.). showed that the sex ratio on emergence was about 60% males and 40% females. This ratio Edwards (1994) surveyed eight S. plana sites in was similar over two seasons, for native and the ACT and described six as containing patches exotic-dominated sites (Richter 2010; Richter et of Wallaby Grasses in Tall Speargrass grasslands, al. 2012). while two had patches of Wallaby Grasses associated with Themeda grassland. Most sites The proportion of males detected in field counts were on low ridges, hillocks or low hills. and mark–release–recapture surveys is very much greater than this, probably due to Richter (2010) surveyed 47 grassland sites behavioural differences affecting detectability within the distribution of pre-1750 Natural (Edwards 1993; Edwards 1994; Harwood et al. Temperate Grassland in the ACT, and found that 1995; Gibson 2006; Rowell 2007a; Rowell 2012). 69% of sites containing S. plana were dominated by Wallaby Grasses with a smaller proportion of Adult females contain up to 200 (mean 74) fully- occupied sites dominated by Tall Speargrass, formed eggs on emerging from pupation, and Kangaroo Grass or Chilean Needlegrass. Chilean with their smaller wings are only able to walk or Needlegrass is a Weed of National Significance flutter for short distances (Edwards 1994; and a declared pest plant in the ACT (DECCEW Richter 2010). Males are active fliers, able to 2009), and has spread along creeks and move several hundred metres over suitable roadsides and through urban parks. No sites habitat (Richter et al. 2013). Males fly low and dominated by Phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) rapidly over the grassland during the late contained S. plana. morning and early afternoon, searching for females. Males do not fly far from habitat, and A study of native pasture sites in NSW showed usually turn back after 50 metres or less when that S. plana is more likely to be found at sites they move into unsuitable vegetation. Females with higher cover of Wallaby Grasses, provided sit on the ground, exposing their golden that the tussock structure and inter-tussock hindwings when a male flies overhead (Edwards bare ground is maintained, and suggested that 1994; Gibson 2006). After mating, the females while high grazing pressures might increase move from tussock to tussock, laying eggs into Wallaby Grass cover at the expense of other their bases. Field observations suggest females grasses, this is unlikely to favour S. plana due to lay their eggs within a few metres of the mating the loss of tussocks (Gibbons and Reid 2013). site (Gibson 2006). Important structural features appear to be tussocks for shelter, egg-laying and larval Synemon plana larvae are underground feeders, development, and inter-tussock spaces for and are found in silk-lined tunnels closely basking to increase body temperature and for associated with the roots of grasses (Edwards 190 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 1994; Richter 2010). Edwards (1994) suggested if unable to complete their development on the the larval period could be 1–3 years. Larvae roots of a single tussock (Edwards 1994). A collected just prior to adult emergence in study of a relatively small number of sites in October fell into three distinct size cohorts, Victoria and the ACT found that that sites which appeared likely to be one, two and three inhabited by S. plana had Wallaby Grass cover years old (Richter et al. 2013). In temperate greater than 40% on soils low in phosphorous, climates, lepidopteran larvae can face a with up to five species of Wallaby Grass present pathway decision between continuing (O’Dwyer and Attiwill 1999), but areas occupied development to the adult stage or entering by S. plana at one larger Victorian site all diapause and delaying emergence until the contained less than 37% Wallaby Grass cover following season (Gotthard 2008). It is possible (Gibson 2006). Surveys at 66 occupied Victorian that this occurs facultatively in S. plana, perhaps sites found that most sites containing S. plana in larvae hatched from eggs laid late in the had ≥10% Wallaby Grass cover (Brown et al. season or larvae which encounter poor 2011; Brown et al. 2012). conditions for development and growth, One survey found that in two seasons there was meaning that the larval period could be two and a significant positive relationship between the sometimes three years. cover of Wallaby Grass and the number of flying The main larval food plants are native C3 males recorded (Brown et al. 2012), but other grasses, especially Wallaby Grasses and surveys have not found such a correlation Speargrasses, and more recently the introduced (Gibson 2006; Brown et al. 2011). Low numbers Chilean Needlegrass (Edwards 1994; Braby and of S. plana have been reported where Wallaby Dunford 2006; Gibson 2006; Gilmore et al. 2008; Grasses occur as a minor component in Richter et al. 2011, 2013; Sea and Downey grassland dominated by presumed non-food 2014b). Oviposition and pupal shells have also species such as Kangaroo Grass or some exotic frequently been associated with these species grasses (e.g. Brown et al. 2012). (e.g. Edwards 1994, Gibson 2006; Braby and Synemon plana sites in the ACT region typically Dunford 2006; Richter et al. 2013). Larvae were contain up to six species of Wallaby Grass, but more often found among the roots of their cover and distribution vary. EcoLogical Speargrasses or a mix of Speargrass and Wallaby (2012) reported Wallaby Grass cover of 25% or Grass than with Wallaby Grass alone (Richter et less in areas of high S. plana abundance at al. 2013). Mulligan’s Flat Nature Reserve, but noted that These are all C3 grasses, and there was no Wallaby Grass density varied considerably at a indication from the stable isotope studies of gut small scale, with patches of high density contents that any of the C4 grasses commonly scattered across the site. The Wallaby Grasses found in and around S. plana habitat were eaten with highest cover are often the low-growing in significant quantities (Richter et al. 2011). Rytidosperma carphoides and R. auriculatum, However, only a few tussocks of C4 grass with R. caespitosum and R. laeve also often species were searched for larvae in that dietary present (five NSW sites, Clarke and Dear 1998; study (Osborne pers. comm. 2015). C4 species eight ACT sites, O’Dwyer and Attiwill 1999; commonly found scattered at or near S. plana Lawson Grasslands, AECOM 2009; York Park sites include Themeda triandra, Bothriochloa Barton, Rowell 2012; Majura Training Area, macra, Panicum effusum, Aristida ramosa and AECOM 2014; Canberra Airport, Rowell 2015). the introduced African Lovegrass (Eragrostis A survey of two habitat areas at Canberra curvula). Airport found that both had the same mean Further work is required to identify or eliminate percentage basal cover of Wallaby Grasses (3%), other food species, and to find the density of but that this was made up of 23 tussocks/m² at food plants required to sustain a population of the site dominated by R. carphoides, and seven S. plana. Some features of S. plana suggest it tussocks/m² at the site dominated by the larger may require a high density of larval food plants R. caespitosum (Rowell 2009). The site with the in its habitat. These features include the low larger tussocks contained more pupal shells and mobility and very short life span of the female has also had consistently higher numbers of which must walk or flutter to tussocks suitable flying male S. plana in several annual surveys. for oviposition, and the probably limited This suggests the species of Wallaby Grass distance that larvae could move through the soil and/or the size of its tussocks may also be Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 191 important in determining larval habitat quality. disturbed sites or those with enhanced nutrients Tussocks with a large root volume may allow a (Faithfull 2012). larva to complete its cycle on a single tussock Other grass species have been less often linked without the risk and energy cost potentially with S. plana, through the following involved in moving through the soil to find observations: another tussock.  Weeping Grass (Microlaena stipoides, C3 Of 55 S. plana larvae collected from the roots of grass): apparent oviposition, females probing native grasses at ACT sites, 87% were associated with ovipositor but egg-laying not confirmed with either Speargrass or Wallaby Grass, with (Victorian site, Gibson 2006). twice as many associated with Wallaby Grass tussocks (Richter et al. 2013). Speargrass  Redleg Grass (Bothriochloa macra, C4 grass): (mainly Austrostipa bigeniculata) are also a apparent oviposition and pupal cases major component of S. plana habitat in the ACT. protruding from tussock (Reid ACT, Braby and Dunford 2006), larvae associated with Apparent oviposition has been observed into roots (ACT sites, Richter et al. 2013). Speargrass tussocks (Gibson 2006; Richter et al. 2013) and larvae have been found among their  Purple Wiregrass (Aristida ramosa, C4 grass): roots. At York Park in Barton, a small well- larvae associated with roots (ACT sites, studied site with high numbers of S. plana, the Richter et al. 2013). cover of Wallaby Grasses has been relatively low Studies of S. plana populations across the range over several years (ca. 4-7% of the vegetation of the species show considerable genetic cover), while Speargrass cover has been around variation, which increases with the geographic 30%. At Canberra Airport and the Majura distance between populations (Clarke and Training Area, Speargrass cover in S. plana O’Dwyer 2000; Clarke and Whyte 2003). Five habitat over several years has also been major genetic clusters have been identified, one consistently higher than Wallaby Grass cover encompassing the populations from the ACT (AECOM 2014; Rowell 2015) and at Lawson and nearby NSW. These studies suggest the Grasslands Speargrass and Wallaby Grass cover ACT/NSW cluster radiated from a small founding has been roughly equal (AECOM 2009). population that originated from Victoria in Other surveys have found a strong association recent evolutionary time, and that populations between S. plana and the introduced Chilean in this cluster have recently undergone further Needlegrass in the ACT and Victoria, with high genetic differentiation resulting from habitat numbers of flying males observed in areas fragmentation associated with the introduction dominated by this grass (Braby and Dunford of agriculture (Clarke & Whyte 2003). 2006; Gilmore et al. 2008; Richter et al. 2009; Sea and Downey 2014a), apparent oviposition into its tussock bases (Gibson 2006), many pupal PREVIOUS AND CURRENT cases protruding from them (Braby and Dunford 2006; Richter et al. 2010) and larvae being MANAGEMENT found among its roots (Richter et al. 2013; SMEC In the ACT S. plana occurs on land under a range 2015). Larvae collected from the roots of this of tenures and land management regimes. Sites grass were found to weigh significantly more where S. plana occur include land owned and than larvae collected from the roots of native managed by the Commonwealth Government, grasses in the same season (Richter et al. 2013; Territory land gazetted as nature reserve, ‘Hills, Sea and Downey 2014b), and several larvae can Ridges and Buffers’, urban open space, or apparently be supported by a single tussock broadacre, and Territory rural land leased for (SMEC 2014, 2015). grazing. Synemon plana often occurs on sites that contain the endangered Natural Temperate ACT sites which contain S. plana and are Grassland community and other threatened dominated by Chilean Needlegrass are all grassland species, and sometimes with adjacent to native grasslands (Richter et al. remnants of the critically endangered White 2011). Box–Yellow Box–Blakely’s Red Gum Grassy Chilean Needlegrass is of South American origin, Woodland and Derived Native Grassland and is related to Australian Austrostipa species. community. It is a long-lived grass which readily invades 192 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan Currently occupied S. plana habitat in the ACT Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar) and Button has generally had some regime of herbage mass Wrinklewort (Rutidosis leptorhynchoides). reduction in the past, which may have helped to Mulligans Flat and Goorooyarroo nature maintain the habitat in a condition that allowed reserves are mainly woodland and in some parts the moths to survive. This has included grazing the ecological condition is being enhanced by by sheep, cattle and/or kangaroos, occasional kangaroo exclosures and the addition of coarse high slashing, occasional or frequent low woody debris (Manning et al. 2013). mowing and occasional burning (planned and unplanned). In the Majura Valley, much of the Canberra Airport habitat is regularly mown to about 10 Parts of the Canberra Airport grassland have cm for aviation safety reasons, while the consistently high counts of S. plana (including 85 adjacent large Majura Training Area site is females counted in one year) despite being mostly lightly grazed by regulated numbers of mown several times per year since the 1960s kangaroos. (Rowell 2010). The Majura West/Campbell Park grassland was Some areas of the airport that currently support formerly grazed by sheep, and is currently S. plana have previously been subject to grazed by kangaroos. All three sites contain earthworks (soil levelling), over-sowing with Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis Subterranean Clover (Trifolium subterranean) pinguicolla) and Perunga Grasshopper (Perunga and years of very close mowing associated with ochracea) populations, and the Majura Training helicopter training (Canberra Airport pers. Area and Majura West also have Striped Legless comm. 2015), indicating some resilience of S. Lizard. The Majura Training Area has a grassland plana to past incompatible land management management plan that takes account of the practices. However, the loss of S. plana from threatened species present. Yarramundi Grassland in the last 20 years appears to be associated with over a decade of In Belconnen, the enclosed Lawson North sustained high herbage mass and weed invasion (former Department of Defence naval due to a lack of grazing or mowing (Sharp 2009, transmission station) site was previously grazed Faithfull 2012). by sheep, later slashed, and is now grazed by regulated numbers of kangaroos. This site has a Small central Canberra grassland sites where grassland management plan that takes account conservation of S. plana is a primary aim, such of the threatened species on the site, which as York Park in Barton (which has a site-specific include the endangered Ginninderra management plan, Parsons Brinckerhoff 2008), Peppercress (Lepidium ginninderrense) and the are mostly maintained by mowing or slashing Perunga Grasshopper. An area of S. plana which is timed to avoid the breeding period of S. habitat has been retained on Reservoir Hill plana, with weed control as required. However, within the South Lawson suburban S. plana also persists in small patches in urban development, and is subject to an environment open space (such as road verges, median strips management plan requiring herbage mass and parks) that are slashed or mown annually management, weed control, corridor retention (or more frequently), which may include during and regular monitoring of S. plana and its the emergence season. Other sites are grazed habitat. West Macgregor, Jarramlee and the by horses, such as the North Curtin horse Dunlop Grasslands Nature Reserve are lightly paddocks and the larger Yarralumla Equestrian grazed by kangaroos and (parts are) grazed by Park, which has an offset management plan that cattle for herbage mass control as required. aims to integrate S. plana conservation with the Jarramlee (ACT Government 2013) and West equestrian use of the site (Jessop 2014). Macgregor are subject to offset management In Gungahlin the larger sites are mainly within plans, which aim to control herbage mass and the Crace, Mulligans Flat and Goorooyarroo weeds in S. plana habitat. nature reserves. These areas were formerly The Jerrabomberra West and East nature grazed by sheep and/or cattle, and are all now reserves were formerly grazed by sheep and are grazed by controlled numbers of kangaroos. now grazed by kangaroos, with some areas Parts of Crace and Goorooyarroo nature protected by kangaroo grazing exclosures. These reserves are grazed by cattle at times. Crace reserves also contain Grassland Earless Dragon, Nature Reserve also contains populations of Striped Legless Lizard and Perunga Grasshopper Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 193 populations, and small experimental patch favoured by S. plana. Invasive weeds of concern burns are being undertaken at both sites. in S. plana habitat include:  Perennial tussock grasses, such as Phalaris, African Lovegrass, Serrated Tussock (Nassella THREATS trichotoma) and Chilean Needlegrass. Synemon plana is a grassland specialist, being  Tall annual grasses such as Wild Oats (Avena found in areas of Natural Temperate Grassland, sp.). native pasture, secondary native grassland or clearings in grassy woodland. A very high  Some broad-leaved weeds such as St Johns proportion of these grassy ecosystems have Wort (Hypericum perforatum) and Saffron been cleared for agriculture and urban Thistle (Carthamus lanatus). development, and most of the remnants are Chilean Needlegrass in S. plana habitat presents fragmented and degraded. unusual issues. It is a Weed of National Further loss, fragmentation and degradation of Significance but has become an additional food habitat continue to be the major threats to S. plant for S. plana larvae, and appears to pose plana (ACT Government 1998; DEWHA 2009; both risks and potential opportunities for S. OEH 2012; ACT Government 2016). plana conservation. Mulvaney (2012) reported that of the estimated At Canberra Airport, Chilean Needlegrass has 1800 ha of S. plana habitat remaining in the invaded disturbed sites, e.g. former soil dumps, ACT, 22% has been approved or proposed for where soil has been disturbed by machinery, urban development, 23% is on Commonwealth drainage swales and beside disturbed track and land with an uncertain future, and 45% is in paved edges, especially where there is existing or proposed nature reserves or additional run-off. It has been slower to invade existing/proposed EBPC offset areas. Proposed adjacent, well-drained intact Natural Temperate urban development will most likely involve Grassland (Rowell, pers. obs.). Similar situations complete loss of some small sites and partial have occurred at Jarramlee, West Macgregor loss and fragmentation of some larger sites. and the former Constitution Avenue site. Larger losses include clearance of habitat at Chilean Needlegrass can invade Kangaroo Grass Canberra Airport (airport development), South dominated grasslands when they suffer tussock Lawson (urban development), and parts of collapse and death due to lack of renewal Gungahlin (urban development). The proposed through herbage mass reduction (grazing, habitat loss at Gungahlin has been covered by mowing, burning), and this appears to have the Gungahlin Strategic Assessment, which happened at Yarramundi Grassland and part of details the quality and area of S. plana habitat the Dudley Street site (Faithfull 2012). At Dudley lost, the proposed avoidance and mitigation Street S. plana occupied the Chilean measures, and the offset strategy. Offsets Needlegrass area, but at Yarramundi Grassland include the creation of the Kinlyside Nature the moth seems to have disappeared before the Reserve, addition of land to the Mulligans Flat– main invasion of Chilean Needlegrass. This may Goorooyarroo Nature Reserves, and adding land be due to the small amount of S. plana habitat to the ‘Hills, Ridges and Buffers’ zone. Smaller originally present at Yarramundi Grassland, and losses are likely (or have occurred) at York Park, the years of excessive herbage mass that Majura West and West Macgregor for road preceded the invasion of Chilean Needlegrass. building, and at Dudley Street in Yarralumla for The spread of Chilean Needlegrass appears to housing (Mulvaney 2012). have allowed the distribution of S. plana to Many S. plana sites in the ACT are small, and are expand into adjacent areas that previously may therefore particularly vulnerable to invasion by not have been suitable habitat. This may be the weeds. It is likely that S. plana requires a high source of the apparently isolated population in density of larval food plants in its habitat, and the grassed roundabout on the northern would therefore be susceptible to the dilution of approaches of Commonwealth Avenue Bridge. food plants by weed species that are not food When Chilean Needlegrass invades disturbed plants. Weeds also fill inter-tussock spaces and sites which are not S. plana habitat, these are alter the low and open grassland structure often relatively well-watered or fertile, and it may displace native grasses, native or exotic 194 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan pasture, or the planted exotic dryland grass mix more eggs and larger males may fly further (Tall Fescue, White Clover). This process has led and longer, and have greater mating success. to linear infestations of Chilean Needlegrass  Faster-growing larvae may lead to a shorter along waterways such as Ginninderra Creek and generation time in some Lepidoptera Gooromon Ponds. The spread of Chilean (Gotthard 2008). Needlegrass is also facilitated by mowing, leading to a near monoculture on many The potentially enhanced reproductive success roadsides, nature strips and traffic islands in of S. plana using Chilean Needlegrass may be central Canberra. Chilean Needlegrass is due to metabolic plasticity, but if these assisted in replacing other grasses by its ability characteristics are genetically determined they to form cleistogamous seeds which can mature have the potential to drive genetic change in S. at ground level, thus producing fertile seed even plana, which could eventually lead to genetic under close mowing. This seed is also present barriers between isolated populations adapted and ready to germinate following the death of to Chilean Needlegrass and those on native- the tussock due to age, drought or herbicide dominated sites. For example, characteristics use, while mowing inhibits seeding of taller that enable S. plana to complete its life cycle grass species and restricts their contribution to under dry conditions in relatively sparse native the soil seed bank (Faithfull 2012). vegetation on poor soils, could be lost in S. plana developing with more reliable food The use of Chilean Needlegrass as a food plant availability on fertile sites dominated by Chilean by S. plana has allowed the moth to survive in Needlegrass. disturbed habitats and to spread along roadsides and creeklines. This has the potential Other threats to S. plana populations or habitat to connect populations which are currently include: isolated on native-dominated sites, e.g. the  Wildfire or inappropriate fire regimes: complex of sites at Ginninderra Creek, Lowland grasslands were regularly burnt by Gooromon Ponds, Dunlop Nature Reserve and Indigenous people before European NSW border properties near Hall, and at settlement (Nicholson 1981 in Lunt 1991) Yarralumla Equestrian Park, Lady Denman Drive, and virtually all perennial grassland plants North Curtin horse paddocks, Dudley Street and resprout after fire in lowland grasslands Kintore Street. At the same time, these linear (Morgan 2015). However, little information infestations of Chilean Needlegrass could act as is available about the role of fire in low invasion corridors for the weed to enter native productivity grasslands of the type inhabited grasslands. by S. plana, or of the effects of fire on S. Synemon plana numbers are often much higher plana in the ACT (Edwards 1994; ACT on Chilean Needlegrass-dominated sites where Government 1998). Synemon plana have biomass is controlled by mowing or grazing than been found to withstand burning of their on adjacent native grassland (e.g. Constitution habitat on some Victorian sites (Douglas Avenue, West Macgregor/Jarramlee). This could 2004; Biosis 2010b), and flying males were be due to a number of factors: observed in higher numbers on a previously burnt patch. However, it was not determined  Chilean Needlegrass tussocks often form a whether this was due to attraction of males continuous sward, providing a high density to areas of low herbage mass, larvae of food plants. surviving the fire, or reduction of the  More S. plana larvae can develop on a single dominant Themeda grass exposing or Chilean Needlegrass tussock than on native allowing an increase in the growth of grasses (Sea and Downey 2014b; SMEC subdominant Rytidosperma grasses (Gibson 2015). 2006). Patchy ecological burns of S. plana habitat are seen as desirable for herbage  Synemon plana larvae which develop on mass reduction in Victoria, but the frequency Chilean Needlegrass are larger (Sea and and intensity of controlled burning needs to Downey 2014b). be planned and burns should be conducted  In Lepidoptera, large final body size often outside the pupation and flight period correlates with a high reproductive capacity (September–January) (Biosis 2010b). (Gotthard 2008), because females produce Edwards (1994) reported that ACT S. plana Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 195 populations had survived well without fire  Altered drainage: Changes to drainage on or for 50 years, and suggested that in the past adjacent to S. plana sites have the potential they may have reoccupied burnt sites from to alter the vegetation and soil conditions surrounding areas rather than surviving fires, preferred by the moth. and that fires at small sites at certain times risked local extinction by killing vulnerable adults and eggs. Edwards (1994) also CHANGING CLIMATE speculated that the mobilisation of the root The predicted changes in climate in the next 50 reserves of grasses resprouting after fire years are likely to see the ACT become warmer could create a food shortage for S. plana and drier, with increases in extreme weather larvae. events and bushfire risk (ACT Government  Herbage mass extremes: Lack of herbage 2009). Species that tolerate such conditions will mass control on most sites is likely to lead to have an advantage over those species more a shift from shorter Rytidosperma grasses to sensitive to change. The likely direct effects on taller grasses, resulting in shading of the soil S. plana are not known, but plants advantaged and reducing the availability of bare ground by climate change are likely to include C4 and open areas for basking, displaying and grasses that are not thought to be S. plana larval egg-laying. Excessive biomass removal by food plants. Climate change may advantage overgrazing or close mowing may cause soil some weed species, including African Lovegrass, compaction and reduce the vigour and root which is an invasive C4 grass and is highly volume of the native grasses and hence competitive on the low-nutrient soils that are lower the quality or availability of the larval typical of drier native grasslands in the ACT food source, possibly expose eggs or larvae (Sharp 2011). Higher predicted CO2 levels may to excessive soil temperatures and/or also favour woody species over grasses, and increased the risk of desiccation. lead to increased invasion of woody plants into grasslands (Berry & Roderick 2005; Morgan et  Cultivation and pasture improvement: al. 2007). This effect could be hastened by rising Ploughing is likely to damage or kill larvae temperatures in the ACT, where cold air and/or their food plants, and pasture drainage in winter is thought to be one improvement leads to loss of the native environmental factor inhibiting the growth of grasses that the moth depends on for trees in the local grassy valleys (ACT habitat. Government 2005).  Herbicides and pesticides have the potential to damage the moths and/or their food plants, and should only be used where CONSERVATION ISSUES AND necessary to protect the moths or their INTENDED MANAGEMENT habitat. ACTIONS  Excess nutrients: Addition or run-on of fertilisers is likely to favour exotic grassland PROTECTION species over the preferred native food plants Populations of S. plana occur on land under a of S. plana. variety of tenures including nature reserve  Shading: As a grassland specialist, S. plana is (Territory Land), rural leasehold Territory Land, presumed to have a life cycle adapted to Commonwealth owned and managed land unshaded sites, and in open woodland (National Land) and unleased Territory Land. habitat it appears to be confined to large These sites are separated from one another by clearings. Planting of trees around small sites unsuitable habitat, roads and urban is likely to alter soil moisture, nutrients and development. While there are some large areas temperature, and also the type and density of habitat, most sites are less than 5 ha and of grasses, while shading by buildings is likely many sites are less than 1 ha. to reduce soil temperature, increase soil Mulvaney (2012) rated the relative importance moisture and favour weeds. Such changes of known ACT sites using the following criteria: are likely to reduce the extent and quality of S. plana habitat.  habitat size 196 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan  maximum moth count contribution to the conservation of the species, particularly if small populations are connected  connection to other habitat patches by habitat so they function as a cluster of sub-  main vegetation type populations or are connected by a habitat corridor to a larger population.  understorey quality Small populations at sites that contribute to  presence of other threatened species. research or public education related to the There are very few S. plana sites on ACT-owned species (e.g. York Park in Barton) should be a land where future land-use decisions priority for protection. (protection or development) are still to be decided. The majority of the habitat in large or highly ranked sites is, or is proposed to be, ENVIRONMENTAL OFFSET under conservation management. Mulvaney REQUIREMENTS (2012) noted that while about 30% of the Environmental offset requirements for species habitat at large ACT sites was approved or and ecological communities in the ACT are proposed for clearance in the next five years, outlined in the ACT Environmental Offsets Policy 800 ha (57% of known ACT habitat) is likely to and associated documents such as the ACT be under conservation management within the Environmental Offsets Assessment same time period. Highly ranked sites from each Methodology and the Significant Species main area (Gungahlin, Belconnen, Database. In the Assessment Methodology and Jerrabomberra, Majura) are already either in Database, some of the threatened species have nature reserves or under ACT Government special offset requirements to ensure management as offsets under the EPBC Act. appropriate protection. The special offset Many of these sites are also to be subject to requirements for S. plana is “no loss of habitat long-term monitoring to ensure the protection patches >50 ha AND supporting populations of of key populations (Rowell and Evans 2014). more than 50 moths (population must be Synemon plana occurs on Territory land counted at a time when large populations are managed as public open space (where current observed at nearby known sites)”. Given this management practices, including regular special offset requirement, a survey is required herbage mass control though mowing or for this species for both the number of slashing, generally appear to be compatible with individuals as well as the extent of habitat in the persistence of the species at these sites), hectares. and leasehold rural land where it can be the subject of a Land Management Agreement or Conservator’s Directions. Where the species SURVEY, MONITORING AND occurs on Commonwealth land, the ACT RESEARCH Government will liaise with the Commonwealth Over the past two decades there have been Government and Canberra Airport to encourage numerous surveys in the ACT to determine the continued protection and management of S. distribution of potential habitat and the plana populations on their land. presence of S. plana populations. Some of these Larger populations on larger sites should have surveys have been extensive and involved highest priority for protection, as these are university researchers and Citizen Science expected to have the greatest chance of long- volunteers (e.g. Richter et al. 2009), though the term viability. Larger populations of the species majority of surveys have been undertaken to are considered to be those containing 500 or identify ecological constraints to proposed more adult moths that occupy habitat patches urban development. There is now a good of 50 ha or more. Medium-sized populations are understanding of the distribution of S. plana and considered in this plan to contain 200 or more its habitat in the ACT and it is unlikely any adult moths (but do not meet the criteria for a significant populations of the species remain ‘large’ population). A medium-sized population undiscovered. It is probable that smaller has the potential to be viable over the longer populations (less than 5 ha) will continue to be term if habitat quality is maintained though found, especially in good flying seasons and appropriate management. Small populations during pre-development surveys. (less than 200 adults) can still form a significant Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 197 If Chilean Needlegrass continues to spread in at the University of Canberra. The larvae were Canberra, this may also extend the local range kept alive for nine months and then placed out of S. plana. in a new field location (Sea and Downey 2014b). As part of the Majura Parkway environmental Several key S. plana sites in the ACT are subject commitments, a methodology was developed to regular or ad-hoc population and/or habitat for harvesting Golden Sun Moth larvae and condition monitoring, with the longest and most translocating soil containing larvae directly from consistently monitored sites being York Park and a development area to translocation sites (SMEC Canberra Airport. 2016). Moths were subsequently recorded More recently, standardised monitoring of S. emerging from the translocation sites (Sea and plana is being established at sites that include Downey 2014b, SMEC 2016). Soil searches at nature reserves and offset areas, as part of the the larvae translocation site following the flight ACT Government’s management of offset areas season resulted in the recovery of live Golden under EPBC Act approval conditions (Rowell and Sun Moth larvae (SMEC 2014a), and annual Evans 2014). This monitoring includes flight surveys at the soil translocation site have quantitative surveys of flying male moths (which resulted in regular moth sightings (SMEC 2016). may be combined with searches for female Translocation of soil with Golden Sun Moth moths and pupal cases), measurement of larvae is more cost effective than individual habitat parameters and photographic records. larvae translocation, and has been repeated The long-term monitoring will include at least again in a 2016 transfer of larvae and soil 100 ha of habitat in each of the main areas of containing larvae from the new proposed occurrence (Gungahlin, Belconnen, suburb of Taylor to the nearby environmental Jerrabomberra, Majura), and sites containing offset area of Kinlyside. Natural Temperate Grassland, native pasture, Research and adaptive management is required secondary grassland and open woodland. to better understand the life history and ecology Monitoring of a range of sites provides of S. plana, habitat requirements and information on district-wide fluctuations in techniques to maintain the species’ habitat. S. plana populations, trends at particular sites Specific research priorities include: and the habitat parameters associated with  Habitat management – optimal habitat these trends. This monitoring will also provide requirements (grass species, structure, baseline information for assessment of other biomass) and techniques compatible with or sites for which data is available from only one or required to maintain habitat condition, a few seasons. Monitoring methods will need including regimes of grazing, fire, ongoing review to incorporate the results of slashing/mowing. research on S. plana ecology and habitat management, and to take account of new  Habitat creation – development of methods monitoring methods. to create S. plana habitat with the aim of Soil survey methods have been trialled by SMEC increasing available habitat and facilitating (2014b, 2015), to determine the presence of connections between fragmented Golden Sun Moth larvae outside of the flying populations (e.g. Dunlop-Jarramlee season. Whilst this method can be destructive grasslands, Canberra Airport). for larvae and habitat, it does provide  Habitat use – identify habitat characteristics information on density, age cohorts and feed that act as sources and sinks for adult moths, species, which is not necessarily achieved from to reduce threats to the breeding flight surveys. population. Males are attracted to shorter To date glasshouse and field trials undertaken areas and these can include areas where since 2010 have indicated that Golden Sun females might not be present, such as rock Moths can be translocated, but long term outcrops in tall grassy paddocks, mown areas survival in a new location is still being assessed (roadsides, median strips, fire breaks), golf by ongoing monitoring. The University of course fairways, foot tracks, recently burnt Canberra, in collaboration with the ACT areas). Government and Forde Developments Pty Ltd,  Food plants – further laboratory research is successfully translocated Golden Sun Moth needed to clarify the grass species eaten by larvae from West Macgregor into a glasshouse S. plana larvae, their relative dietary 198 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan importance and density of food plants including the often few higher leaves and seed- required to sustain populations of S. plana. bearing culms), has an intermediate density (cover) of tussocks, low weed cover and  Chilean Needlegrass – improved methods to tussocks interspersed with areas of bare ground. control or manage the spread of this invasive Management should promote a sward that has species and what role this food plant may a high proportion of known food plants, play in the conservation of the species. especially Wallaby Grasses.  Translocation – further development of Where possible, management activities should reliable translocation methods to facilitate be undertaken outside the seeding period of establishment of new populations (which major weeds, and should minimise disturbance could be within the urban open space, or and compaction of soil. The development of newly created grassy areas in large barriers within habitat areas such as areas of roundabouts, playing fields etc.), to maintain rank grass growth, dense weed patches, roads genetic integrity of small or isolated ACT and linear tree/shrub plantings should be populations. avoided. Most grassland sites containing S. plana will MANAGEMENT require some management of herbage mass to maintain the habitat in good condition. The Habitat requirements for S. plana are generally preferred method of managing grass structure consistent with the requirements of other and biomass is grazing by native herbivores threatened grassland fauna including the (kangaroos), which are a natural fauna Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis component of native grasslands. Kangaroo pinguicolla) and the Perunga Grasshopper numbers will need to be managed on some (Perunga ochracea), which often co-occur with sites, especially during droughts, to avoid S. plana. Habitat management for these species overgrazing and loss of tussock structure. aims to keep herbage mass within a moderate range to maintain tussock structure and inter- Where kangaroo grazing may not be sufficient tussock spaces. The Striped Legless Lizard to maintain biomass within the desirable range, (Delma impar) occurs in grassland of other methods of herbage mass control may intermediate to high herbage mass/height, and need to be used, such as slashing or grazing by this threatened species may not be tolerant of stock. If stock grazing is used, light or shorter grass swards or management practices intermittent grazing is preferable, timed to (regular mowing) that are compatible with the avoid excessive trampling during the S. plana conservation of S. plana. Where the aim is to breeding period (late October to January). The conserve multiple threatened species at a site, average tussock height should not be reduced management will need to take into account any below 10 cm during grazing. Internal fencing will differing habitat requirements (see the ACT be required on some sites to allow control over Native Grassland Conservation Strategy). This grazing intensity in particular areas. On sites will most likely include maintaining or containing Chilean Needlegrass cattle are promoting a ‘patchy’ sward structure that preferred to sheep as they are less likely to contains a mosaic of habitat patches that differ transfer seed, and grazing should take place in in tussock height and/or density. Management winter or early spring where possible, before of secondary grassland or open grassy woodland the seeding period of the grass. sites containing S. plana may be problematic, as If slashing is used, tussock height should not be the natural or assisted regeneration of trees and slashed below 10 cm, and slashing should be shrubs in these areas that favour conservation minimised between November and January to of bird, mammal, reptile, insect and plant avoid the adult flying period. diversity will most likely come at the expense of S. plana’s preferred open grassland habitat. Slashing should be undertaken before November but if the grass sward is tall and Based on current knowledge of the habitat dense during the S. plana breeding season (little requirements of S. plana, management actions or no bare ground) then slashing is preferable to should aim to maintain a native grass sward that leaving a long, dense sward for the remainder of is short to medium (5 cm - 15 cm) in height (i.e. the breeding season. Machinery should be the height of the bulk of the tussock leaves, not thoroughly cleaned before entering S. plana Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 199 sites, and after slashing on sites containing weed-dominated areas, and manage the areas Chilean Needlegrass and other significant separately as far as possible (DPI 2007). weeds. Slashing should avoid the seeding period of significant weeds where possible and should not be undertaken when the ground is wet, to IMPLEMENTATION avoid soil disturbance. Mowing machinery Implementation of this action plan and the ACT should disperse the slashed material, or if Native Grassland Conservation Strategy will windrows are produced, these should be raked require: and removed from the grassland.  Land planning and land management areas Any burning in S. plana habitat should be patchy of the ACT Government to take into account and low-intensity, and the effects on grassland the conservation of threatened species. composition and S. plana activity in subsequent years should be monitored.  Allocation of adequate resources to undertake the actions specified in the Burning should be restricted to March– strategy and action plans. September to avoid the breeding and egg- hatching period, and to allow the grassland to  Liaison with other jurisdictions (particularly start regrowing before the emergence of the NSW) and other land holders next generation of adults. Post-fire weed control (Commonwealth Government and Canberra will be necessary on some sites. International Airport) with responsibility for Weed control on S. plana sites should, as a the conservation of a threatened species or minimum, aim to eliminate woody weeds and community. control other high threat species. Preventing  Collaboration with universities, CSIRO, excessive reduction of biomass will make native Australian National Botanic Gardens and grasslands more resistant to weed invasion. The other research institutions to facilitate and strategic use of biomass control methods can undertake required research. assist in reducing seed set in some weed species. Perennial exotic grasses such as Chilean  Collaboration with non-government Needlegrass, Serrated Tussock and African organisations such as Greening Australia to Lovegrass can invade disturbed native undertake on-ground actions. grasslands. Where dense patches of these  Engagement with the community, where species have developed in or adjacent to S. relevant, to assist with monitoring and other plana habitat, they can be suppressed and on-ground actions, and to help raise contained if eradication and rehabilitation are community awareness of conservation not an option (DECCEW 2009). One method issues. suggested for containment is to poison a barrier strip, then maintain a layer of deep, seed-free mulch between the native grassland and the 200 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan OBJECTIVES, ACTIONS AND INDICATORS Table 2. Objectives, Actions and Indicators Objective Action Indicator 1. Conserve large populations Apply formal measures to protect all All large populations in the ACT. large populations on Territory-owned protected by appropriate land. Encourage formal protection of all formal measures. Protect other ACT large populations on land owned by populations from other jurisdictions. unintended impacts (unintended impacts are Protect all medium size populations on All sites with medium those not already Territory-owned land from unintended size populations are considered through an impacts. Encourage other jurisdictions protected by appropriate environmental assessment to protect all medium size populations measures from or other statutory process). from unintended impacts. unintended impacts. Ensure sites where small populations All sites with small occur on Territory owned land are populations are protected from unintended impacts, protected by appropriate where this contributes to broader measures from conservation aims (such as protecting unintended impacts, multiple threatened species at a site). where sites have broader Encourage other jurisdictions to conservation value. undertake similar protection of small populations. 2. Manage the species and its Monitor abundance at a representative Trends in abundance are habitat to maintain the set of sites, together with the effects of known for representative potential for evolutionary management actions. sites, management development in the wild. actions recorded. Manage habitat to maintain its Habitat is managed suitablilty for the species, including appropriately (indicated implementing an appropriate grazing / by maintenance of an slashing / burning regime (recognising appropriate sward current imperfect knowledge). structure and herbage mass). Potential threats (e.g. weeds) are avoided or managed. Populations are apparently stable or increasing (taking into account probable seasonal/annual effects on abundance fluctuations). 3. Enhance the long-term Manage grassland adjacent to the Grassland adjacent to or viability of populations species’ habitat to increase habitat area linking habitat is through management of or habitat connectivity. If suitable managed to improve adjacent grassland to habitat exists, re-establish populations suitability for the species increase habitat area and where they have become locally (indicated by an connect populations, or to extinct. appropriate sward establish new populations. structure and plant Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 201 Objective Action Indicator species composition). If suitable habitat exists, research and trials have been undertaken to establish new populations. 4. Improved understanding of Undertake or facilitate research on Research undertaken and the species’ ecology, habitat habitat requirements, techniques to reported and where and threats. manage habitat, and aspects of ecology appropriate applied to directly relevant to conservation of the the conservation species. management of the species. 5. Promote a greater Undertake or facilitate stakeholder and Engagement and awareness of, and community engagement and awareness activities strengthen stakeholder and awareness activities. undertaken and community engagement in reported. the conservation of the species. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACT Government 2016. Draft Native Grassland Conservation Strategy. (ACT Government, Alison Rowell contributed to the preparation of Canberra. this action plan and provided the photograph of Golden Sun Moths. The illustration of the AECOM 2009. Threatened Species Monitoring: species was prepared for the ACT Government Five Defence Properties in the ACT. Prepared by Sarah Reglar. for Spotless Services (AECOM Australia Pty Ltd, Canberra). AECOM 2012. Threatened Species Monitoring REFERENCES and Management 2011-2012. Majura Training Area, ACT. Prepared for Spotless ACT Government 1998. Golden Sun Moth and Department of Defence (AECOM (Synemon plana): An endangered species. Australia Pty Ltd, Canberra). 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Community Monitoring of Golden development offset project. Unpublished Sun Moths in the Australian Capital Territory report to Village Building Company (Institute Region, 2008-2009 (Institute for Applied for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra). Canberra). Richter A, Weinhold, D Robertson G, Young M, Sea W and Downey P 2014b. Golden sun moth Edwards T, Hnatiuk S and Osborne W 2012. translocation project: Phase 3 establishing More than an empty case: a non-invasive and testing field release procedures. Report technique for monitoring the Australian to the Land Development Agency (Institute critically endangered golden sun moth, for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Synemon plana (Lepidoptera: Castniidae). Canberra). Journal of Insect Conservation 17: 529-536. Sharp S 2009. Conservation Management Plans Rowell A 2006. Stage 2 assessment of ecological for sites managed by the National Capital values in Section 67 and Section 80 Deakin, Authority. Yarramundi Reach Grassland. and Section 66 Yarralumla. Report to Report to National Capital Authority (Natural National Capital Authority (Canberra). Environment Management Consulting, Rowell A 2007a. Survey and impact assessment Canberra). at Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana) site, Sharp S 2011. Distribution and abundance of Blocks 3 and 7, Section 22 Barton (York Park). African Lovegrass in the ACT and Capital Report for Parsons Brinckerhoff and Region and options for strategic control. Department of Finance (Canberra). Report to the Southern ACT Catchment Rowell A 2007b. Golden Sun Moth Synemon Group (Canberra). plana monitoring at Canberra International Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 205 SMEC 2014a. Arboretum Golden Sun Moth larvae retrieval. Report to ACT Parks and Conservation Service (SMEC Australia, Canberra). SMEC 2014b. ESO and EPBC Referral scoping report for SALR. Report to Economic Development Directorate (SMEC Australia, Canberra). SMEC 2015. Golden Sun Moth larvae sampling at potential bridge over Ginninderra Creek for possible Ginninderra Drive extension V2. Report to Riverview Group (SMEC Australia, Canberra). SMEC 2016. Majura Parkway Golden Sun Moth Translocation Project. Report for Roads ACT (SMEC Australia, Canberra). 206 Golden Sun Moth Action Plan Golden Sun Moth Action Plan 207 GRASSLAND EARLESS DRAGON TYMPANOCRYPTIS PINGUICOLLA ACTION PLAN 208 Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan PREAMBLE The Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla Mitchell, 1948) was declared an endangered species on 15 April 1996 (Instrument No. DI1996-29 Nature Conservation Act 1980, under the former name Eastern Lined Earless Dragon Tympanocryptis lineata pinguicolla). Under section 101 of the Nature Conservation Act 2014, the Conservator of Flora and Fauna is responsible for preparing a draft action plan for listed species. The first action plan for this species was prepared in 1997 (ACT Government 1997). This revised edition supersedes the earlier edition. This action plan includes the ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy set out in schedule 1 to the ‘Nature Conservation (Native Grassland) Action Plans 2017’, to the extent it is relevant. Measures proposed in this action plan complement those proposed in the action plans for Natural Temperate Grassland, Yellow Box/Red Gum Grassy Woodland, and component threatened species such as the Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar) and the Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana). CONSERVATION STATUS populations of T. pinguicolla as a component of the indigenous biological resources of the ACT Tympanocryptis pinguicolla is recognised as a and as a contribution to regional and national threatened species in the following sources: conservation of the species. This includes the need to maintain natural evolutionary International processes. Vulnerable – IUCN (2015). Specific objectives of the action plan are to: National  Conserve all ACT populations. Endangered – Environment Protection and  Manage the species and its habitat to Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 maintain the potential for evolutionary (Commonwealth). development in the wild.  Enhance the long-term viability of Australian Capital Territory populations through management of Endangered – Nature Conservation Act 2014. adjacent grassland to increase habitat area Special Protection Status Species - Nature and connect populations. Conservation Act 2014. New South Wales SPECIES DESCRIPTION AND Endangered – Threatened Species Conservation ECOLOGY Act 1995. DESCRIPTION Victoria The Grassland Earless Dragon Tympanocryptis Threatened – Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act pinguicolla is a small lizard in the family 1988. Agamidae. It was originally described as a subspecies of the more widespread and variable Tympanocryptis lineata (Mitchell 1948) and later recognised as a distinct species (Smith et CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES al. 1999). Nelson (2004) noted morphological The overall conservation objective of this action differences between animals from the Cooma plan is to maintain in the long term, viable, wild district and the Canberra area. Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan 209 Further genetic research, including studies of Northbourne Avenue in the 1950s (Young 1992). nuclear DNA microsatellites and mitochondrial NSW records show the species occurred in DNA, has shown a clear genetic division grasslands near Cooma in the Southern between the extant populations in the NSW Tablelands (Mitchell 1948) and at Bathurst Cooma–Monaro and ACT–Queanbeyan areas, (Osborne et al. 1993a). and that the ACT–Queanbeyan populations are Most former records of T. pinguicolla in Victoria also highly genetically structured (Melville et al. are from the basalt plains in the south of the 2007; Scott and Keogh 2000; Carlson 2013; state (Brereton and Backhouse 1993). The Hoehn et al. 2013). Tympanocryptis pinguicolla species was not uncommon at Essendon and the is found at higher altitudes and in cooler regions plains near Sunbury to the north of Melbourne than any other earless dragon (Robertson and late last century (McCoy 1889). There are also Evans 2009). records from Maryborough and Rutherglen in Most members of the genus Tympanocryptis, central Victoria (Lucas and Frost 1894). including T. pinguicolla, lack an external ear Recent records indicate T. pinguicolla has opening and a functional tympanum (ear drum) experienced a severe decrease in its geographic (Greer 1989, Cogger 2014). Tympanocryptis range. There have been no confirmed Victorian pinguicolla is a small lizard with a stout body sightings since the 1960s, and no recent records and short robust limbs (Mitchell 1948), and is north of the ACT, but populations still occur diurnal and cryptic in its grassland habitat. Total between Cooma and Nimmitabel in the Monaro adult body length is usually less than 150 mm region of NSW and there are some small (Robertson and Evans 2009) with average snout- populations near Queanbeyan, NSW vent length of 55 mm (Smith 1994) and weight (Queanbeyan Nature Reserve, The Poplars) of five to nine grams (Robertson and Evans (Robertson and Evans 2009). 2009). In the ACT, T. pinguicolla was rediscovered in The dorsal markings are distinctive, with a pale 1991 after not being recorded in the area for 30 vertebral stripe flanked by alternating years (Osborne et al. 1993). It is now known to fawn/grey and dark brown irregular blocks occur in the eastern Majura Valley (Majura between two pale (or yellow) dorso-lateral Training Area, Canberra Airport), western stripes. The pattern of the dark blocks is unique Majura Valley (West Majura Grassland and to each individual and does not change with Campbell Park Defence land) and the age, and can therefore be used to identify Jerrabomberra Valley (Harman/Bonshaw, individual animals (Nelson et al. 1996; Dimond Cookanalla, Callum Brae, Jerrabomberra West 2010). There is usually a narrow pale bar on the Grassland Nature Reserve and Jerrabomberra head, between the anterior corners of the eyes, East Grasslands) (ACT Government 2005, Biosis and two pale lateral stripes and scattered dorsal 2012) (Table 1). spinous scales (Cogger 2014). Genetic analysis indicates the ACT populations The ventral surface is either intricately are highly genetically structured with little patterned with dark brown or grey markings, or interchange of individuals between sub- immaculate white or cream. During the populations. In particular the Majura Training breeding season subadults and adults often Area and Jerrabomberra West populations are have yellow-orange or reddish coloration on the apparently insular and unlikely to provide or throat, sides of the head and flanks, and this receive immigrants from the other populations, may be more common or prominent in males. having been separated from the other populations for some time by natural and artificial barriers such as a river, creek, arterial DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE road and/or developed land (Hoehn et al. 2013). Prior to European settlement, T. pinguicolla was Monitoring of two main T. pinguicolla most likely distributed broadly in south-eastern populations by Conservation Research (ACT Australia wherever suitable habitat (native Government) and the University of Canberra grassland) was present. Pryor (1938) described indicates that ACT populations declined T. pinguicolla as more common than the Eastern dramatically during the last decade (2005– Brown Snake (Pseudonaja textilis) in the ACT, 2009), possibly as a result of lack of ground and animals were captured adjacent to cover caused by drought and exacerbated by 210 Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan overgrazing (Dimond 2010; Dimond et al. 2012). Training Area in 1970 for a runway extension, The suggested mechanisms driving the decline and is now separated from it by an unsealed are: road with mown, relatively disturbed verges and two fences. This road is likely to form at least a  Low soil moisture, increased exposure and partial barrier to movement between the sites dry conditions causing low production of, (IAE 2013). and high mortality in, eggs. The airport grasslands are mown several times  Reduced plant growth during drought each year except during drought, in contrast to combined with increased grazing pressure the Majura Training Area which was overgrazed from kangaroos (Eastern Grey Kangaroos) or by kangaroos during the first part of the 2002– stock, reducing ground cover and increasing 2010 drought, then protected from kangaroo the exposure of lizards (particularly grazing from 2007. There have been no genetic hatchlings and juveniles) to predation. studies of the airport population, but it may be Other factors related to drought and lack of reliant on occasional immigration from Majura ground cover might also be involved in the Training Area for maintenance (IAE 2013). recent decline of T. pinguicolla, such as low Protection and enhancement of this potential availability of food (small invertebrates) or low movement corridor and appropriate availability of burrows for shelter (which would management of the airport grasslands is likely arise if the drought and ground cover conditions be important for the survival of this small semi- were also unfavourable for burrow-forming isolated population. arthropods such as Wolf Spiders (Lycosa spp.) and Canberra Raspy Crickets (Cooraboorama Monitoring of T. pinguicolla populations at the canberrae). Majura Training Area, Jerrabomberra West Nature Reserve and Jerrabomberra East The estimated density of the largest known grasslands suggests there is some post-drought population of T. pinguicolla (Jerrabomberra recovery occurring in these populations (Cook et West), collapsed from 19.8 animals per hectare al. 2015). (ha) in 2006 to 2.4 in 2008. A population viability analysis suggested the Jerrabomberra The most up to date distribution data for this population had a very high probability of species is publicly available on the ACT extinction within 10 years and the regional Government’s mapping portal (Visit the decline places the species at severe risk of ACTmapi website). extinction (Dimond 2010). Tympanocryptis pinguicolla has not been HABITAT AND ECOLOGY detected at two Symonston sites for several years and may no longer be present. These are In the ACT and nearby NSW, T. pinguicolla is north-west of the intersection of Hindmarsh found in Natural Temperate Grassland and Drive and Canberra Avenue in Symonston native pastures, usually on well-drained sites (Amtech East site: Osborne and Dimond 2008; dominated by Tall Speargrass (Austrostipa Biosis Research 2011), and south-west of the bigeniculata) and shorter Wallaby Grasses intersection of Jerrabomberra Avenue and (Rytidosperma spp.), with patches of tussocks Narrabundah Lane (Callum Brae north: Fletcher and open spaces between them (Osborne et al. et al. 1995; Rowell 2008; Dimond et al. 2010; 1993a; Robertson and Evans 2009). In the ACT Biosis Research 2012). The Amtech East site is these sites are frost-hollow grasslands and have relatively small and separated from the usually had little or no ploughing or pasture Cookanalla population by a major road. improvement (Osborne et al. 1993a). At one ACT site, T. pinguicolla has been shown to use a Tympanocryptis pinguicolla was found in broader range of grassland types, including moderate numbers in the northern part of denser and moderately degraded grassland Canberra Airport in the late 1990s (ACT (Langston 1996; Stevens et al. 2010). Government 2000), but numbers declined and it was not detected between 2005 and 2010. Recent studies have found higher trapping rates Numbers were still very low by 2015 (Rowell of T. pinguicolla at artificial burrows set in areas 2011 and unpublished data). The habitat at the where herbage biomass is naturally lower airport was excised from the adjacent Majura compared to adjacent grassland, or in patches Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan 211 where biomass is lower due to recent burning or extremes is a management aim in order to grazing (Osborne et al. 2013; Cook et al. 2015; maximise the range of shelter and thermal Osborne 2015). While it is not yet known niches, and of prey types (Stevens et al. 2010; whether this is due to differences in Taylor 2014; M. Evans pers comm.). detectability or habitat preference of T. pinguicolla, maintaining a varied grassland structure and avoiding herbage biomass Table 1. Sites supporting Tympanocryptis pinguicolla in the ACT Habitat Site Name area (ha) Land Jurisdiction Land use policy Majura Training Area (north of Military training area, includes 139 Commonwealth Airport) Air-services Beacon paddock. Majura Training Area (former grazing 90 Commonwealth Military training area properties east of Airport) Airport, office accommodation Airport 22 Commonwealth and retail outlet Broadacre*, managed for West Majura Grassland 104 Territory conservation Land attached to Defence Campbell Park 35 Commonwealth offices Jerrabomberra West Grasslands 180 Territory Nature Reserve Reserve Callum Brae (west of Monaro 68 Territory Grazing lease highway) Amtech East 12 Territory Unleased land Bonshaw 158 Territory Grazing lease Jerrabomberra East Grasslands 71 Territory Conservation Area Cookanalla (east of Monaro highway) 164 Territory Grazing lease *Broadacre refers to agriculture and certain other ‘large area’ uses under Territory planning legislation. Abandoned burrows of large arthropods appear Capture data is characterised by a dominance of to be an important feature of T. pinguicolla young animals and low recaptures of previous- habitat in the ACT region. The species is known year adults (Smith 1994; Langston 1996; Nelson to use arthropod burrows as diurnal and et al. 1996; Dimond 2010), suggesting a nocturnal shelter sites in this region (Jenkins predominantly annual turnover of adults with and Bartell 1980; Osborne et al. 1993b; Smith females able to breed in their first year. Some 1994; Langston 1996; Benson 1999; Rowell females survive into their second year, but most 2001; Stevens et al. 2010), and to shelter in apparently only survive long enough to produce tussocks (Langston 1996; Stevens et al. 2010). one clutch of eggs (Langston 1996; Nelson Tympanocryptis pinguicolla also shelters under 2004). None have been found to be gravid in rocks in NSW (Osborne et al. 1993b; McGrath et two consecutive years (Dimond 2010). As for al. 2015), but rocks do not appear to be an many species, longevity of T. pinguicolla in essential component of the habitat for this captivity appears to be greater than in the wild, species in the ACT (Langston 1996). 212 Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan with one male held at Tidbinbilla Nature Tympanocryptis pinguicolla takes shelter in Reserve living for five years (Evans pers comm). burrows or tussocks when disturbed, so both of these features are likely to be important as The female lays a clutch of three to seven refuge from predators. (typically six) eggs in an arthropod burrow 10–13 cm deep in November–January, and The species relies on burrows as winter refuge backfills the burrow with soil and litter (Dimond sites, though animals can be active on cool 2010; Doucette unpublished data). sunny days and can move between burrows during winter (Benson 1996; Nelson 2004; The burrows are created by large arthropods Stevens et al. 2010). such as the Common Wolf Spider (Lycosa godeffroyi) and the Canberra Raspy Cricket Tympanocryptis pinguicolla is a sit-and-wait (Cooraboorama canberrae) (Osborne et al. predator and eats a variety of small 1993b, Benson 1999). Females have been invertebrates, especially ants, beetles, spiders observed to visit nest sites daily during and moths (including larvae) (Howe 1995; incubation (Doucette unpublished data). Benson 1999; Dimond 2010). Arthropod burrows are also used as mating sites Dimond (2010) found that although ants were (Nelson 2004) and appear to be important as frequently eaten, they were only taken in thermal refuges for the animals from high and proportion to their abundance (i.e. were not low daily ambient temperatures and during winter (Benson 1999; Nelson 2004; Doucette unpublished data), and as refuge from Grassland Earless Dragon (photo M. Evans) predators. Hatching occurs in January–March (Langston 1996; Dimond 2010; Doucette unpublished data), and high abundance of invertebrate prey coincides with the juvenile recruitment period (Benson 1999; Nelson 2004). Juveniles grow rapidly and males mature earlier than females (Langston 1996; Nelson 2004). Nelson (2004) found seasonal and annual variability in population structure, and suggested that cool weather conditions in spring/summer may affect basking opportunities and food availability, and hence the rate of growth and maturation. The relatively low fecundity and short life span of T. pinguicolla makes local populations vulnerable to the effects of wildfire, drought and other environmental changes on their habitat. This vulnerability is increased where fragmentation of habitat prevents recolonisation from surrounding areas. A radio-tracking study of 10 adult lizards showed that they mostly occupied one or two natural burrows within a home range of 925– 4768 m², and that there was some overlap in home ranges (Stevens et al. 2010). Adults and juveniles frequently move from one natural or artificial burrow to another (Benson 1996; Langston 1996; Nelson 2004; Stevens et al. 2010; AECOM 2014; Doucette unpublished data), with some movements of at least 230 m over longer periods (ACT Government 2000). Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan 213 selected for) and that beetles were preferred opened to allow grazing by kangaroos. food items at three sites in 2007. Captive T. Tympanocryptis pinguicolla also occurs in the pinguicolla have been reported to eat crickets in Airport Services Beacon paddock, a fenced area preference to ants when both were offered, of about 10 ha that is contiguous with habitat suggesting that the animals may have been on the MTA and has not been grazed for at least selecting prey with a higher caloric value (Taylor three decades. The species has been recorded 2014). intermittently in the northern section of Canberra Airport, which is subject to a slashing PREVIOUS AND CURRENT regime to maintain a moderately short grass MANAGEMENT sward. The grassland at Majura West is grazed by kangaroos and, in the past, has been grazed In the ACT T. pinguicolla occurs on land under a by sheep. range of tenures and land management regimes. During the 2002–09 drought, some T. pinguicolla sites in the ACT were overgrazed by The Jerrabomberra Valley, including sites where kangaroos and some by stock. Overgrazing was T. pinguicolla occurs, has a history of grazing by particularly severe in the Majura Valley at the stock (mostly sheep, less so cattle and horses) MTA (kangaroos), West Majura (kangaroos and and kangaroos. These areas include: sheep), Cookanalla and Jerrabomberra East  Land previously owned and managed by the Grasslands. Sheep were removed from Majura Commonwealth Government (Bonshaw West during the drought when overgrazing Defence areas), now owned and managed by became evident, and stock numbers were the ACT Government, which is generally reduced at Cookanalla. The height and biomass lightly grazed by sheep and kangaroos. of the grass sward has since largely recovered at overgrazed sites.  Broadacre Territory land (Amtech East Estate) with grazing agistment. Grasslands in the ACT, including T. pinguicolla habitat, are subject to planned and unplanned  Territory rural land leased for grazing (e.g. fire. An unplanned fire in the MTA in 1998 Cookanalla, North Callum Brae), which are (Nelson et al. 1998b) resulted in several grazed by stock (mostly sheep) and hectares of T. pinguicolla habitat being burnt. kangaroos. Tympanocryptis pinguicolla has been observed  Land formerly leased (sheep grazing), that is to use this and other burnt areas one year post- now in nature reserve (Jerrabomberra West fire and in subsequent years, suggesting the Grasslands), or set aside as a conservation species is capable of using grassland at least one area (Jerrabomberra East Grasslands), and year following fire if animals are able to disperse are grazed by kangaroos. Management of into the area from adjacent unburnt areas the Jerrabomberra West Grassland Reserve (Nelson et al. 1998b; Evans and Ormay 2002; and Jerrabomberra East Grassland Osborne et al. 2013; Cook et al. 2015). conservation area is aimed at maintaining a Planned fire is used in grassland for ecological heterogeneous grass sward mostly between purposes and for fuel reduction. Recently, small- 10 and 20 cm high, and includes grazing by scale patch burning has been trialled in kangaroos (with fencing to protect some Jerrabomberra West Grasslands by the ACT areas from overgrazing), slashing along Government with the aim of promoting tracks and fence lines and, more recently, heterogeneity of the grass sward to improve small-scale patchy burns to promote habitat for T. pinguicolla. Multiple burn patches heterogeneity in the height and density of (each several metres across) were used to the grass sward. create a mosaic of unburnt and recently burnt In the Majura Valley T. pinguicolla occurs on the areas that differ in the density and height of the Majura Training Area (MTA) (Department of grass sward. Defence land), where the species’ habitat is The small size of burnt areas means T. managed for conservation and is generally only pinguicolla should be able to move a few metres lightly grazed by kangaroos. A large area of to an unburnt area during the ‘cool’, slow burn. habitat was fenced to prevent continued After the burn T. pinguicolla can forage in burnt overgrazing by kangaroos in the 2002–2010 areas and seek shelter in the unburnt habitat. drought. Following the drought this area was 214 Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan Each burn patch was raked and closely isolated populations, which may compromise examined immediately after burning for signs of both short and long-term population viability by dead lizards, but none were detected, reducing individual fitness and limiting the gene suggesting no mortality of T. pinguicolla has pool on which selection can act in the future. resulted from this habitat management action. Recent genetic research suggests:  Majura and Jerrabomberra West populations are each genetically isolated from all other THREATS populations. Tympanocryptis pinguicolla is a grassland  There is limited gene flow between the specialist, being restricted to remaining Jerrabomberra East, Bonshaw and fragments of native grassland. Approximately Queanbeyan Nature Reserve populations 99.5% of Natural Temperate Grassland (a (Hoehn et al. 2013). nationally critically endangered ecological community, EPBC Act 1999) in Australia has  Animals from Cookanalla show a high degree been destroyed or drastically altered since of relatedness, and the population may be at European settlement (Kirkpatrick et al. 1995). risk of inbreeding depression (Carlson 2013). The major perceived threats to the continued  The Monaro and ACT/Queanbeyan survival of T. pinguicolla are: populations are genetically distinct and translocation and/or interbreeding should  Loss and fragmentation of habitat through not be undertaken between these clearing of native grasslands for urban, populations unless justified by rigorous industrial and infrastructure development research. and for agricultural purposes. Degradation of ACT habitat may occur due to:  Modification and degradation of native grassland habitat through incompatible and  Weed invasion: Weeds of most concern are inadequate land management practices and African Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula), weed invasion. Chilean Needlegrass (Nassella neesiana), Capeweed (Arctotheca calendula), Saffron  Major ecological disturbances to grassland Thistle (Carthamus lanatus), Paterson’s habitat such as widespread (unplanned) fire, Curse (Echium plantagineum) and St John’s drought and climate change. Wort (Hypericum perforatum) (Walker and Proposed future developments that may cause Osborne 2010). These plants are aggressive further loss and fragmentation of habitat for colonisers and the grasses can form a T. pinguicolla include: monoculture by outcompeting native species for water, light and nutrients. The young  New roads through or adjoining habitat in forbs have rosettes that can fill inter-tussock the Majura and Jerrabomberra Valleys. spaces and obscure burrows, and the mature  Construction of a new taxiway at Canberra plants can shade the ground and release Airport. excess nutrients into the soil when they die at the end of the season. All may reduce the  Very Fast Train in the Majura Valley. density of prey species and some of these  Urban or commercial development in the plants can increase in abundance under Jerrabomberra Valley. grazing as they are avoided by kangaroos and/or stock (as they are unpalatable, toxic Habitat fragmentation and degradation will or spiny). exacerbate any effects on populations from climate change (Hoehn et al. 2013).  Cultivation and pasture improvement: Fragmentation increases the risk of extinction of Ploughing is likely to destroy the arthropods isolated populations which suffer declines due that T. pinguicolla relies on to form burrows to environmental disturbances such as wildfire (Nelson 2004), and pasture improvement and drought and can no longer be re-colonised leads to damage similar to that described for by immigration from other populations. weed invasion. Fragmentation also exacerbates the loss of  Overgrazing by kangaroos, rabbits or stock, genetic diversity and increased inbreeding in or close mowing leads to loss of tussock Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan 215 structure and excessive bare ground. A local (Osborne et al. 2009). Individuals have been study of ground-dwelling reptiles in grassy recorded using an area in the year following habitats showed that no species was more a fire (Nelson et al. 1998b, Osborne et al. likely to occur at high grazing intensities 2013) and in subsequent years (Evans and (Howland et al. 2014), however, this study Ormay 2002, Cook et al. 2015). Small patch did not include T. pinguicolla. High soil burning is being trialled at Jerrabomberra surface temperatures in summer require T. West Nature Reserve to promote structural pinguicolla to retreat to burrows instead of heterogeneity in the sward. feeding, and may contribute to loss of eggs  Predation by cats, dogs and foxes: Foxes are and juveniles though overheating or likely to be more numerous on the rural desiccation (Nelson 2004; Dimond 2010; sites, and predation by domestic pets might Doucette unpublished data). Excessive cause increased predation rates where reduction in vegetation is also likely to lead housing is developed close to T. pinguicolla to a reduction in prey (food) density and sites. exposure of T. pinguicolla to increased predation. Overgrazing may reduce the  Increased predation by native animals due number of burrowing arthropods that can be to: an increase in artificial perches (posts, supported and burrow availability may then fences, buildings) for birds such as magpies, become a limiting factor for T. pinguicolla. ravens and raptors; exposure due to loss of Parts of three local T. pinguicolla populations groundcover; or enhanced shelter for snakes were fenced to protect them from (e.g. through dumped materials or added overgrazing by kangaroos late in the drought logs/woody debris near T. pinguicolla that ended in 2010. habitat). Eastern Brown Snakes have been found to be efficient predators of T.  Development of excessive vegetation pinguicolla (Doucette, unpublished data). biomass due to insufficient grazing leads to a reduction in inter-tussock spaces for hunting and basking, a reduction in soil surface temperatures, and may increase the risk of CHANGING CLIMATE wildfire. Recent analysis of kangaroo density In addition to the above threats, the severe and vegetation condition at many ACT grassy decline of T. pinguicolla during the 2002–10 sites showed increased floristic diversity in drought suggests the species may be sensitive moderately grazed grasslands due to the to the predicted effects of climate change. reduction in herbage biomass of more Recent modelling of the effect of climate change competitive plant species (Armstrong 2013). on reptiles predicts that by 2080 local reptile Moderate levels of kangaroo grazing are population extinctions could reach 39% therefore required to maintain structural worldwide, and reptile species extinctions may heterogeneity by preventing a few grass reach 20% (Sinervo et al. 2010). Warmer year- species from dominating the sward. round temperatures are predicted for south- Kangaroos have been allowed into the eastern Australia by the end of the century, with fenced Majura Training Area site since the fewer frosts, more hot days and warm spells, drought ended, part of the Jerrabomberra and declining rainfall (especially in winter). East site is grazed by kangaroos, and These changes have the potential to affect monitored light sheep grazing is being reproduction and survival of T. pinguicolla as the trialled on part of Jerrabomberra West to structure of their habitat is sensitive to drought, keep herbage biomass within desirable limits and sparser ground cover will lead to higher (Cook et al. 2015). ground temperatures.  Wildfire or inappropriate fire regimes: Fire Higher ground temperatures combined with can be used to rejuvenate native grasslands drier soil may increase mortality of eggs and and to maintain diversity in grassland hatchlings through desiccation (Dimond 2010), structure, but widespread fire can also kill T. thermal refuges may be less effective, and at pinguicolla, reduce or alter habitat and high temperatures the daily activity period of T. temporarily reduce their food supply. There pinguicolla is shorter, reducing foraging time is a local record of T. pinguicolla both fleeing (Doucette, unpublished data). The predicted from and being killed by an unplanned fire temperature increase of 3–5 °C by 2080 could 216 Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan restrict activity sufficiently to prevent T. Conservation effort for T. pinguicolla in the ACT pinguicolla from obtaining adequate food to is focused on protecting viable populations in meet increased metabolic requirements during functional native grassland habitat within two summer months (Doucette, unpublished data). clusters of sites across its geographical range— the Majura Valley and the Jerrabomberra Valley. The temperatures experienced during Both provide the opportunity to also protect the embryonic development can determine the sex endangered Natural Temperate Grassland of some reptiles, but there is so far no evidence community and associated threatened species. of this occurring when T. pinguicolla eggs are Parts of a number of the ACT’s T. pinguicolla incubated at different temperatures in the sites are the subject of development proposals laboratory (Doucette, unpublished data). There including an airport taxiway extension, the Very is a recent report of temperature-related sex High Speed Train route, roads, and urban reversal in females of another Australian development. Agamid (Bearded Dragon) in the wild, and subsequent controlled mating of normal males In the Majura Valley T. pinguicolla occurs on a with sex-reversed females produced fertile relatively large patch (around 100 ha) of native offspring whose phenotypic sex was determined grassland north of Canberra Airport on the solely by temperature rather than Majura Training Area, which is Defence chromosomes (Holleley et al. 2015). (Commonwealth) land. This area of high quality grassland is managed for conservation but is not formally protected. CONSERVATION ISSUES AND The species has been recorded on the Majura INTENDED MANAGEMENT Training Area to the east of the airport, which ACTIONS was a former property (Malcolm Vale) that was grazed. The species also occurs (at least PROTECTION intermittently) in grassland on Canberra Airport, The known extant T. pinguicolla populations which is not formally protected. Habitat on the occur on land under a variety of tenures airport is contiguous with habitat on the Majura including nature reserve (Territory Land), rural Training Area. It is possible that the high quality leasehold Territory Land, Commonwealth grassland on the Majura Training Area north of owned and managed land (National Land) and the airport forms the core of the species’ unleased Territory Land. These sites are habitat on the eastern side of the Majura Valley separated from one another by unsuitable and individuals disperse onto the airport during habitat, roads and urban development. favourable years. Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan 217 On the western side of the Majura Valley T. 2009) would need to be checked for six weeks pinguicolla occurs in a large patch of native (18 checks, February–March) to have 50% grassland (West Majura grassland) that adjoins confidence of detecting the species, with 167 woodland in the Mt Majura Nature Reserve. burrows checked over the same time period for While not currently protected in reserve, this 99% confidence of detection. area is managed for conservation by the ACT The protection of T. pinguicolla habitat in the Government and has been proposed for future Jerrabomberra West Grassland Nature Reserve formal protection. The species also occurs in and Jerrabomberra East Grasslands has given adjacent grassland (Campbell Park) that is protection to endangered Natural Temperate Defence (Commonwealth) land, which is not Grasslands and other threatened species in this formally protected. community (Golden Sun Moth Synemon plana, In the Jerrabomberra Valley some of the habitat Striped Legless Lizard Delma impar, Perunga is protected in nature reserve (Jerrabomberra Grasshopper Perunga ochracea). Management West Grassland Reserve) and in a conservation of all these species on the same site requires area (Jerrabomberra East Grasslands). The monitoring of their populations and their species also occurs on Territory rural lands habitat, and integrated vegetation management leased for grazing (Cookanalla), and on Territory strategies taking their different habitat needs land previously owned and managed by Defence into account. (Bonshaw) that is not formally protected. The While the Majura and Jerrabomberra species has apparently become locally extinct populations of T. pinguicolla have a long history from an area (about 20 ha) of unleased Territory of separation by natural barriers, populations land (Amtech East Estate). within each of the valleys have been fragmented Protecting existing T. pinguicolla habitat in the into subpopulations by more recent ACT and preventing further fragmentation is anthropogenic land-use changes. Further important due to the limited known habitat for fragmentation of habitat/populations is likely to the species in the ACT and NSW, the genetic increase the risk of localised extinctions and so distinctness between the ACT/Queanbeyan and should be avoided. There may be opportunities Monaro populations, and the recent rapid to promote expansion of T. pinguicolla drought-associated decline in ACT and NSW populations into areas formerly occupied by the populations. species. For example, appropriate management of grasslands (with the aim of restoring habitat) The highest level of protection is in nature to the east of the airport, in north Callum Brae reserve, though populations of the species have and in parts of Cookanalla might enable been maintained on leased Territory land used adjacent populations of T. pinguicolla to expand for stock grazing, providing the grazing regime is into these areas. There are currently significant compatible with maintaining suitable habitat. technical and resource challenges to restoring Where the species occurs on grazing land, an native grasslands. appropriate legislative mechanism should be applied to prevent habitat from being Even restoring grasslands to low or marginal overgrazed or degraded. The ACT Government quality habitat might enable T. pingiuicolla to will liaise with the Department of Defence to colonise and occupy such areas during years encourage continued protection and when conditions are favourable for the species, management of T. pinguicolla populations on and hence help maintain genetic diversity in the their land. longer term. Given T. pinguicolla recently declined to There may also be opportunities to reconnect extremely low or undetectable levels at some sub-populations. For example, maintaining a link ACT sites, and that some recovery appears to be between Jerrabomberra West Grassland occurring, it should be assumed the species is Reserve and North Callum Brae, and linking present at any site where it has previously populations on Cookanalla to Bonshaw. Habitat occurred since 1991 unless this is disproved by corridors linking sub-populations must be rigorous survey or the habitat has been sufficiently large (wide) to enable movement destroyed. As a guide, Dimond (2010) between sub-populations and to not act as determined that where population density was population ‘sinks’. very low, 26 artificial burrows (Fletcher et al. 218 Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan Salvage, involving removal of animals from the  Lawson Grasslands (former Belconnen Naval wild, will be considered only as a last resort, and Transmission Station) (surveyed in summer only in cases where the site is considered non- 1996, summer 2001) viable and an approved research project with  “Avonley” (surveyed in summer 1998) identified facilities and appropriate research resources are available.  adjacent to Pialligo Avenue (surveyed in summer 1998) ENVIRONMENTAL OFFSET REQUIREMENTS  opposite airport on Majura Road (surveyed in summer 1998) Environmental offset requirements for species and ecological communities in the ACT are  RAAF Fairbairn (surveyed in summer 1998) outlined in the ACT Environmental Offsets Policy  “Dundee” (southern part of Majura Training and associated documents including the ACT Area, east of Canberra Airport, surveyed in Environmental Offsets Assessment Summer 1998) Methodology and the Significant Species Database.  southern part of HMAS Harman (surveyed in summer/autumn/spring 2004–2006) Tympanocryptis pingiuicolla has been determined to have a high risk of local extinction in the event of further habitat loss in Regular abundance monitoring of the larger ACT the ACT so offsets are not appropriate. Habitat T. pinguicolla populations has been undertaken for T. pingiuicolla has been mapped and must be since 2001 using fixed grids of artificial burrows. avoided for development. The map provided on The Majura Training Area population has been the ACT Government website (ACTMAPi) should monitored annually since 2001, the be used to determine whether the species Jerrabomberra West Grassland Nature Reserve occurs on the site. has been monitored since 2006 and the Jerrabomberra East grasslands since 2009. The Canberra Airport population (adjoining Majura SURVEY, MONITORING AND Training Area) has also been monitored by the RESEARCH airport since 2007 (Rowell 2011 and Over the past two decades there have been unpublished data) and four monitoring surveys numerous, extensive surveys of potential have been undertaken since 2007 for the habitat to determine the distribution of T. Department of Defence at Bonshaw (former pinguicolla in the ACT. There is now a good Defence land adjoining Jerrabomberra understanding of the species’ distribution but Grassland Nature Reserve east) (Osborne et al. the area of occupancy of all suitable habitat at 2009, AECOM 2014). Monitoring has begun most sites has not been fully determined. more recently at Cookanalla in the Jerrabomberra Valley. Further surveys should be undertaken at ACT sites where the abundance of the species across This monitoring program has been undertaken the site is not well understood. These areas by ACT Government staff from the Conservation include Majura West Grasslands, grassland on Research section and, since 2005, has often Defence land to the east of the airport (former been jointly undertaken with staff from ACT Malcolm Vale property), North Callum Brae and Parks and Conservation Service and researchers Bonshaw. from the Institute of Applied Ecology at the University of Canberra. Prior to establishment of Past surveys in potential habitat at a number of the monitoring program in 2001, these and sites in the ACT did not detect the species. other sites have been intermittently surveyed These sites should be revisited and the habitat by ACT Government staff, and a number of assessed for quality and potential for presence university studies have been completed on the of T. pinguicolla, and surveyed if appropriate ecology of these populations. (i.e. the area appears to contain habitat suitable for the species). Sites where surveys in potential Tympanocryptis pinguicolla populations can habitat have not detected the species are: undergo major fluctuations in size, as evidenced by the severe decline to very low numbers towards the end of the 2002–10 drought, and Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan 219 subsequent increase. A representative set of  Magnitude and significance of sites with T. pinguicolla will need to be seasonal/annual T. pinguicolla population monitored to determine long-term population fluctuations (may require annual or biennial trends and to evaluate the effects of monitoring at key sites) and relationship to management. Key sites for population seasonal/annual conditions and habitat monitoring are those with an established long- characteristics. term monitoring program (Majura Training Area, Jerrabomberra West Grassland Reserve, Jerrabomberra East Grasslands). MANAGEMENT University research projects conducted on ACT Based on current knowledge of the habitat T. pinguicolla populations and their habitat requirements of T. pinguicolla, management include undergraduate studies, honours actions should aim to maintain grassland that projects, two PhD theses and post-doctoral has a well-defined tussock structure (i.e. research. tussocks with inter-tussock spaces). Tussock These studies have been undertaken in heights (i.e. the height of the bulk of the tussock leaves, not including the often few higher leaves partnership with, or facilitated by, the ACT and seed bearing culms) of the grass sward Government. Research projects have covered morphology, taxonomy, habitat investigations, should be mostly between 5 cm and 15 cm, with population and species ecology (including well-defined inter-tussock spaces composed of thermal ecology), life history, population shorter grasses, forbs and bare ground. viability analysis, microhabitat use, diet, home This structure can be achieved by maintaining ranges, genetic studies, captive breeding and intermediate levels of herbage mass. studies of behaviour of wild and captive Management actions should avoid creating a animals. grass sward that is uniformly very short (<5 cm) Research and adaptive management is required or uniformly very tall and dense (>15 cm high to better understand the habitat requirements with very few inter-tussock spaces). for the species and techniques to maintain the A ‘patchy’ sward containing grass tussocks of species’ habitat. Specific research priorities mostly intermediate height interspersed with include: patches of taller and shorter height tussocks with linked inter-tussock areas containing  Optimal habitat requirements, particularly shorter grass and forbs (and which might structure and biomass of the grass sward. include some bare ground), is likely to provide T.  Land management practices compatible pinguicolla with a greater range of sites for with, or required for, maintaining suitable shelter and thermoregulation, and a wider habitat (such as grazing, slashing, burning). range and/or density of prey (Melbourne 1993, Stevens et al. 2010, Barton et al. 2011, Taylor  Breeding requirements, oviposition sites, 2014). reproductive rates, and their relationship to habitat structure, seasonal conditions and The arthropods which form the burrows used by predicted effects of climate change. T. pinguicolla also prey on invertebrates and are also likely to benefit from diversity in habitat  Importance of availability and density of structure. natural burrows, relationship between T. pinguicolla and burrowing arthropods, effect From an ecological community perspective, a of burrow supplementation on sparse T. heterogeneous grass sward structure is likely to pinguicolla populations. provide a greater range of habitat niches and hence support a greater diversity of grassland  Sensitivity of T. pinguicolla to weeds in its flora and fauna. habitat, the weeds of major concern, and suitable control and revegetation methods. Maintaining a heterogeneous habitat is also an appropriate goal given imperfect knowledge of  Techniques to maintain and breed the the long-term habitat requirements for T. species in captivity (this knowledge will be pinguicolla. required should captive insurance populations be required). Extensive survey, monitoring and research has been carried out on ACT T. pinguicolla 220 Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan populations since 2005. An adaptive  Allocation of adequate resources to management approach is being implemented as undertake the actions specified in the results of this work become available. Recent strategy and action plans. analysis of kangaroo density and vegetation  Liaison with other jurisdictions (particularly condition at many ACT grassy sites has found NSW) and other land holders increased floristic diversity in moderately grazed (Commonwealth Government and Canberra grasslands due to the reduction in biomass of Airport) with responsibility for the more competitive species (Armstrong 2013). conservation of a threatened species or This suggests that moderate kangaroo grazing is community. likely to preserve structural heterogeneity in grasslands by preventing a few vigorous species  Collaboration with universities, CSIRO and from dominating the sward. other research institutions to facilitate and undertake required research.  Collaboration with non-government IMPLEMENTATION organisations such as Greening Australia to Implementation of this action plan and the ACT undertake on-ground actions. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy will require:  Engagement with the community, where relevant, to assist with monitoring and other  Land planning and land management areas on-ground actions, and to help raise of the ACT Government to take into account community awareness of conservation the conservation of threatened species. issues. Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan 221 OBJECTIVES, ACTIONS AND INDICATORS Table 2 Objectives, actions and indicators Objective Action Indicator 1. Conserve all ACT Apply formal measures to protect All populations are protected by populations. all populations on Territory- appropriate formal measures. owned land. Encourage formal protection of all populations on land owned by other jurisdictions. 2. Manage the species Monitor abundance of key Trends in abundance are known for and its habitat to populations and the effects of key populations. Management maintain the management actions. actions recorded. potential for evolutionary Manage habitat to maintain its Habitat is managed appropriately development in the suitability for the species, (indicated by maintenance of an wild. including implementing an appropriate sward structure and appropriate grazing and fire plant species composition). Potential regime (recognising current threats (e.g. weeds) are avoided or imperfect knowledge). managed. Populations are apparently stable or increasing (taking into account probable seasonal/annual effects on abundance fluctuations). 3. Enhance the long- Manage grassland adjacent to the Grassland adjacent to or linking term viability of species’ habitat to increase habitat is managed to improve populations through habitat area or habitat suitability for the species (indicated management of connectivity. If suitable habitat by an appropriate sward structure adjacent grassland exists, re-establish populations and plant species composition). If to increase habitat where they have become locally suitable habitat exists, research and area and connect extinct. trials have been undertaken to populations, or to establish new populations. establish new populations. 4. Improved Undertake or facilitate research Research undertaken and reported understanding of the on habitat requirements, and where appropriate applied to the species’ ecology, techniques to manage habitat, conservation management of the habitat and threats. and aspects of ecology directly species. relevant to conservation of the species. 5. Promote a greater Undertake or facilitate Engagement and awareness activities awareness of, and stakeholder and community undertaken and reported. strengthen engagement and awareness stakeholder and activities. community engagement in the conservation of the species. 222 Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Benson KA 1999. Resource Use and Habitat Alison Rowell contributed to the preparation of selection by the Grassland Earless Dragon, this action plan. The illustration of the species Tympanocryptis pinguicolla: Microhabitat was prepared for the ACT Government by Liz and Diet. Honours thesis (Applied Ecology Faul. Research Group, University of Canberra, Canberra). Biosis Research 2011. Sections 1 and 115, REFERENCES Symonston - Threatened Reptile Survey Report. Unpublished report to the ACT Land ACT Government 1997. Eastern Lined Earless Development Agency (Biosis Research Pty Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla): An Ltd, Canberra). endangered species. 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The Ecology and Taxonomy of Taylor KA 2014. Behavioural ecology of captive the Southern Lined Earless Dragon grassland earless dragons (Tympanocryptis (Tympanocryptis lineata pinguicolla). pinguicolla). Honours Thesis (University of Honours thesis (Australian National Canberra, Canberra). University, Canberra). Walker S and Osborne W 2010. Weeds most Smith WJS, Osborne WS, Donnellan SC. and likely to be a threat to the habitat of Cooper PD 1999. The systematic status of Grassland Earless Dragons in Canberra earless dragon lizards, Tympanocryptis Nature Park: their characteristics and a link (Reptilia: Agamidae), in south-eastern to control procedures. Report to the ACT Australia, Australian Journal of Zoology 47: Government (Institute of Applied Ecology, 551–64. University of Canberra, Canberra). Stevens TA, Evans MC, Osborne WS and Sarre Young G 1992. Herpy days of youth, ACT SD 2010. Home ranges of, and habitat use Herpetological Association Newsletter June- by, the grassland earless dragon July: 4-6. (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla) in remnant native grasslands near Canberra, Australian Journal of Zoology 58(2): 76-84. 226 Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan Grassland Earless Dragon Action Plan 227 PERUNGA GRASSHOPPER PERUNGA OCHRACEA ACTION PLAN 228 Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan PREAMBLE The Perunga Grasshopper (Perunga ochracea, Sjöstedt, 1921) was declared an endangered species on 19 May 1997 (Instrument No. DI1997-89 under the Nature Conservation Act 1980). Under section 101 of the Nature Conservation Act 2014, the Conservator of Flora and Fauna is responsible for preparing a draft action plan for listed species. The first action plan for this species was prepared in 1999 (ACT Government 1999a). This revised edition supersedes the earlier edition. This action plan includes the ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy set out in schedule 1 to the ‘Nature Conservation (Native Grassland) Action Plans 2017’, to the extent it is relevant. Measures proposed in this action plan complement those proposed in the action plans for Natural Temperate Grassland, Yellow Box/Red Gum Grassy Woodland, and component threatened species such as the Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar), Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla) and the Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana). adjacent grassland to increase habitat area CONSERVATION STATUS and connect populations. Perunga ochracea is recognised as a threatened species in the following sources: SPECIES DESCRIPTION AND Australian Capital Territory ECOLOGY Vulnerable – Section 91 of the Nature DESCRIPTION Conservation Act 2014. The Perunga Grasshopper (Perunga ochracea) is Special Protection Status Species - Section 109 the only described species in the genus Perunga of the Nature Conservation Act 2014. (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Catantopinae – Spur- throated Grasshopppers), although the Australian National Insect Collection (ANIC) has CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES specimens of an undescribed species The overall conservation objective of this plan is (designated as Perunga sp. 1) known only from to maintain in the long term, viable, wild South Australia. Perunga belongs to the subtribe populations of P. ochracea as a component of Apotropina of the tribe Catantopini (Rentz the indigenous biological resources of the ACT 1996). Members of the subtribe are and as a contribution to regional and national characterised principally by the stout femur of conservation of the species. This includes the the hind leg and the presence of an auditory need to maintain natural evolutionary tympanum on the anterior abdomen under the processes. wings. In males, there is a furcula (a forked structure) near the tip of the abdomen. Specific objectives of the action plan are to: Both sexes of P. ochracea are short-winged and  Protect sites where the species is known to flightless. The species is distinctive in having the occur in the ACT from unintended impacts. pronotum (the dorsal surface of the first  Manage the species and its habitat to thoracic segment) wrinkled and slightly maintain the potential for evolutionary extended caudally. development in the wild. There is a whitish dorsal streak extending from  Enhance the long-term viability of the keeled pronotum to the tip of the abdomen, populations through management of and also a broad pale ‘X’ on the pronotum, Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan 229 which is the most useful field identification grasslands. This includes Mulanggari, characteristic. The wings are shorter than the Gungaderra, Crace, Mulligans Flat and length of the pronotum and have many raised Gooroyarroo nature reserves in Gungahlin, longitudinal veins. Adult females range in length several sites in the Majura Valley, from 26–35 mm and adult males from 15–20 Jerrabomberra West Nature Reserve and other mm. Females bear very short, stout cerci (the sites in the Jerrabomberra Valley, on Lawson pair of appendages at the apex of the abdomen) Grasslands (Commonwealth land, formerly and the dorsal ovipositor valves are strongly known as the Belconnen Naval Transmission recurved. Males possess simple, elongate cerci, Station), Lower Molonglo Nature Reserve, Red each with a blunt, rounded tip which is slightly Hill Nature Reserve, and in the Murrumbidgee deflexed (illustrated in Rentz et al. 2003). The River Corridor in Tuggeranong. dorsal background colour of adults is variable, Perunga ochracea appears to have a small range and may be tan, grey-brown, or dull or bright stretching 180 km east–west and 150 km north– green. The proportions of each colour morph south. However, the area of occupancy within can vary from year to year with a tendency much of this range is likely to be low because of toward grey-brown in dry years and greenish in the reduction in size or extinction of populations wet years (R.C. Lewis pers. comm. in ACT through habitat alteration and fragmentation. Government 1999a). The ventral surface of the Perunga ochracea usually occurs at low body is yellow and the upper surface of the tarsi densities and is mostly restricted to larger areas is usually bluish. A colour photograph is found in of remnant habitat. No population studies have Rentz (1996), and Rentz et al. (2003) has been undertaken for P. ochracea, and so it is not photographs showing nymphs (instars 1 to 5) possible to estimate population sizes. and diagnostic features of adults. The most up to date distribution data for this species is publicly available on the ACT DISTRIBUTION Government’s mapping portal (Visit the ACTmapi website). Perunga ochracea was first described from a collection from Wagga Wagga in NSW. The ANIC contains ACT collections from 1941 onwards, HABITAT AND ECOLOGY but the early collections have poor location data. The early (pre-1970) NSW collections are In the ACT, P. ochracea has been found in from Uranquinty near Wagga Wagga, Boorowa Natural Temperate Grassland dominated by and nearby Galong, and in areas adjacent to the Wallaby Grasses (Rytidosperma spp.), ACT, including Jeir, Murrumbateman, north- Speargrasses (Austrostipa spp.) or Kangaroo west of Hall, and Queanbeyan. Grass (Themeda triandra), and in other native grasslands (Stephens 1998, ACT Government More recent NSW records are from Gundaroo, records). Queanbeyan and Bungendore (ANIC, ACT Government records). In the ACT, most records The species sometimes occurs in open are from the northern lowland valleys, from the woodland areas with a grassy understorey, ACT border in the north to Tuggeranong in the including the endangered Yellow Box/Red Gum south. Grassy Woodland community, as suggested by earlier collections from the Black Mountain and The southernmost ACT record is from the edge Mt Majura areas, and more recent records from of Naas Road north of the junction of the woodland at Red Hill Nature Reserve and Gudgenby and Naas rivers (R.C. Lewis pers. Queanbeyan Nature Reserve West (ACT comm. in ACT Government 1999a). Some Government records). collection sites have since been developed for housing (Reid, Calwell, Gordon, O’Malley, Field observations suggest that P. ochracea uses Weetangera, and Mt Jerrabomberra in NSW). grass tussocks as shelter spaces, and Farrow (2012) described occupied habitat at two sites Invertebrate surveys and opportunistic sightings as containing vegetation mosaics with tall during routine monitoring of other species from tussock grasses, shorter grasses and forbs, and 1997 onwards have shown that P. ochracea bare ground. The species has been recorded in occurs at apparently low densities at a number heavily grazed habitats, where the availability of of ACT sites, mainly in native-dominated dense grass tussocks was low (Stephens 1998, 230 Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan ACT Government records). Stephens (1998) than C. apiculatum, despite this forb being reported that in these instances the animals present at the collection sites. Perunga sp. 1, were found in or near grass tussocks, suggesting from South Australia, has been recorded eating the need for these tussocks in the habitat. the flowers and leaves of several species of forbs, and in feeding trials it fed on the petals Perunga ochracea is a cryptic grasshopper which and flowers of Capeweed (Arctotheca is difficult to see unless first disturbed. When calendula), Wild Geranium (Erodium spp.) and disturbed, the adult appears to actively seek Common Everlasting (P. Birks pers. comm. in shelter, jumping once or twice before burying ACT Government 1999a). itself into a grass tussock. It is a powerful jumper, covering distances of a metre or more. Although no work has been done to identify Nymphs hatch in late summer and autumn, and predators of P. ochracea, parasitic wasps Scelio develop over the winter and early spring (Rentz spp. in south-eastern Australia have been shown 1996), with a first instar nymph recorded in late to regulate some populations of other acridid January (Stephens 1998). This life cycle is grasshoppers (Baker et al. 1996). Vertebrate unusual compared with most other ACT predators such as birds may reduce population grasshopper species which overwinter as eggs numbers, as shown in studies of grasshopper rather than nymphs. Adults of P. ochracea have assemblages (e.g. Belovsky and Slade 1993). been collected from late October to mid- Wolf Spiders (Lycosa godeffroyi), which are February (ANIC specimens), and the life cycle is abundant in ACT grasslands, often eat other a single year. There are many more collections large grasshopper species (A. Rowell, pers. obs.). and records of adults than nymphs, which may mean that nymphs are more difficult to detect and identify. PREVIOUS AND CURRENT Perunga ochracea is usually recorded as MANAGEMENT individuals or in low numbers (Stephens 1998, The management history of sites containing P. Farrow 2012, ACT Government records). This is ochracea varies. Most sites were not grazed by the case for casual observations and targeted stock when the species was first recorded, but searches, and also for animals caught in pitfall many have subsequently had a history of traps, suggesting that P. ochracea is mostly grazing which has often been light or sparsely distributed rather than just being intermittent, and most sites have not been difficult to detect. Population densities pasture improved. Most P. ochracea sites are nevertheless vary among years and between not now grazed by stock, and grass biomass sites (Farrow 2012, Rowell 2015). reduction is mostly by kangaroo grazing of There is little information on the diet of P. varying intensity, or occasional slashing on a few ochracea. It has been suggested the species has sites. Two of three records of P. ochracea at a dietary relationship with Chrysocephalum spp. Gungaderra Nature Reserve were made in the (Rentz 1996), largely due to collection of the slashed fire break around the edges of an grasshopper at sites containing these forb otherwise moderately dense and weedy species, particularly Common Everlasting Daisy grassland (ACT Government records), and (Chrysocephalum apiculatum). This plant occurs Farrow (2012) did not find P. ochracea at a in native grasslands of varying quality and in number of known sites when grass growth was open Box–Gum Woodland. Dietary analysis very dense. undertaken by Stephens (1998) of grasshoppers from ACT grasslands found that three more abundant grasshopper species in the same THREATS subfamily as P. ochracea (Catantopinae) showed a mixed forb-grass diet with a preference for Perunga ochracea is a grassland specialist, being forbs, while the six most abundant species in found only in areas of native grassland or grassy two other subfamilies collected (Acridinae, woodland. Loss or degradation of habitat is the Oxyinae) showed a preference for a mixed forb- major threat to P. ochracea. About 99% of grass diet with grasses preferred over forbs. Natural Temperate Grassland (a nationally critically endangered ecological community, Only six individuals of P. ochracea could be EPBC Act 1999) in Australia has been destroyed examined, and all had consumed forbs other or drastically altered since European settlement Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan 231 (Kirkpatrick et al. 1995). About 5% or 1000 scale autumn/winter burning may endanger hectares of the original area of Natural nymphs. Temperate Grassland in the ACT still exists in moderate to good condition (ACT Government 1997; 2005) and it is possible that as little as 3- CHANGING CLIMATE 4% of the original area of Yellow Box/Red Gum Climate change has the potential to affect P. Grassy Woodland community in the ACT may ochracea at various life stages. Warmer year- remain in a relatively natural state (ACT round temperatures are predicted for south- Government 1999b). These native grasslands eastern Australia by the end of the century, with continue to be in demand for urban, industrial fewer frosts, more hot days and warm spells, and infrastructure development as well as being and declining rainfall (especially in winter). As vulnerable to alteration by weed invasion and an autumn-hatching grassland species, the agricultural practices. nymphs of P. ochracea are adapted to low Fragmentation and isolation of the remaining winter temperatures, and the adults mate and areas has resulted from the loss of extensive, lay eggs before the hotter summer weather. A contiguous areas of habitat. Perunga ochracea meta-analysis of studies that measured the appears to occur in only some of the larger ability of animals to deal with extremes of heat remnants of these grassland communities. and cold found that terrestrial ectotherms such Movement between habitat fragments or as lizards and insects have a limited ability to recolonisation after local extinctions is likely to physiologically acclimate to higher be limited because adults of P. ochracea are temperatures, and species that are close to their flightless.This relative immobility also restricts heat tolerance limit will be most at risk from gene flow between populations. Where the sex climate change (Gunderson and Stillman 2015). of P. ochracea was recorded in the ACT The limited mobility of P. ochracea also makes it Government Wildlife Atlas, about 60% of the less able to adapt by moving to accommodate animals were females; about 60% of the ANIC habitat change. Maintaining high quality habitat collections were also females. Stephens (1998) might facilitate resilience of P. ochracea to noted that P. ochracea is often found as single changing rainfall and temperature regimes. animals, and that parthenogenesis is known to occur in some species of grasshoppers when they are at low densities and females are unable CONSERVATION ISSUES AND to find mates. Eggs and nymphs produced by INTENDED MANAGEMENT parthenogenesis have high mortality. If parthenogenesis does occur in P. ochracea, this ACTIONS could cause problems if populations are PROTECTION fragmented and density is naturally low. The long-term conservation of P. ochracea The invasion of native grasslands by exotic plant depends on protecting its native grassland and species changes the floristic composition of the grassy woodland habitat. The difficulty in grasslands. The effect of weed invasion on the surveying for P. ochracea means little habitat and food plants of P. ochracea has not information exists on population sizes at sites, been investigated, but is likely to be detrimental and hence conservation priority for sites. given the apparent preference of P. ochraea for However, as for most species, larger areas of grasslands composed of native plant species. habitat are more likely to contain larger Optimal habitat requirements of P. ochracea are populations, and due to genetic and other not known, but management that reduces considerations, larger populations are more grassland structure/patchiness or the amount of likely to be viable in the long term. All sites native forb cover is likely to be deleterious. The where P. ochracea is known to occur should be effect that predators may have in reducing protected from unintended impacts, with formal population numbers is unknown, but a large protection given to (the generally larger) areas slow-moving flightless grasshopper is likely to be of native grassland habitat that are likely to more vulnerable to predation on overgrazed remain viable and functional in the longer term. sites, where ground cover is low. The effect of The protection of Natural Temperate Grassland fire on P. ochracea is also not known, but large and Yellow Box/Red Gum Grassy Woodland (both declared as endangered ecological 232 Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan communities) and the protection of native ecosystem credits through its association with grassland as habitat for other threatened the Natural Temperate Grassland endangered species allows for significant and ecological community. complementary conservation actions for P. ochracea. SURVEY, MONITORING AND RESEARCH The known P. ochracea populations in the ACT occur on Territory land (including nature The few surveys designed to search specifically reserve, urban open space and leasehold rural for P. ochracea have not found large numbers land) and Commonwealth land controlled and even at known sites (Stephens 1998; ERM 2007; managed by the Department of Defence. The Farrow 2012). Most records are observations of ACT Government will liaise with the Department single individuals and around half of the sites of Defence to encourage continued protection where P. ochracea has been recorded are from and management of P. ochracea habitat on their an observation of a single individual. The most land. frequent sightings have been at Canberra Airport where P. ochracea was recorded in five different years, all during monitoring and ENVIRONMENTAL OFFSET mapping of other threatened species and the grassland community. Most P. ochracea records REQUIREMENTS in the ACT Government Wildlife Atlas are Environmental offset requirements for species incidental observations made during vegetation and ecological communities in the ACT are and reptile surveys in native grassland, and outlined in the ACT Environmental Offsets Policy there are often several years between sightings and associated documents such as the ACT despite other surveys being undertaken at the Environmental Offsets Assessment same sites. Methodology and the Significant Species Perunga ochracea is small and cryptic and has Database. In the Assessment Methodology and proven difficult to survey. Stephens (1998) Database, some of the threatened species have found P. ochracea was difficult to collect by special offset requirements to ensure standard sweep-netting methods, and appropriate protection. Perunga ochracea does recommended timed direct searching (flush not have any special offset requirements. counting) in spring and summer as the most Perunga ochracea is a species identified for effective method, albeit time consuming. Timed Perunga Grasshopper (E. Cook) Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan 233 direct searching involves flushing grasshoppers Priority areas for research to assist conservation by slowly walking through a pre-determined of the species include: survey area for a fixed time and stopping often  improved knowledge of distribution and to search grass tussocks. Perunga ochracea has abundance been opportunistically detected in standard quadrats (20 x 20 m or 20 x 50 m) used for  micro-habitat requirements vegetation surveys (AECOM 2011; ERM 2011;  diet Rowell 2015), suggesting survey for P. ochracea could be combined with vegetation surveys.  dispersal abilities The results of past direct searches indicate that  soil requirements for oviposition site ten such quadrats might be necessary to detect selection a sparse P. ochracea population, while a dense population might be detected with one or two  effects of various grassland management quadrats, and hence it might be possible to practices, particularly grazing detect large changes in P. ochracea density at a  possible competition with other forb-feeding site with a low number of quadrats. Farrow grasshoppers, particularly those which are (2012) searched for P. ochracea in favourable known to have high population numbers, habitat at known sites in December for one hour e.g. Phaulacridium vittatum in a random way and concluded that using habitat as a surrogate for determining the  the effect of predators on P. ochracea distribution of the species was more practical populations than extensive direct searches.  nymphal survival requirements. Direct survey for P. ochracea might be The management history of sites containing P. worthwhile as part of assessing the effect of ochracea varies. Most sites were not grazed by grassland management (controlled burning, stock when the species was first recorded, but wildfires, firebreak slashing, extensive weed many have subsequently had a history of control or stock grazing), particularly if grazing which has often been light or undertaken as part of an experimental design intermittent, and most sites have not been (treatment and control quadrats) which should pasture improved. Most P. ochracea sites are also provide a better understanding of the not now grazed by stock, and grass biomass habitat requirements of the species. reduction is mostly by kangaroo grazing of Because surveys aimed solely at finding varying intensity, or occasional slashing on a few additional populations appear to be impractical sites. Two of three records of P. ochracea at (Farrow 2012), discovery of new populations is Gungaderra Nature Reserve were made in the likely to be through surveys for other plant and slashed fire break around the edges of an animal species or from opportunistic otherwise moderately dense and weedy observations from naturalists and other grassland (ACT Government records). Farrow interested persons. Determining and monitoring (2012) did not find P. ochracea at a number of population sizes of P. ochracea at known sites is known sites when grass growth was very dense. likely to face similar challenges to survey for the species. Monitoring the vegetation structure, condition and floristic composition of larger MANAGEMENT remnants of native-dominated grasslands and Perunga ochracea is known to be a specialist of grassy woodlands as part of broader condition native grasslands, though detailed habitat monitoring of these communities will assist in requirements are not well understood. detecting habitat changes (such as weed Recorded sightings of P. ochracea suggest a invasion) at the key sites where P. ochracea preference for shorter grass and avoidance of occurs. tall, dense swards, though sightings might be There have been relatively few records of P. biased if the species is more visible in shorter ochracea in the ACT region and hence little is grass. The use of forb species as food plants known about distribution and abundance of the suggests the need for openings (inter-tussock species within sites, or its ecology and biology. spaces) in the grassland for these forb species to grow. 234 Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan In addition, many grasshopper species require the trial began, and again in 2012 and 2013 open areas in which to bask and for females to after the vegetation treatments. lay their eggs (Urarov 1977). Fire can be Half the quadrats were treated, which involved important in creating gaps in Kangaroo Grass machine removal of impacted thatch, cutting (Themeda triandra) grasslands, allowing the and removing slashed material several times establishment of a number of forb species over two years, and planting of native forbs. The (Morgan 1998), which may be P. ochracea food results of the treatment were a sharp but plants. However, the effect of fire on adults and temporary increase in bare ground and overwintering nymphs needs to be determined Chrysocephalum apiculatum cover, a sustained if extensive burning is to be used to manage decrease in litter, and higher native forb cover grasslands in which they occur. The effect of after two years. No P. ochracea were seen in grass slashing on P. ochracea (through direct any of the quadrats in spring 2011 or 2012, but mortality) is not known, though the species has in 2013, 29 P. ochracea were recorded in the persisted on Canberra Airport which is regularly treated quadrats and five in the controls which slashed. Grass biomass/structure management were adjacent to them. The increase in P. by grazing (native or introduced herbivores) is ochracea numbers was found to be confined to likely to cause the least impact to the species the treated area and adjacent control plots by from direct mortality. monitoring eight more distant quadrats on Dennis et al. (1998) found that arthropod untreated parts of the airport. No P. ochracea diversity and abundance in grazed grasslands were found in these distant untreated areas in was positively associated with floristic diversity 2013, despite being occasionally recorded there and structural heterogeneity, and declined with in previous years. The vegetation changes grazing intensity, and that the reduction of associated with the trial apparently created arthropods with increased grazing intensity was preferred habitat for P. ochracea, possibly by buffered in grasslands with substantial patches increasing food availability and/or creating more of tussock. favourable egg-laying sites. Recent analysis of kangaroo density and The trial also showed that the effects of habitat vegetation condition at many ACT grassy sites changes on P. ochracea may need to be showed increased floristic diversity in monitored over at least three seasons (Rowell moderately grazed grasslands due to the 2015). reduction in biomass of more competitive plant Until detailed habitat requirements of P. species (Armstrong 2013). ochracea are known, management should aim Higher abundance and diversity of grassland to maintain native grassland habitat in good beetles have been found to be associated with condition (such as controlling weeds) with inter- low to moderate kangaroo densities (Barton et tussock spaces to promote native forb growth. al. 2011), and maintaining a mix of moderate Managing for a heterogeneous sward (patchy and high grass height within reserves has been mosaic of short, moderate and long grass) recommended for the conservation of reptile within sites is likely to be an appropriate goal for diversity (Howland et al. 2014). While the native grasslands where a range of grassland relationship between kangaroo grazing and the fauna occur, including P. ochracea. quality of P. ochracea habitat has not been determined, the apparent need of P. ochracea for structural variety suggests that low to IMPLEMENTATION moderate kangaroo grazing may also favour the Implementation of this action plan and the ACT species. Native Grassland Conservation Strategy will Results from a grassland enhancement trial at require: Canberra International Airport suggest that a  Land planning and land management areas sparse P. ochracea population can respond of the ACT Government to take into account strongly to improved conditions. The trial area the conservation of threatened species. initially contained native-dominated grassland with few native forbs. Eight 20 x 20 m quadrats  Allocation of adequate resources to (0.32 ha) were monitored in spring 2011 before undertake the actions specified in the strategy and action plans. Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan 235  Liaison with other jurisdictions (particularly  Collaboration with non-government NSW) and other land holders organisations, such as Greening Australia, to (Commonwealth Government and Canberra undertake on-ground actions. Airport) with responsibility for the  Engagement with the community, where conservation of a threatened species or relevant, to assist with monitoring and other community. on-ground actions, and to help raise  Collaboration with universities, CSIRO, community awareness of conservation Australian National Botanic Gardens, and issues. other research institutions to facilitate and undertake required research. OBJECTIVES, ACTIONS AND INDICATORS Table 1 Objectives, Actions and Indicators Objective Action Indicator 1. Protect native grassland Ensure native grassland sites on All native grassland habitat is sites where the species Territory-owned land where the protected from unintended occurs from unintended species occurs are protected from impacts by appropriate impacts (unintended unintended impacts. measures. impacts are those not Encourage other jurisdictions to already considered protect sites where the species through an occurs on their lands from environmental unintended impacts. assessment or other statutory process). Maintain a database of sightings Records of sightings are of the species, and if available, maintained and used to record habitat information. determine the distribution of the species in the ACT. Identify other sites where the Vegetation surveys in suitable species occurs by maintaining habitat also aim to detect the alertness to the possible presence species. of the species while conducting vegetation surveys in suitable habitat. 2. Manage the species and Monitor the effects of Management actions are its habitat to maintain management actions at a recorded. the potential for representative set of sites where evolutionary the species is known to occur. development in the wild. Manage habitat to maintain its Habitat is managed appropriately suitablilty for the species, (indicated by maintenance of an including implementing an appropriate sward structure and appropriate grazing / slashing / herbage mass). Potential threats burning regime (recognising (e.g. weeds) are avoided or current imperfect knowledge). managed. 236 Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan Objective Action Indicator 3. Enhance the long-term Manage grassland adjacent to the Grassland adjacent to or linking viability of populations species’ habitat to increase habitat is managed to improve through management of habitat area or habitat suitability for the species adjacent grassland to connectivity. (indicated by an appropriate increase habitat area and sward structure and plant species connect populations. composition). 4. Improved understanding Undertake or facilitate research Research undertaken and of the species’ ecology, on habitat requirements, reported and where appropriate habitat and threats. techniques to manage habitat, applied to the conservation and aspects of ecology directly management of the species. relevant to conservation of the species. 5. Promote a greater Undertake or facilitate Engagement and awareness awareness of, and stakeholder and community activities undertaken and strengthen stakeholder engagement and awareness reported. and community activities. engagement in, the conservation of the species. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACT Government 2005. A vision splendid of the grassy plains extended: ACT Lowland Native Alison Rowell contributed to the preparation of Grassland Conservation Strategy. Action Plan this action plan. The illustration of the species No. 28 (Arts, Heritage and Environment, was prepared for the ACT Government by Kim Canberra). Neubauer. AECOM 2011. Threatened Species Monitoring COMMUNICATIONS and Management 2010. Majura Training Area, ACT. Prepared for Spotless and Mr P.R. Birks undertook feeding trials on the Department of Defence (AECOM Australia only other species in the genus, the South Pty Ltd, Canberra). Australian Perunga sp 1. Armstrong RC 2013. Interim Analysis of Mr R.C. Lewis surveyed grasshoppers in the ACT Relationships between Vegetation Condition from 1974-1980. and Kangaroo Density in Grassy Ecosystems REFERENCES of the Northern ACT: Data Collected in Spring – Summer 2009 / 2012. A Report Prepared ACT Government 1997. Natural Temperate for ACT Government (Environment and Grassland: An endangered ecological Sustainability, Canberra). community. Action Plan No. 1 (Environment ACT, Canberra). Baker GL, Dysart RJ and Pigott RG 1996. Parasitism of grasshopper and locust eggs ACT Government 1999a. Perunga Grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) by Scelio species (Perunga ochracea): A vulnerable species. (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) in southern Action Plan No. 21 (Environment ACT, Australia, Australian Journal of Zoology 44: Canberra). 427-43. ACT Government 1999b. Yellow Box/Red Gum Barton PS, Manning AD, Gibb H, Wood JT, grassy woodland: An endangered ecological Lindenmayer DB and Cunningham SA 2011. community. Action Plan No.10 (Environment Experimental reduction of native vertebrate ACT, Canberra). Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan 237 grazing and addition of logs benefit beetle Rentz DCF 1996. Grasshopper country: the diversity at multiple scales, Journal of abundant orthopteroid insects of Australia Applied Ecology 48: 943–951. (University of NSW Press, Sydney). Belovsky GE and Slade JB 1993. The role of Rentz DCF, RC Lewis, Y Su and Upton (eds) 2003. vertebrate and invertebrate predators in a A Guide to Australian Grasshoppers and grasshopper community, Oikos 68: 193-201. Locusts (Natural History Publications (Borneo), Malaysia). Dennis P, Young MR and Gordon IJ 1998. Distribution and abundance of small insects Rowell 2015. The vulnerable Perunga and arachnids in relation to structural Grasshopper at Canberra Airport, 2003 to heterogeneity of grazed, indigenous 2014. Report to Canberra Airport (Canberra). grasslands, Ecological Entomology 23: 253- Stephens CJ 1998. Grasshopper (Orthoptera: 264. Acrididae) assemblages in Natural ERM 2007. Majura Training Area Threatened Temperate Grasslands of differing native Species Monitoring. Report to Department of plant diversities. Honours thesis (Department Defence (Environmental Resources of Botany & Zoology, Australian National Management Aust. Pty Ltd, Canberra). University, Canberra). ERM 2011. ACT Threatened Species Monitoring Uvarov B 1977. Grasshoppers and locusts: a and Management. Report for Spotless handbook of general acridology, Volume 2: Services and Department of Defence Behaviour, ecology, biogeography and (Environmental Resources Management population dynamics (Centre for Overseas Aust. Pty Ltd, Canberra). Pest Research, London). Farrow RA 2012. Devising a survey method for the vulnerable Perunga grasshopper in the ACT including a determination of its habitat preferences so that habitat can be used as a surrogate for its potential occurrence. Report to ACT Environment and Sustainable Development (Tilembeya Consulting and XCS Consulting Pty Ltd, Canberra). Gunderson AR and Stillman JH 2015. Plasticity in thermal tolerance has limited potential to buffer ectotherms from global warming. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 282(1808): 20150401. Kirkpatrick J, McDougall K and Hyde M 1995. Australia’s Most Threatened Ecosystems: the Southeastern Lowland Native Grasslands. (Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd, Chipping Norton, NSW). Howland B, Stojanovic D, Gordon IJ, Manning AD, Fletcher D and Lindenmayer DB 2014. Eaten Out of House and Home: Impacts of Grazing on Ground- Dwelling Reptiles in Australian Grasslands and Grassy Woodlands, PLoS ONE 9(12): e105966. Morgan JW 1998. Importance of canopy gaps for recruitment of some forbs in Themeda triandra-dominated grasslands in South- eastern Australia, Australian Journal of Botany 46: 609–627. 238 Perunga Grasshopper Action Plan Perunga Grasshopper Draft Action Plan 239 STRIPED LEGLESS LIZARD DELMA IMPAR ACTION PLAN 240 Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan PREAMBLE The Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar (Fisher, 1882)) was declared a vulnerable species on 15 April 1996 (Instrument No. DI1996-29 under the Nature Conservation Act 1980). Under section 101 of the Nature Conservation Act 2014, the Conservator of Flora and Fauna is responsible for preparing a draft action plan for listed species. The first action plan for this species was prepared in 1997 (ACT Government 1997) and the second in 2005 (ACT Government 2005). This revised edition supersedes the earlier editions. This action plan includes the ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy set out in schedule 1 to the ‘Nature Conservation (Native Grassland) Action Plans 2017’, to the extent it is relevant. Measures proposed in this action plan complement those proposed in the action plans for Natural Temperate Grassland, Yellow Box/Red Gum Grassy Woodland, and component threatened species such as the Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla) and the Golden Sun Moth (Synemon plana). CONSERVATION STATUS Delma impar is recognised as a threatened CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES species in the following sources: The overall conservation objective of this action plan is to maintain in the long term, viable, wild International populations of D. impar as a component of the Vulnerable – IUCN (2015). indigenous biological resources of the ACT and as a contribution to regional and national National conservation of the species. Vulnerable – Environment Protection and This includes the need to maintain natural Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 evolutionary processes. (Commonwealth). Specific objectives of the action plan are to: Australian Capital Territory  Conserve large and medium-sized Vulnerable – Section 91 of the Nature populations in the ACT. Conservation Act 2014. Special Protection Status  Manage the species and its habitat to Species - Section 109 of the Nature Conservation maintain the potential for evolutionary Act 2014. development in the wild. New South Wales  Enhance the long-term viability of populations through management of Vulnerable – Threatened Species Conservation adjacent grassland to increase habitat area Act 1995. and connect populations. Victoria Threatened – Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act SPECIES DESCRIPTION AND 1988. ECOLOGY South Australia DESCRIPTION Endangered – National Parks and Wildlife Act The Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar Fischer 1972. 1882) is a member of the family Pygopodidae, a Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan 241 group of lizards that lack forelimbs and have smaller size of adults. However, differences in hind limbs reduced to small vestigial flaps nostril scales and pre-anal scales (Cogger 2000) (Cogger 2000). Legless lizards can be readily are the most reliable features distinguishing the distinguished from small snakes by having a species. visible ear opening, fleshy broad tongue, the presence of remnant hind limbs (reduced to two small flaps near the vent), and a long tail that DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE can be voluntarily shed. Prior to European settlement, D. impar was Delma impar attains a maximum length of about most likely distributed broadly in south-eastern 300 mm, of which the tail (when intact) Australia wherever suitable habitat (native comprises about two-thirds of the overall grassland) was present. Historic and current length. Fully grown D. impar attain a snout–vent records of the species come from South length of around 90 mm–110 mm, though Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and the individuals are considered to be adults when Australian Capital Territory. Victoria they reach a snout–vent length of 70 mm (Banks encompasses the largest part of the known et al. 1999), based on the minimum length of distribution; most records are from the central wild-caught gravid females in the ACT (Rauhala and western plains, with a few isolated records 1996, 1997). Adults average around 3–4 g but from the north-east of the state. The species is gravid females can weigh over 8 g (Hadden and known to still occur at about 70 sites in Victoria, Humphries 1994; Kukolic 1994; Osmond 1994; though many of these are small in area (such as Coulson 1995). road reserves) and only ten sites are protected in conservation reserves (Robertson and Smith Delma impar are usually pale grey-brown on the 2010). In South Australia the species is known to dorsal surface and white or cream on the occur in three areas, two of which are protected ventral surface. As the name suggests, the (one in a conservation reserve and another in a species typically has a pattern of alternate dark catchment reserve) (Robertson and Smith and light brown stripes running the length of the 2010). In New South Wales D. impar are known body on the dorsal-lateral and lateral surfaces, to still occur at seven locations, all of which are beginning at the neck and becoming diagonal on within 100 km of the ACT. Only one of these the tail. The stripes may be faint or absent in locations is protected (Kuma Nature Reserve). some individuals, particularly juveniles. The head is usually slightly darker than the body In the ACT D. impar are known to occur in four (slate grey to black), more conspicuously so in discrete areas: the Gungahlin/Belconnen area, juveniles, and the sides of the face (from the the Majura Valley in the vicinity of the Canberra posterior infralabial scales to around the International Airport, in Central Canberra on tympanum) usually have a yellow flush (Coulson land adjacent to Yarrumundi Grassland on Lake 1990). Burley Griffin and in the Jerrabomberra Valley. The pattern of the head scales is unique to each These four populations are effectively isolated individual and enables individuals to be by geographic and anthropogenic barriers, and identified. Some individuals have a salmon-pink may represent genetically distinct sub- coloration on the flanks that may extend to the populations. The species occurs on a range of ventral surface (ACT Government 1997). The land tenures, including nature reserve and other ring of small scales around the eye is pale land managed by the ACT Government, land (almost white) in some individuals. The sexes owned and managed by the Commonwealth are externally similar, though males may be Government, and leasehold land. distinguished by the presence of small, rounded, In Gungahlin D. impar is protected in three cloacal spurs under each hind limb flap (Rauhala reserves (Crace, Gungaderra and Mullanggari and Andrew 1998; Robertson and Smith 2010). grassland reserves), which total over 500 ha and When handled, individuals often emit a high- contain Natural Temperate Grassland, native pitched ‘squeaking’ vocalisation. grassland and areas dominated by exotic Delma impar can usually be distinguished from grasses. The boundaries of these reserves were the Olive Legless Lizard (Delma inornata), a determined on the basis of both the remaining closely related species which also occurs in the fragments of Natural Temperate Grassland and ACT region, by the presence of stripes and the the distribution of D. impar. Surveys in 2012 242 Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan (Eco Logical 2013) indicate that each of the Surveys to better understand the distribution, three Gungahlin reserves contains at least 1000 abundance and habitat preferences of D. impar D. impar, representing some of the largest in the ACT have been undertaken since 1990 by remaining populations of the species. Delma the ACT Government (Conservation Research or impar also occurs across a broad area (about contracted consultants) (e.g. Williams and 250 ha) in Kenny in the south of Gungahlin. This Kukolic 1991; Kukolic et al. 1994; Rauhala et al. area was surveyed for D. impar in 2011 and 1995; Rauhala 1996, 1997, 1999; Dunford 1998; 2012 (Biosis 2011b, 2012a) and is estimated to Nelson et al. 2000; Dunford et al. 2001; Moore contain 1000 or more individuals. Other et al. 2010; Biosis 2011a, 2011b, 2012a, 2012b locations where D. impar occur in 2013, 2014; Eco Logical 2011, 2013; Jessop Gungahlin/Belconnen include a patch of 2014; Howland et al. 2016; SMEC 2015). These grassland (14 ha) to the north of the Mitchell surveys have involved the use of pitfall traps industrial area (Franklin Grassland) and several and more recently the use of roof tiles as small grassland fragments. artificial shelters. In the Majura Valley D. impar occurs in a large The habitat of D. impar has been broadly patch of native grassland (about 100 ha) on the described as naturally treeless grassland Majura Training Area (Defence land), in a large dominated by native, perennial, tussock-forming patch of native grassland (about 150 ha) grass, particularly Kangaroo Grass (Themeda adjacent to Mt Majura Nature Reserve (Majura triandra), Wallaby Grasses (Austrodanthonia West grassland), and in grassland between spp.) and Speargrasses (Austrostipa spp.) Woolshed Creek and the Majura Parkway (Coulson 1990; Osborne et al. 1993; Hadden (Woolshed Creek grassland) (about 47 ha) 1995). Although D. impar is largely restricted to (Biosis 2014). The species has also been recently areas that are (or were) lowland Natural recorded in grassland north of Majura Training Temperate Grassland, the species has also been Area (SMEC 2015) and in Piallago (Jessop 2014). found in grassland with scattered Eucalyptus trees (but not where canopy cover is high) and In the Jerrabomberra Valley D. impar occurs in grassland that has been derived from clearing across extensive areas of grassland in the of Eucalypts (‘secondary grasslands’) (Coulson central and eastern parts of the valley, mostly 1990; Williams and Kukolic 1991; Osborne et al. between the Monaro Highway and the ACT– 1993; Dorrough 1995; Hadden 1995; Howland et NSW Border (SMEC 2015). The species also al. 2014). Records of D. impar in secondary occurs in grassland (about 18 ha) on the Amtech grasslands are invariably from within two East Estate and in several grassland patches to kilometres of the original boundary of the the east of Fyshwick. The density of D. impar in primary grasslands. habitat in the Jerrabomberra Valley is apparently lower than that of Gungahlin and the Delma impar has been recorded in degraded Majura Valley indicating lower quality habitat Natural Temperate Grasslands that are now for the species in the Jerrabomberra Valley, dominated by exotic species such as Phalaris which might be due to past or current land (Phalaris aquatica), Cocksfoot (Dactylis management practices. glomerata) and Serrated Tussock (Nassella trichotoma) (Coulson 1990; Williams and Kukolic The small patch of grassland at Yarramundi 1991; Kukolic et al. 1994; Dorough 1995; Grassland in Central Canberra supports a small Hadden 1995; Rauhala et al. 1995; Dunford et population of D. impar scattered across the site al. 2001; Biosis 2012; Howland et al. 2016). at low density (Kukolic 1994; ACT Government Degraded areas where the species has been unpublished data). This patch of grassland also recorded include a former quarry in Crace supports a small population of the related Olive (Biosis 2012) that was converted to an asbestos Legless Lizard (D. inornata). dump and rehabilitated to grassland in the The most up to date distribution data for this 1980s. species is publicly available on the ACT Delma impar has been found in areas with Government’s mapping portal (Visit the intermediate to tall grass, including surveys ACTmapi website). using roof tiles (Moore et al. 2010; Biosis 2012; EcoLogical 2013) and pitfall traps (e.g. Rauhala et al. 1995; Rauhala 1996, 1997, 1999). Pitfall HABITAT AND ECOLOGY trapping for the species during extensive Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan 243 surveys in the 1990s found capture rates were (Coulson 1995; ARAZPA 1996). Cohabitation of highest in “extensive and intact swards and a wild gravid D. impar (Rauhala 1996) and well-developed grass thatch” (Williams and communal clutches of up to 36 eggs (Robertson Kukolic 1991) and at sites where tussock leaf and Smith 2010) have been observed. There is height was between 20 cm and 50 cm and some evidence that rocks are used as projected foliage cover of tussocks was between oviposition sites (Rauhala 1996), as well as soil 35% and 80% (Rauhala et al. 1995; Rauhala cavities (including artificial arthropod burrows 1996, 1997, 1999). used to capture Grassland Earless Dragons (Osborne and Dimond 2008; M. Evans and E. In the peer reviewed papers by Howland et al. Cook pers. obs.). Eggs are laid in December and (2014; 2016) habitat preferences for D. impar January and, following a variable incubation were modelled and the researchers concluded period (38–47 days in Banks et al. 1999 and 35– the species preferred grass swards of 60 days in Coulson 1995), hatch in January and intermediate biomass rather than very low or February. very high biomass, and a structurally complex sward. Longevity of individuals is not known, though adults in the wild have been recaptured almost Grass structure and biomass are related; seven years after first capture (Rauhala 1997) intermediate levels of biomass tend to be and adults have been held in captivity for 12 structurally complex (tussocks and inter-tussock years (Robertson and Smith 2010). Based on spaces) whereas a grass sward that is very short, data from other lizard species, it is likely that or very high and dense, tends to be more longevity of D. impar is between 10 and 20 uniform in structure. The role of intermediate years (ARAZPA 1996). levels of kangaroo grazing in maintaining habitat for D. impar is highlighted by Howland (2014, There have been a number of studies of the diet 2016). of D. impar (e.g. Coulson 1990; Wainer 1992; Nunan 1995; O’Shea and Hocking 2000) and In Victoria, D. impar can occur in areas where these have shown that the lizards will eat a the grass sward is short if deep-cracking soil or broad spectrum of invertebrates found in scattered surface rock is present as these are grasslands, with apparent preference used as refuges (particularly for over-wintering) (selectivity) for spiders, crickets, caterpillars and (Coulson 1990; Hadden 1995). Such habitats are cockroaches. Prey types eaten to a lesser extent not a feature of D. impar habitat in the ACT. were grasshoppers, butterflies, moths, beetles There is anecdotal evidence to suggest that and flies. Slaters, ants and bugs, while relatively unpalatable tussock-forming plants such as common in the field, were rarely eaten. Juncus spp. and Serrated Tussock can apparently Little information exists on the activity and act as temporary refuge for D. impar during movement of D. impar due to their cryptic periods of heavy grazing, facilitating the species’ behaviour and small size, which precludes using recolonisation of areas of native grasses when radio transmitters. Most movement and activity stock are removed (Kukolic et al. 1994; Rauhala data come from trapping and mark–recapture 1997). studies. Delma impar are more readily caught in There are still large knowledge gaps in the life pitfall traps during spring and summer, history and ecology of D. impar, which is partly a particularly October to December (Kutt 1991; reflection of the difficulty in studying this shy, Kukolic 1993, 1994; Osborne et al. 1993; cryptic species. Delma impar are thought to Osmond 1994). Individuals are often caught in reach breeding age at 2–3 years for males and pitfall traps later in the day, rather than 3–4 years for females (ARAZPA 1996). This is overnight or early in the morning (R. Spiers pers based on evidence for other lizard species and a comm.). The highest detection rates for the single ACT record of a female captured at about species using roof tiles are in spring and early one year old (based on snout–vent length) that summer, though few individuals are found was recaptured three years later in a gravid under tiles after December. Gravid females are condition and subsequently laid eggs in captivity caught mostly from late November to early (ARAZPA 1996). From observations of D. impar January (Kutt 1991; Kukolic 1993; Osmond laying in captivity (Banks et al. 1999) and data 1994), with capture rates steadily declining from other Pygopodids (Cogger 2000), only two through January and February (Osmond 1994). eggs are produced, most probably each year In captivity D. impar have been found to be 244 Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan active over a wide range of temperatures, with a Striped Legless Lizard preference for an ambient temperature of around 24–260C, and up to 290C for gravid females (Coulson 1990; Osmond 1994). Captive animals have been observed to burrow into soil during the late afternoon, re-emerge in the morning as temperatures increase and remain active during most of the day, including basking in sunshine (Martin 1972; Osmond 1994). Field observations (Coulson 1990) suggest the animals are also diurnally active in the wild. Distances moved by D. impar (and hence home range size) appear to be highly variable between individuals. Using pitfall traps, Kukolic et al. (1994) recaptured 13 individuals that had moved between 2.5 m and 62.5 m (mean 14 m) grazed, slashed, occasionally burnt and straight line distance between captures that relatively undisturbed. The species occurs in spanned an interval of up to nine days. One native grassland on the Majura Training Area individual travelled 60 m in two days. Rauhala et (MTA) (Department of Defence land), which is al. (1995) found no relationship between managed for conservation and is generally only distance moved and number of days since lightly grazed by kangaroos. Delma impar has recapture. Of the ten individuals recaptured by also been recorded in the Airport Services Rauhala et al. (1995), the two longest straight- Beacon paddock, a fenced area of about 10 ha line distances were 52 m and 58 m, which that is contiguous with habitat on the MTA and occurred over a short period (two days), which has not been grazed for at least three whereas the shortest movement (5 m) occurred decades. In contrast, D. impar has not been over a relatively long period of 20 days. Dunford detected in the adjoining native grassland on (1998) recaptured an individual that was 160 m Canberra Airport, which is subject to a slashing away from where it had been captured three regime to maintain a moderately short (10 cm years previously. Tracking individuals marked high) grass sward. The grassland at Majura West with fluorescent powder has revealed is grazed by kangaroos and in the past has been movements vertically and horizontally through grazed by sheep. The Woolshed Creek grassland grass tussocks and along the surface of the soil (adjacent to the Majura Parkway) is part of a for distances up to 20 m in a day (Kutt 1993). grazing lease and is subject to grazing by stock and kangaroos. A survey using arrays of roof tiles (as shelter sites) to detect the species found most lizards Management of the three Gungahlin grassland were recaptured under the same tile, and less reserves (Crace, Mulanggari, and Gungaderra) is than 10% of recaptures were further than 10 m aimed at maintaining a grass sward mostly from the original capture location, though one above 10 cm height. These areas have been individual was found to have moved 80 m (Eco previously grazed by cattle. Current Logical 2013). Home ranges have been management of these reserves includes grazing conservatively estimated at 10 m2 based on by kangaroos, slashing along tracks and fence recaptures using tiles in Victoria (Robertson and lines, and patchy fuel reduction burns. Smith 2010), though a larger area between 25 Management of the small patch of grassland at m2 (5 m x 5 m) and 100 m2 (10 m x 10 m) Yarramundi Grassland has included slashing, appears to be a reasonable generalisation based occasional patch burns and weed control, which on pitfall and tile recapture data. (at least over the past decade) has maintained generally moderate to high herbage mass. Grassland habitat for D. impar in the PREVIOUS AND CURRENT Jerrabomberra Valley (most of which until MANAGEMENT recently was on land managed by Defence) is subject to generally light grazing by kangaroos In the ACT, D. impar occurs in areas with a and stock. variety of management regimes, which includes Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan 245 During the 2001–09 drought, most sites where  Other potential effects of urbanisation, D. impar occur in the ACT were overgrazed by including increased incidence of predation kangaroos and at some sites by stock. and frequency of fires. Overgrazing was particularly severe in the Delma impar may persist for some time in Majura Valley at the MTA (kangaroos) and West modified (largely exotic) grasslands, but it can Majura (kangaroos and sheep). Sheep were be eliminated from an area by extended intense removed from Majura West during the drought grazing, pasture improvement, ploughing, when overgrazing became evident. The height drought or other heavy disturbance. Such areas and biomass of the grass sward has since may be recolonised by the species, but this is recovered at overgrazed sites, though weeds, probably dependent on the availability of such as Saffron Thistle, remain abundant at nearby undisturbed refuge areas (Robertson some sites. and Smith 2010). Grasslands in the ACT, including D. impar It is likely that D. impar is preyed upon by a habitat, are subject to planned and unplanned range of natural predators, including predatory fire. Planned fire is used in grassland for birds and snakes, though the extent of such ecological purposes and for fuel reduction. predation is unquantified. However, there is Burning in grasslands can cause direct mortality speculation that an increase in perching of D. impar (Kukolic 1994; Coulson 1995; Walton structures (electricity poles, fence posts) in and 1995). adjacent to D. impar habitat may lead to an Dunford (1998) captured D. impar in unburnt increase in predation rates. Delma impar may grassland and adjacent grassland that had been also be susceptible to predation by introduced burnt by wildfire the previous year, suggesting predators; there is anecdotal evidence to the species is capable of using grassland at least suggest foxes may prey upon the lizards one year following fire if animals are able to (Robertson and Smith 2010) and domestic/stray disperse into the area from adjacent unburnt cats could have a large impact on local areas. The species has continued to be present populations where suburban housing abuts in the burnt area in subsequent years (Nelson et grasslands. al. 2000). Overgrazing or drought resulting in lack of ground cover for this diurnal species would be expected to expose the lizards to increased THREATS predation. Delma impar is a grassland specialist, being The effect of fire on D. impar is not well found only in areas of native grassland or grassy understood. Fire has been observed to cause woodland and nearby exotic pasture (Robertson direct mortality of individuals (Coulson, 1995; and Smith 2010). Approximately 99.5% of Walton, 1995) and recently burnt habitat is Natural Temperate Grassland (a nationally likely to expose the lizards to increased critically endangered ecological community, predation. The species has been found to persist EPBC Act 1999) in Australia has been destroyed in areas that have been burnt in both short and or drastically altered since European settlement medium timeframes (Roberson and Smith (Kirkpatrick et al. 1995). 2010). It is likely that intense, widespread fires The major perceived threats to the continued have a greater impact on the species than low- survival of D. impar are: intensity, patchy burns over small areas.  Loss and fragmentation of habitat through clearing of native grasslands for urban, CHANGING CLIMATE industrial and infrastructure development and for agricultural purposes. The predicted changes in climate in the next 50 years are likely to see the ACT become warmer  Modification and degradation of native and drier, with increases in extreme weather grassland habitat through incompatible and events and bushfire risk (ACT Government inadequate land management practices, 2009). Species that tolerate such conditions will weed invasion. have an advantage over those species more sensitive to change. The likely direct effects on D. impar are not known. Higher mortaility of 246 Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan eggs buried in soil (due to dessication in hot dry Reserves, Kenny, Majura Training Area, Majura periods) has been identified as a risk for West and the large area of grassland habitat Tympanocryptis pinguicolla, and is also likely to east of the Monaro Highway in the be a risk for D. impar eggs. Jerrabomberra Valley (East Jerrabomberra, Bonshaw, Cookanalla). A meta-analysis of studies that measured the ability of animals to deal with extremes of heat Medium-sized populations are considered in and cold found that terrestrial ectotherms such this plan to contain 200 or more individuals (but as reptiles have a limited ability to do not meet the criteria for a ‘large’ physiologically acclimate to higher population). A medium-sized population has the temperatures, and species that are close to their potential to be viable over the longer-term if heat tolerance limit will be most at risk from habitat quality is maintained through climate change (Gunderson and Stillman 2015). appropriate management and threats (such as The limited mobility of D. impar also makes it predation by foxes and cats) are also managed. less able to adapt by moving to accommodate Habitat for medium-sized populations that do habitat change. Maintaining high quality habitat not occur on a protected area should be (with adequate grass cover to provide shelter managed to conserve the species through an and to shade soil) might facilitate resilience of D. appropriate mechanism such as land impar to changing rainfall and temperature management agreement or Conservator’s regimes. Directions. Medium-sized populations are likely to be present in the Franklin grassland, Jerrabomberra West Nature Reserve, patches of CONSERVATION ISSUES AND grassland in the Majura Valley (east of the Majura Parkway), in Fyshwick (east) and in the INTENDED MANAGEMENT Woolshed Creek grassland. ACTIONS Small populations (less than 200 individuals) can PROTECTION still form a significant contribution to the The long-term conservation of D. impar depends conservation of the species, particularly if small on protecting its grassland habitat as a cluster of populations are connected by habitat so that sites across the geographic range of the species they function as a linked cluster or a small in the ACT. This cluster of sites should contain population is connected by a habitat corridor to the larger populations of D. impar in formally a larger population. protected areas, and medium-sized populations Protecting intact native ecosystems is generally in areas that are managed to conserve the preferable to protecting areas solely for a single species. threatened species. Priority should be given to Larger populations of the species are considered protecting habitat for D. impar that results in to be those containing 500 or more individuals broader conservation gains, such as conserving that occupy habitat patches of 50 ha or more. other threatened, declining or rare species, or As a general principle, populations of around conserving native grasslands with component 500 or more breeding individuals are genetically native fauna. robust over the longer term. Larger areas of In the ACT D. impar occurs on Territory land habitat are better buffered against edge-effects (including nature reserves and leasehold rural and provide populations with some resilience land) and Commonwealth land controlled and against planned or unplanned fire (there is less managed by the Department of Defence. The chance the whole area will burn because of ACT Government will liaise with the Department natural vegetation patchiness). These areas can of Defence to encourage continued protection also protect against climatic extremes because and management of D. impar populations on of the greater heterogeneity of microhabitats their land. likely to be present across the site. Thus, large populations, because of their size and the extent of their habitat, are expected to have the ENVIRONMENTAL OFFSET greatest chance of long-term viability. Sites REQUIREMENTS likely to contain large populations of D. impar are Crace, Mullanggari and Gungaderra Nature Environmental offset requirements for species and ecological communities in the ACT are Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan 247 outlined in the ACT Environmental Offsets Policy  Continue to refine methods for monitoring and associated documents such as the ACT abundance, absolute population size, long- Environmental Offsets Assessment term population trends and magnitude of Methodology and the Significant Species seasonal/annual population fluctuations. Database. In the Assessment Methodology and  Impact of barriers such as roads and cycle Database, some of the threatened species have paths. special offset requirements to ensure appropriate protection. The special offset  Relative importance of predation by native, requirement for D. impar is “no loss of known feral and domestic animals. habitat within Conservation Significance Current research includes: Category 1 grasslands as specified in the ACT Native Grassland Conservation Strategy”.  Trialling fire as a tool to manage herbage mass/structure in D. impar habitat (ACT Government). SURVEY, MONITORING AND  Translocating individuals from a proposed RESEARCH development site in Kenny to potential Over the past two decades there have been habitat in NSW (Scottsdale Bush Heritage numerous, extensive surveys to determine the property) (Bush Heritage and ANU) and to distribution of D. impar in the ACT, and it is Kama Nature Reserve, ACT (PCS), to unlikely any large populations remain investigate methods for translocation and undiscovered. However, it is possible that small establishment of new populations of this populations of D. impar persist in some of the species. numerous small fragments of grassland (many of which are dominated by exotic grasses) that have not been surveyed for the species. MANAGEMENT Knowledge of the distribution and abundance of Based on current knowledge of the habitat D. impar in the ACT will be refined from data requirements of D. impar, management actions collected during surveys for other grassland should aim to maintain a heterogeneous grass fauna species or from opportunistic sward structure, with a grass sward between 10 observations from naturalists and other and 20 cm high (i.e. the height of the bulk of the interested persons. tussock leaves, not including the often few taller A representative set of sites containing D. impar leaves and seed-bearing culms). Whilst D. impar will need to be monitored to determine long- has been recorded in areas where the grass term population trends and to evaluate the sward (or biomass) is high (such as areas effects of management. dominated by Phalaris), Howland et al (2014, 2016) concluded from a habitat modelling study Research and adaptive management is required that D. impar prefers intermediate levels of to better understand the habitat requirements grass structure and intermediate to high levels for the species and techniques to maintain the of grass cover. Such grass structure/cover species’ habitat. Specific research priorities characteristics tend to be most prominent at include: intermediate levels of herbage mass. Retaining  Optimal habitat requirements, particularly patches of dense, taller grass might be soil characteristics and invertebrates. important for providing refugia for the species during dry periods or when other parts of the  Land management practices compatible habitat are heavily grazed. with, or required for, maintaining suitable habitat (including grazing, slashing, burning). A heterogeneous sward containing a mixture of tall and medium height tussock patches, with  Susceptibility to fires and seasonal effects of linked inter-tussock areas containing shorter fires, optimum fire regimes, value and use of grass and forbs, is likely to provide D. impar with firebreaks. a greater range of sites for shelter and  Seasonal home range area, movements, thermoregulation, and a wider range and/or habitat use (including daily shelter sites, density of prey. From an ecological community over-wintering sites and oviposition sites), perspective, maintaining a diverse (or ‘patchy’) dispersal ability. sward structure across D. impar habitat is likely 248 Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan to provide a greater range of habitat niches and impacts will depend on responsible pet hence support a greater diversity of grassland ownership or stronger controls and, where flora and fauna. Maintaining a diverse (or possible, buffer areas between residential ‘patchy’) sward with generally intermediate development and grassland habitat. levels of herbage mass is also an appropriate goal given imperfect knowledge of the long- term habitat requirements for D. impar. Until IMPLEMENTATION knowledge of the D. impar habitat requirements Implementation of this action plan and the ACT indicates otherwise, actions to manage herbage Native Grassland Conservation Strategy will mass/structure (whether for ecological or fuel require: reduction purposes) should adhere to the following guidelines:  Land planning and land management areas of the ACT Government to take into account  Grazing is the preferred method for the conservation of threatened species. managing grass structure/biomass.  Allocation of adequate resources to  Where slashing is determined as necessary, undertake the actions specified in the grass should not be slashed below 20 cm. strategy and action plans.  Where burns are determined as necessary,  Liaison with other jurisdictions (particularly burns: NSW) and other land holders  must be patchy and low-intensity (Commonwealth Government and Canberra International Airport) with responsibility for  should be conducted during the middle of the conservation of a threatened species or the day or in the afternoon, rather than early community. morning when the lizards may be cold and slow moving  Collaboration with universities, CSIRO and other research institutions to facilitate and  should be restricted to early spring undertake required research. (September–October), before the summer breeding season, or early autumn (March–  Collaboration with non-government April) to ensure sufficient regrowth of organisations such as Greening Australia to vegetation before winter. undertake on-ground actions. Residential developments close to D. impar  Engagement with the community, where habitat are likely to contribute to disturbance relevant, to assist with monitoring and other (vehicle traffic, increased visitation by people on-ground actions, and to help raise and dogs, weed infestation, more frequent fires) community awareness of conservation and increase the risk of predation by issues. uncontrolled roaming of domestic cats and, in some cases, dogs. Minimisation of these Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan 249 OBJECTIVES, ACTIONS AND INDICATORS Table 1. Objectives, Actions and Indicators Objective Action Indicator 1. Conserve all large Apply formal measures to protect all All large populations protected by populations in the large populations on Territory-owned appropriate formal measures. ACT. land. Encourage formal protection of all large populations on land owned by Protect other ACT other jurisdictions. populations from unintended impacts Protect all medium size populations on All sites with medium-sized (unintended impacts Territory-owned land from unintended populations are protected by are those not already impacts. Encourage other jurisdictions appropriate measures from considered through to protect all medium size populations unintended impacts. an environmental from unintended impacts. assessment or other statutory process). Ensure sites where small populations All sites with small populations are occur on Territory owned land are protected by appropriate measures protected from unintended impacts, from unintended impacts, where where this contributes to broader sites have broader conservation conservation aims (such as protecting value. multiple threatened species at a site). Encourage other jurisdictions to undertake similar protection of small populations. 2. Manage the species Monitor abundance at a representative Trends in abundance are known for and its habitat to set of sites, together with the effects of representative sites, management maintain the potential management actions. actions recorded. for evolutionary development in the Manage habitat to maintain its Habitat is managed appropriately wild. suitablilty for the species, including (indicated by maintenance of an implementing an appropriate grazing / appropriate sward structure and slashing / burning regime (recognising herbage mass). Potential threats current imperfect knowledge). (e.g. weeds) are avoided or managed. Populations are apparently stable or increasing (taking into account probable seasonal/annual effects on abundance fluctuations). 3. Enhance the long-term Manage grassland adjacent to the Grassland adjacent to or linking viability of populations species’ habitat to increase habitat habitat is managed to improve through management area or habitat connectivity. If suitable suitability for the species (indicated of adjacent grassland habitat exists, re-establish populations by an appropriate sward structure to increase habitat where they have become locally and plant species composition). If area and connect extinct. suitable habitat exists, research populations, or to and trials have been undertaken to establish new establish new populations. populations. 250 Striped Legless Lizard Action Plan Objective Action Indicator 4. Improved Undertake or facilitate research on Research undertaken and reported understanding of the habitat requirements, techniques to and where appropriate applied to species’ ecology, manage habitat, and aspects of ecology the conservation management of habitat and threats. directly relevant to conservation of the the species. species. 5. Promote a greater Undertake or facilitate stakeholder and Engagement and awareness awareness of, and community engagement and activities undertaken and reported. strengthen awareness activities. stakeholder and community engagement in the conservation of the species. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS to the ACT government (Biosis Research Pty Ltd, Canberra). The illustration of the species was prepared for the ACT Government by John Pratt. Biosis Research 2012a. Kenny and Throsby. Striped legless lizard (Delma impar) survey report. Report to the ACT government (Biosis Research Pty Ltd, Canberra). REFERENCES Biosis Research 2012b. 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